Breeding Superman: Nietzsche, Race and Eugenics in Edwardian

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CONCLUSION: From 'Underman' to 'Underclass'

The more I relinquish my rights and level myself down, the more I come under the dominion of the average and finally of the majority. The presupposition inherent in an aristocratic society for preserving a high degree of freedom among its members is the extreme tension that arises from the presence of an antagonistic drive in all its members: the will to dominate --

If you would do away with firm opposition and differences in rank, you will also abolish all strong love, lofty attitudes, and the feeling of individuality.

***

Towards a true psychology of the society based on freedom and equality -- what diminishes?

The will to self-responsibility, sign of the decline of autonomy; efficiency in defence and attack, also in the most spiritual things: the power of commanding; the sense of reverence, subservience, ability to keep silent; great passion, the great task, tragedy, cheerfulness.

-- Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, §936.

The issue of Nietzsche's influence over eugenics has become contemporary once again. In Germany, the Karlsruhe philosopher Peter Sloterdijk has recently argued that, given the understanding that now exists in genetic science, the eugenic dream of 'selection' is now within reach. Sloterdijk's use of the word 'selection' horrified his colleague Ernst Tugendhat, who heard evoked in this word the ramp at Auschwitz; what really worried the critics, however, was Sloterdijk's argument that this capability should be exploited, to breed a new generation of human beings. [1] This aim might be truer to Nietzsche's ideas, as expressed in The Will w Power, than those of the earlier twentieth-century race thinkers: ' ... to what end shall "man" as a whole - and no longer as a people, a race be raised and trained?' [2] This is the dream of improving the species as a whole.

Sloterdijk deliberately provoked the debate that followed with his choice of language. But even what he was really proposing was unclear and worried many critics. At a conference in California in May 2000, he spoke of 'homeotechnology' and 'anthropoplastic operations', and argued that

... humans encounter nothing strange when they expose themselves to further creation and manipulation, and they do nothing perverse when they change themselves autotechnologically, given that such interventions and assistance happen on so high a level of insight into the biological and social nature of man, that they become effective as authentic, intelligent and successful coproductions with evolutionary potential. [3]

Coming after Sloterdijk's open letter in Die Zeit attacking Jiirgen Habermas as the representative of an outdated humanism, these comments were puzzling. Irrespective of Sloterdijk's real intentions -- and suggestions that he was 'flirting with fascism' seem rather inflammatory -- what the acrimonious debate revealed was the uncertainty and fear that the whole issue of 'consciousness in evolution' still evokes. [4]

It is only now that the ideas of the eugenicists of the early years of the twentieth century are taking on significance. Where originally these ideas were founded on an inadequate understanding of genetics, suddenly at the start of the twenty-first century they are realisable and, even more disturbingly, presentable under the mantle of 'real science'. The ideas of an Anthony Ludovici seem outrageous; they are certainly outrageously articulated. Together with the other ideas that I have discussed in this book, they made up what I have called the 'extremes of Englishness', ideas that had the potential to form the basis of a British fascism. But just how far removed are they from the realities of today's genetic science? Testing for congenital defects via amniocentesis is already accepted, and the debate over stem cells and cloning continues; a form of eugenics will become reality unless legislated against. Indeed one commentator worries about the way 'laissez-faire' eugenics is already upon us: 'By influencing the genes of the next generation according to a particular set of dominant social values, it is no different in essence from the earlier eugenics, even though it is less violent and direct in its execution'. [5] This book is offered as a contribution to showing how science can be used to legitimate prejudice and long-standing fantasies, as well as in the hope that it will help people realise the danger of eugenics, a danger that has not receded because of a greater understanding of genetics, but has, for that very reason, increased. Indeed, many discussions of genes today -- often involving the reduction of real people to their genes, and hence the dangerous abstraction and reification of human beings -- mirror exactly the discussions about heredity of a century ago. I do not mean to suggest that all genetic research is wrong; merely to note that we should be aware of its history.

We should not see Nazis hiding behind every expression of interest in genetic science. There is such a strand of thought still around, masquerading as 'evolutionary psychology' or 'sociobiology' while its real name is racism. [6] In this strand of thought, the complex issues of group identities, population migrations, gender roles and cultural inter-relationships are reduced to the primeval biological urge to procreate and a simplistic notion of group differences. It is not the case that all investigations into evolutionary psychology are racist. Even so, there is a sense in which what we are witnessing now is the return of eugenics to mainstream science, and in some ways in an even more insidious form, since it is being presented not as government coercion, but as individual choice. But of course, given the prevailing cultural norms in the west, including Britain, those choices are inseparably bound up with questions of race. This is why racists such as Charles Murray, co-author of the infamous book The Bell Curve, are once again getting a hearing, even among supposedly centre-left politicians. [7] Even the language being used is not so different from a century ago: 'underclass' instead of 'the unfit', 'recidivists' instead of 'incorrigible criminals', 'handicapped' instead of 'human waste'. Once again, we are witnessing the rise to prominence of biological determinism, where every social problem is explicable via reference to genes, and there is a tendency to overlook the fact that it is real people, not abstracts, that suffer as a result of this reductionist way of thinking. [8]

Take, for example, the debate over The Bell Curve. While the thrust of criticism was against the methodology and findings of Murray and Herrnstein's book, many commentators took it for granted that IQ testing per se was an acceptable practice. Just like the anti-racist scientists of the 1930s who still believed that investigating racial difference was a meaningful task, so today many scientists argue against explicit racism but maintain that innate differences in intelligence might exist and, theoretically at least, can be dispassionately measured. [9]

Furthermore, there were scientists who responded to The Bell Curve in a way that supported Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman's claim that the book 'gives a sophisticated voice to a repressed and illiberal sentiment: a belief that ruinous divisions in society are sanctioned by nature itself'. [10] In other words, the ideas that motivated the eugenicists 100 years ago are still with us. There are those who cannot accept that racial differences are more chimerical than real, and that only a complex interplay of genetics and culture, that is, heritability tout court and not heritability reduced to genes, might be the basis of human heredity and evolution. And this despite the long dominance of Boasian culturalist assumptions in anthropology: 'Eugenics should, therefore, not be allowed to deceive us into the belief that we should try to raise a race of supermen ... ' [11]

Richard Lynn, for example, one of the most notorious evolutionary psychologists, unproblematically accepted the conclusions of The Bell Curve in his review of it for The Times. He wrote that 'The brutal truth is that many of the chronic unemployed are mentally incapable of learning the skills increasingly required in advanced industrial economies'; that 'The threat to social cohesion posed by the underc1ass is exacerbated by racial division' because the lower IQ of blacks than whites (amply documented by Murray and Herrnstein) means that 'There are therefore many more blacks in the low IQ range being sucked into the underclass'; and that 'There is one thing the underclass is good at, and that is producing children . . . The underclass has more children than the rest of society. This is another reason why it will expand in numbers and become increasingly troublesome.' [12] All of the old tropes of eugenics are here: the differential birth-rate, the innate inability of the poor to care for themselves, the threat of racial pollution, the replacement of an aristocracy of land and wealth by an aristocracy of intelligence, and the threat posed to that social elite by the underclass. Lynn could have been writing 100 years ago; one wonders whether he would then also have proposed sterilising criminals and the 'feeble-minded' and breeding supermen. In 1903 Karl Pearson, having proven a correlation between the inheritance of mental and moral and physical characters, concluded that 'education is of small service, unless it be applied to an intelligent race of men', and worried that 'we are ceasing as a nation to breed intelligence as we did fifty to a hundred years ago. The mentally better stock in the nation is not reproducing itself at the same rate as it did of old; the less able, and the less energetic, are more fertile than the better stocks.' [13]

Most importantly, today's shift is one not of substance, but of language. Where once it was acceptable to talk of the 'under-man' or the 'sub-man', [14] now it is acceptable -- and not just among evolutionary psychologists -- to talk of the 'underclass'. Even the liberal mainstream, to the extent that such a thing is left, devotes its sympathy to the 'underclass', thereby stigmatising even as they seek to help. And while even the most utopian of geneticists no longer talk of breeding supermen, they do talk of the elimination of the underclass, through medicine and pre-natal examination rather than the 'lethal chamber'. The cocktail of Nietzsche, race, and eugenics is no longer a social and cultural lubricant, yet we still suffer from its deleterious effects: our eyes are bleary, and in our weariness it remains easier to blame the genes of individuals and groups for their social dispossession rather than to question the structures that make up divisive societies.

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PART 1 OF 2

Notes

Notes to introduction

1. Harold W. H. Helby, letter to the New Age, XXXVI.2, 6 November 1924, pp. 21-22.

2. John Stevenson, 'Great Britain', in Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, ed. Martin Blinkhorn, London: Unwin Hyman, 1990, pp.268, 275.

3. Richard Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: From Oswald Mosley's Blackshirts to the National Front, London: L B. Tauris, 2nd edn, 1998, p. 283.

4. Stanley G Payne, A History of Fascism 1914-1945, London: UCL Press, 1995, pp. 303, 304.

5. Cited in John D. Brewer, 'The British Union of Fascists and Anti-Semitism in Birmingham', Midland History, 9, 1984, p. 109.

6. Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, London: Routledge, 1991, p. 26.

7. Roger Eatwell, 'On Defining the "Fascist Minimum": The Centrality of Ideology', Journal of Political Ideologies, 1.3, 1996, p. 313.

8. Dave Renton, Fascism: Theory and Practice, London: Pluto Press, 1999. But see Roger Griffin's response to Renton, 'Fascism is More Than Reaction', Searchlight, 291, September 1999, pp. 24-26.

9. Robert O. Paxton, 'The Five Stages of Fascism', Journal of Modern History, 70.1, 1998, pp. 1-23.

10. Peter Clarke, Hope and Glory; Britain 1900--1990, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1997, p. 68.

11. Richard Griffiths, An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism: Studies in Spokespersonship, London: Duckworth, 2000.

12. Dick Pels, The Intellectual as Stranger, London: Routledge, 2000, pp. 110-55. See also the essays in The Intellectual Revolt Against Liberal Democracy 1870-1945, ed. Ze'ev Sternhell, Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1996, and in The Pen and the Sword: Right-wing Politics and Literary Innovation in the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard Griffiths, London: King's College London, 2000.

13. See T. E. Hulme, Selected Writings, ed. Patrick McGuinness, Manchester: Carcanet, 1998.

14. Maria Sophia Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth-Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies, London: Routledge, 1996, p. 134. The work of Giorgio Agamben should be mentioned in this context; see his remarkable book Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998, for a discussion of the origins of 'bio-power'.

15. Dorothy Porter, "'Enemies of the Race": Biologism, Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England', Victorian Studies, 34.2, 1991, pp. 159-78.

16. See Bryan Cheyette, Constructions of 'the Jew' in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations, 1875-1945, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 94-149. I will develop this theme in Chapter 5.

17. On Germany see, among many others, Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870-1945, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. On the USA see Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2nd edn, 1995. On Scandinavia see Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen, eds, Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1996.

18. Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete, London: Little, Brown, 2001.

19. Georges Bataile, 'Nietzsche and the Fascists', in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 1927-1939, ed. Allan Stoekl, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1985, pp. 182-96; Julien Benda, The Treason of the Intellectuals, New York: W. W. Norton, 1969; Max Nordau, Degeneration, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1993, pp. 415-72.

20. See Chapter 1.

21. Weaver Santaniello, Nietzsche, God, and the Jews: His Critique of Judeo-Christianity in Relation to the Nazi Myth, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994.

22. This is a point well made by Patrick McGuinness in his introduction to Hulme, Selected Writings, p. x. It applies no less to poets such as Basil Bunting and Mina Loy than to political and cultural critics.

23. R. G. Collingwood, An Autobiography, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978, pp. 96-97ff. See also idem., The Idea of History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946, pp. 269-82.

Notes to chapter one

1. The only published article directly devoted to Levy is Uschi Nussbaumer-Benz, 'Oscar Levys nietzscheanische Visionen', in Judischer Nietzscheanismus, ed. Werner Stegmaier and Daniel Krochmalnik, Monographien und Texte zur Nietzsche-Forschung, Vol. 36, Berlin.New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1997, pp. 188-208, which relies heavily on Albi Rosenthal's unpublished paper, 'Die Nietzsche Rezeption in England bis zum Jahr 1914', delivered at the Nietzsche-Kolloquium, Sils-Maria, 29 September 1994. See also Albi Rosenthal, 'Betrachtungen fiber eine Nietzsche-Sammlung in England', Nietzsche-Studien, 19, 1990, pp. 479-87.

2. As Steven E. Aschheim has noted, 'Inasmuch as the early academic reception of Nietzsche was both hostile and slow, there may have been an initial grain of truth to the observation that Nietzsche tended to attract more marginal and "bohemian" elements! See The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany 1890-1990, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, p. 36. This was the case for Britain, as the Nation complained in 'The Will to Power', 2 January 1909, and as Thomas Common noted in his 'Introduction to the Translation' to Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, trans. Helen Zimmern, London: George Allen & Unwin, 4th edn, 1967 [1907], p. xv.

3. Oscar Levy, Autobiography, unpublished MS in the possession of Maud and Albi Rosenthal, p. 58.

4. David S. Thatcher, Nietzsche in England 1890-1914: The Growth of a Reputation, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970; Patrick Bridgwater, Nietzsche in Anglosaxony: A Study of Nietzsche's Impact on English and American Literature, Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1972.

5. Oscar Levy, 'Editorial Note' and 'Nietzsche in England: An Introductory Essay by the Editor', in The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Vol. 1: Thoughts out of Season, Part One, ed. Oscar Levy, trans. Anthony M. Ludovici, Edinburgh/London: T. N. Foulis, 1909, pp. viii, xxvi; idem., 'Introduction' to Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, trans. Thomas Common, rev. Oscar Levy and John L. Beevers, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1967 [second impression of 6th edn of 1932], p. 24.

6. Oscar Levy, The Revival of Aristocracy, trans. Leonard A. Magnus, London: Probsthain and Co., 1906, pp. 5-6, 39. Originally published in German under the less revealing title bas neunzehnte Jahrhundert, Dresden: E. Pierson's Verlag, 1904.

7. Levy, The Revival of Aristocracy, p. 52. The phrase 'rudis indigestaque moles' means 'rough, unordered mass', and is used by Ovid in Metamorphoses (1:7) to describe the chaos at the beginning of the world. Its use by Levy to describe people is therefore somewhat inappropriate. My thanks to Ben Tipping for this information.

8. A. R Orage, Friedrich Nietzsche: The Dionysian Spirit of the Age, London! Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis, 1906; idem., Nietzsche in Outline and Aphorism, Edinburgh! London: T. N. Foulis, 1907, especially pp. 165-75. See also Florence Farr, 'Superman Consciousness', New Age, 1.6, 6 June 1907, p. 92 for a review of Orage.

9. Levy, Autobiography, pp. 121-22.

10. Ludovici's lectures at the University of London at the end of 1908 and start of 1909 were published as Who is to be Master of the World? An Introduction to the Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, London: T. N. Foulis, 1909, with an introduction by Levy. He also published Nietzsche: His Life and Works, London: Constable and Co., 1910, and Nietzsche and Art, London: Constable and Co., 1911, as well as a number of articles in the New Age, T.P.'s Weekly, and elsewhere.

11. Anthony M. Ludovici, Mansel Fellowes, London: Grant Richards, 1918. Melhado is described (p. 11) as having a 'refined Jewish face', and he is later on made to proclaim (p. 220) that 'it must obviously be our duty to promote the best, the strongest and the most beautiful on earth ...'

12. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Hitler and the Third Reich', English Review, 63.1, July 1936, pp. 35-41; 63.2, August 1936, pp. 147-53; 63.3, September 1936, pp. 231-39. For more on Ludovici see Chapter 2.

13. Levy, Autobiography, pp. 126, 183-84. For Ludovici's version of the break see Chapter 2.

14. Oscar Levy, 'The Nietzsche Movement in England: A Retrospect, a Confession, and a Prospect', in The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Vol. 18: Index to the Complete Works, ed. Oscar Levy, London/Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis, 1913, p. xvii. Idem., 'The Life, Work and Influence of Count Arthur de Gobineau: An Introductory Essay by Dr Oscar Levy', in Arthur de Gobineau, The Renaissance: Savonarola - Cesare Borgia - Julius II - Leo X - Michael Angelo, trans. Paul V. Cohn, ed. Oscar Levy, London: William Heinemann, 1913, p. xvii.

15. Anthony M. Ludovici, A Defence of Conservatism: A Further Textbook for Tories, London: Faber and Gwyer, 1927, p. 117. See also Maximilian A. Mugge, Friedrich Nietzsche: His Life and Work, London/Leipsic: T. Fisher Unwin, 1909; idem., 'Eugenics and the Superman: A Racial Science, and a Racial Religion', Eugenics Review, 1.3, 1909, pp. 184--93; Paul Carus, Nietzsche and Other Exponents of Individualism, Chicago/London: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1914. See Chapter 3.

16. Levy, 'Introduction' to Gobineau, The Renaissance, p. xv.

17. Lord Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli), Contarini Fleming: Ein psychologischer Roman, trans. Oscar Levy, Berlin: Oesterheld and Co., 1909; idem., Tancred oder der neue Kreuzzug, trans. Oscar Levy, Munich/Berlin: Georg Muller, 1914.

18. For a discussion of what is meant by 'biological aristocracy', see David Spitz, Patterns of Anti-Democratic Thought: An Analysis and a Criticism, with Special Reference to the American Political Mind in Recent Times, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1949.

19. Levy, 'Introduction' to Gobineau, The Renaissance, pp. xxix, xxx, xxxv. Here Levy differed from the views of the Oxford philosopher and eugenicist F. C. S. Schiller, who believed that 'Nietzsche's preference for an aristocracy is biologically justified, because progress everywhere depends on the few who are capable of creating novelties'. See 'The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche', Quarterly Review, January 1913, p. 159, and Chapter 3 below.

20. Levy, 'Introduction' to Gobineau, The Renaissance, p. xlv. Cf. Henri Lichtenberger, The Gospel of Superman: The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, trans. J. M. Kennedy, Edinburgh/London: T. N. Foulis, 1910, pp. 138-39; and, for dissent, L. H. Green, 'Nietzsche, Eugenics and Christianity', The Commonwealth, XlX.218, 1914, pp. 50-53, 81-83, 111-15, 147-48.

21. Levy, 'Nietzsche in England', p. xxv.

22. Levy, 'Introduction' to Gobineau, The Renaissance, pp. xviii-xix.

23. Oscar Levy, 'Nietzsche and the Jews', New Age, XVI. 7, 17 December 1914, p. 170.

24. Cf. Oscar Levy, 'Introduction' to Leo G. Sera, On the Tracks of Life: The Immorality of Morality, trans. J. M. Kennedy, London: John Lane the Bodley Head, 1909, p. x.

25. Levy, 'Introduction' to Gobineau, The Renaissance, p. xlviii.

26. Cf., for example, J. M. Kennedy, Tory Democracy, London: Stephen Swift and Co., 1911; Lord Willoughby de Broke, 'Introduction' to Anon [Arthur Bountwood], National Revival: A Re-Statement of Tory Principles, London: Herbert Jenkins, 1913; Anthony M. Ludovici, A Defence of Aristocracy: A Textbook for Tories, London: Constable and Co., 1915; George Chatterton-Hill, The Philosophy of Nietzsche: An Exposition and an Appreciation, London: John Ouseley, n.d. [1913?], pp. 257-59; Thomas Common, 'The New Outlook', Notes for Good Europeans, 1.1, 1903, pp. 1-11, and 'Defects of Popular Secularism', Notes for Good Europeans, 1.2, 1903-1904, pp. 41-52.

27. Levy, 'Introduction' to Gobineau, The Renaissance, p. xviii.

28. Oscar Levy, 'A Book on Nietzsche', New Age, XVA, 28 May 1914, pp. 89-90.

29. George Chatterton-Hill to Oscar Levy, 30 November 1913; Levy to Chatterton-Hill, 28 November 1913. Correspondence cited is in the possession of Maud and Albi Rosenthal.

30. See, for example, Edmund McClure, Germany's War-Inspirers: Nietzsche and Treitschke, London: Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 1914; William Cross, Nietzsche & the War, Singapore: Methodist Publishing House, 1915; Herbert Leslie Stewart, Nietzsche and the Ideals of Modern Germany, London: Edward Arnold, 1915. This charge against Nietzsche was also made in France; see Douglas Smith, Transvaluations: Nietzsche in France, 1872-1972, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996, pp. 62-63

31. Oscar Levy, 'Gobineau and Chamberlain', New Age, XVI. 10, 7 January 1915, p. 242.

32. Oscar Levy, 'Germans in England: An Appeal', New Age, XV.21, 1 October 1914, pp. 532-33.

33. Levy, 'Gobineau and Chamberlain', p. 242.

34. Oscar Levy, Kriegsaphorismen fur Europaer oder solehe, die es werden wollen. Ein Versuch zur geisrigen Mobilisierung, Bern/Biel/Zurich: Verlag von Ernst Kuhn, 1917, #97 (p. 80), #114 (p. 90).

35. Oscar Levy, 'The German and the European', Part I, New Age, XVII.10, 24 June 1915, pp. 176-79; Part II, XVII.12, 22 July 1915, pp. 270-72; Part III, XVII.17, 26 August 1915, pp. 399-402; Part IV, XVII.23, 7 October 1915, pp. 541-44; Part V, XVII.26, 28 October 1915, pp. 614-17.

36. Oscar Levy, 'The Idolatry of Words', Part I, New Age, XXIY.10, 9 January 1919, p. 161.

37. Oscar Levy, 'The Idolatry of Words', Part IV, New Age, XXIV.16, 20 February 1919, p. 261.

38. These details come from Oscar Levy, My Battle for Nietzsche in England, unpublished MS in the possession of Maud and Albi Rosenthal, pp. 10-11, 33-34. On the atmosphere in Britain in this period regarding 'aliens', see Tony Kushner and Katharine Knox, Refugees In an Age of Genocide: Global, National and Local Perspectives during the Twentieth Century, London: Frank Cass, 1999, pp. 64-100; William J. Fishman, East End Jewish Radicals 1875-1914, London: Duckworth, 1975, pp. 61-93; and, for the background, Bernard Gainer, The Alien Invasion: The Origins of the Aliens Act 1905, London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1972.

39. Levy, My Battle for Nietzsche in England, p. 15.

40. Oscar Levy, 'Nietzsche and the Jews', Part II, New Age, XVI.8, 24 December 1914, p. 195.

41. Cf. Ritchie Robertson, The 'Jewish Question' in German Literature, 1749-1939: Emancipation and its Discontents, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, p. 287, on Theodor Lessing's internalisation of and dependence on antisemitic stereotypes in his analysis of Jewish self-hatred.

42. Oscar Levy, 'Prefatory' Letter' to George Pitt-Rivers, The World Significance of the Russian Revolution, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1920, p. vi. Further references in the text.

43. See Susan Cohen, 'In Step with Arnold Leese: The Case of Lady Birdwood', Patterns of Prejudice, 2B.2, 1994, pp. 61-75; see also, following Birdwood's death in June 2000, Nick Lowles, 'A Very English Extremist', Searchlight, 302, 2000, pp. 17-21.

44. On Pitt-Rivers, see Richard Griffiths, Fellow Travellers of the Right: British Enthusiasts for Nazi Germany 1933-39, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980, pp. 323-24; A. W. Brian Simpson, In the Highest Degree Odious: Detention ~17ithout Trial in wartime Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 217-18. Pitt-Rivers, 'somewhere between eccentric and dotty', was a cousin of Churchill's, and 'an appalling bore, with academic pretensions, who mixed in far-right circles, held racialist views, and was, understandably, thought to be pro-Nazi' (Simpson, In the Highest Degree Odious, p. 217). In The Czech Conspiracy: A Phase in the World- war Plot, London: The Boswell Publishing Co., 1938, Pitt-Rivers committed himself entirely to conspiracy theory. See also Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 288-95.

45. See Gert Matenklott, 'Nietzsche dans les revues culturelles juives de langue allemande, de 1900 a 1938' and Bruce E. Ellerin, 'Nietzsche et les sionistes: Tableau d'un reception', both in De Sits-Maria a Jerusalem. Nietzsche et le judaisme. Les intellectuels juifs et Nietzsche, ed. Dominique Bourel and Jacques Le Rider, Paris: Les Editions du Cerf, 1991, pp. 93-109 and 111-19; David Ohana, 'Zarathustra in Jerusalem: Nietzsche and the "New Hebrews"', in The Shaping of Israeli Identity: Myth, Memory, Trauma, ed. Robert Wistrich and David Ohana, London: Frank Cass, 1995, pp. 38-60.

46. Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy, p. 95.

47. 'Dr. Levy, a Jew, Admits His People's Error', Dearborn Independent, 30 April 1921, reprinted in The Jewish Question: A Selection of the Articles (1920-22) Published by Mr. Henry Ford's Paper The Dearborn Independent and Reprinted Later under the General Title of The International Jew, London: The Britons Publishing Society, n.d., pp. 211-21. Levy's preface was also praised by J. H. Clarke, author of England Under the Heel of the Jew, London: Britons, 1921, in his preface to the third edition of Harold Sherwood Spencer, Democracy or Shylocracy?, London: Britons, 1922, p. vii.

48. Levy, My Battle for Nietzsche in England, p. 36.

49. Weaver Santaniello, Nietzsche, God, and the Jews: His Critique of Judeo-Christianity in Relation to the Nazi Myth, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994, p. 134. See also Michael F. Duffy and Willard Mittleman, 'Nietzsche's Attitude Toward the Jews', Journal of the History of Ideas, 49.2, 1988, pp. 301-17; Delphine Bechtel, 'Nietzsche et le dialectique de l'histoire juive', in De Sils-Maria a Jerusalem, ed. Bourel and Le Rider, pp. 67-79; Jacob Golomb, ed., Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, London: Routledge, 1997, Part I: 'Nietzsche's Relations to Jews, Judaism and Jewish Culture'.

50. Lord Alfred Douglas, 'The Levities of Mr. Oscar Levy', Plain English, 11.51, 25 June 1921, p. 507,

51. 'The Expulsion of Dr. Oscar Levy', English Review, 33.5, November 1921, p. 429.

52. Levy, Autobiography, pp. 199, 200. Hilaire Belloc, The Jews, London: Constable and Co., 1922, p. 252.

53. 'Notes of the Month: Dr. Oscar Levy', The Hidden Hand or Jewry Uber Alles, 2.9, October 1921, p. 2.

54. Levy, 'Introduction' to Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra, p. 60. Further references in the text.

55. Oscar Levy, 'The Spiritual Basis of Fascism', New Age, XXXV.26, 23 October 1924, pp. 306-07.

56. See, for example, D. Gawronsky, Friedrich Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich, Bern: Verlag Herbert Lang & Cie., 1935; Richard Maximilian Lonsbach, Friedrich Nietzsche und die Juden: Ein Versuch, Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1939; Crane Brinton, 'The National Socialists' Use of Nietzsche', Journal of the History of Ideas, 1.2, 1940, pp. 131-50; Konrad Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritle Reich, Celle: Verlag Joseph Giesel, 1947; Bernard H. F. Taureck, Nietzsche und der Faschismus: Eine Studie uber Nietzsches politische Philosophie und ihre Folgen, Hamburg: Junius, 1989; Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany; Santaniello, Nietzsche, God, and the Jews; Martha Zapata Galindo, Triumph des Willens zur Macht: Zur Nietzsche-Rezeption im NS-Staat, Hamburg: Argument Verlag, 1995.

57. Levy, Autobiography, p. 251.

58. Though not entirely absent. See Gene Bernardini, 'The Origins and Development of Racial Anti-Semitism in Fascist Italy', Journal of Modern History, 49.3, 1977, pp. 431-53.

59. Oscar Levy, 'The Spirit of Israel', Review of Nations, March 1927, pp. 94-95.

60. Levy, 'Introduction' to Thus Spake Zarathustra, pp. 26, 28.

61. Heinrich Hartle, Nietzsche und der Nationalsozialismus, Munich: Zentralverlag der NSDAP, 1937, p. 54.

62. Oscar Levy, letter to the New English Weekly, 16 November 1933. See also Marius-Paul Nicolas, From Nietzsche Down to Hitler, trans. E. G. Echlin, London/ Edinburgh/Glasgow: William Hodge and Co., 1938, pp. 105-07.

63. Oscar Levy, letter to the Tablet, 5 August 1939.

64. Evening Telegraph and Post (Dundee), 19 May 1934.

65. Oscar Levy, letter to the Jewish Chronicle, 8 July 1938. This was just one letter in a vigorous campaign of writing to newspapers and journals all over the world. For example, to the Commonweal in New York, Levy wrote (15 May 1936): ' ... dynamite, as Nietzsche once called his message, may be excellent for blasting hard rocks and opening new roads, but in the hands of clumsy bunglers it may only too easily lead to disaster. If the Nazi experiment should bring this about, I beg to warn American readers, not to hold Nietzsche responsible, but his self-styled "Aryan" interpreters of the Fatherland: To the Birmingham Post he wrote (6 May 1936): 'If, therefore, disaster should ensue from this utter falsification of a noble message, I beg to ask the thinking world of England not to hold Nietzsche's creed responsible, but its "Aryan" Ministers in the Fatherland.' To The Scotsman he wrote (31 August 1939): 'National-Socialism is really National-Bolshevism, and even Inter-National-Bolshevism. The Nazintern are as dangerous as the Comintern. Karl Marx is the patron saint of both the Bolshie and the Nazi Revolution. Against Karl Marx, however, there is only one antidote: Friedrich Nietzsche.' On the eve of the German invasion of Poland, this was an important message for readers of The Scotsman, which had been something of a platform for the pro-Nazi views of Captain Ramsay; see Richard Griffiths, Patriotism Perverted: Captain Ramsay, the Right Club, and British Anti-Semitism 1939-40, London: Constable, 1998, pp. 90-97.

66. The most important article in which was 'Das Zeitalterder Religionen' (October 1936), in which he argued for the need for a theology of National Socialism. 'Blood', 'Race', 'Soil', and 'Nation' [Volkheit] are the dogmas of Nazism; 'Reich, Volk und Fuhrer' its trinity; and the idea of chosenness its form of predestination.

67. Oscar Levy, letter to the Natal Mercury (Durban), 16 September 1936.

68. Levy, Autobiography, p. 32.

69. Levy, Autobiography, p. 114.

70. Letter from Norman Douglas to Oscar Levy, 1 November 1936.

71. Norman Douglas, How about Europe? Some Footnotes on East and West, privately printed, 1929, pp. 136, 148, 175.

72. Oscar Levy, The Idiocy of Idealism, London/Edinburgh/Glasgow: William Hodge and Co., 1940, p. 34. Further references in the text.

73. Levy, Autobiography, p. 103.

74. John Llewelyn, 'sElection', in Postmodernism and the Holocaust, ed. Alan Milchman and Alan Rosenberg, Amsterdam/Atlanta: Rodopi, 1998, pp. 191~92. For the argument that the only explanation for Nazism is religion d. Michael Ley, Genozid und Heilserwartung: Zum nationalsozialistischen Mord am europaischenJudentum, Vienna: Picus Verlag, 1993; and idem., 'Auschwitz: Ein historischer Essay', in Auschwitz: Versuche einer Annaherung, ed. Charlotte Kohn-Ley and Michael Ley, Vienna: Verlag fur Gesellschaftskritik, 1996, pp. 96, 123.

75. See Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, for the argument that race-thinking is absent from classical texts.

76. See, for example, Keith Ansell-Pearson, An Introduction to Nietzsche as Political Thinker, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, and, especially, Daniel Conway, Nietzsche and the Political, London: Routledge, 1997. For a corrective see Luc Ferry and Alain Renaut, eds, Why M Are Not Nietzscheans, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997; and especially Fredrick Appel, Nietzsche Contra Democracy, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.

77. See, for example, R. G. Collingwood, 'Notes on Historiography' (1939), in The Principles of History, ed. W H. Dray and W. J. van der Dussen, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 237: 'Modern Germany thus stands officially committed to the same error which infected ancient Jewish thought, and which Paul exploded - the error of regarding a given community's historical function as bound up with its biological character, i.e. with the common pedigree of its members - and thus persecutes the Jews because it agrees with them. Intellectually, the Jew is the victor in the present-day conflict (if you can call it that) in Germany. He has succeeded in imposing his idea of a chosen people (in the biological sense of the word people) on modern Germany: and this may explain why the victims of this persecution take it so calmly.'

Notes to chapter two

1. Anthony M. Ludovici, Who is to be Master of the World? An Introduction to the Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, London: T. N. Foulis, 1909, p. 43. Elisabeth Forster-Nietzsche, The Young- Nietzsche, London: William Heinemann, 1912.

2. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Specious Origins of Liberalism: The Genesis of a Delusion, London: Britons Publishing Co., 1967, p. 133.

3. Very few books mention Ludovici. I have found references in the following: George Thayer, The British Political Fringe: A Profile, London: Anthony Blond, 1965; Richard Griffiths, Fellow Travellers of the Right: British Enthusiasts for Nazi Germany 1933-39, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980; G. C. Webber, The Ideology of the British Right 1918-1939, London: Croom Helm, 1986; Patrick Wright, The Village that Died for England: The Strange Story of Tyneham, London: Jonathan Cape, 1995; Richard Griffiths, Patriotism Perverted: Captain Ramsay, the Right Club and British Anti-Semitism 1939-40, London: Constable, 1998. Passing references can occasionally be found elsewhere.

4. Cf. Tony Kushner's point about political antisemitism in Britain: 'Although a sense of proportion is vital in this matter, it is possible to trace the impact that extremist anti-semitism has made in Britain, both as an innovative and as a reinforcing factor in hostility to Jews in the period 1918 to 1945.' Tony Kushner, 'The Impact of British Anti-semitism, 1918-1945', in The Making of Modern Anglo-Jewry, ed. David Cesarani, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990, p. 194.

5. See David Bradshaw, 'The Eugenics Movement in the 1930s and the Emergence of On the Boiler, Yeats Annual, 9, 1992, pp. 189~215. Bradshaw says that with On the Boiler, 'momentarily at least, Yeats construed an idiosyncratic fascism as one means of checking the multiplication of the unfit' (p. 207). See W. B. Yeats, On the Boiler, Dublin: The Cuala Press, 1939, for confirmation of this claim.

6. For an example, see Raymond B. Cattell, The Fight for Our National Intelligence, London: P. S. King and Son, 1937.

7. See Albert Ludovici, An Artist's Life in London and Paris 1870-1925, London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1926.

8. As well as Who is to be Master of the World?, Ludovici also published Nietzsche: His Life and Works, London: Constable and Co., 1910, and Nietzsche and Art, London: Constable and Co., 1911 as well as several translations in Levy's edition of the collected works.

9. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Confessions of an Antifeminist, unpublished MS (1969), Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections, MS 3121, p. 220. Cited by courtesy of Edinburgh University Library (Special Collections Division).

10. See Arnold Spencer Leese, Out of Step: Events in the Two Lives of an Anti-Jewish Camel-Doctor, London: Carmac Press, 1951. For more on Leese, see John Morell, 'Arnold Leese and the Imperial Fascist League: The Impact of Racial Fascism', in British Fascism: Essays on the Radical Right in Inter-War Britain, ed. Kenneth Lunn and Richard C. Thurlow, London: Croom Helm, 1980, pp. 57-75.

11. J. M. Robertson, cited in Robert Bird Kerr, Our Prophets, Croydon: R. B. Kerr, 1932, p. 86.

12. J. R. Jones, 'England', in The European Right: A Historical Profile, ed. Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965, pp. 29-70.

13. Gregory D. Phillips, The Diehards: Aristocratic Society and Politics in Edwardian England, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979, pp. 150-56.

14. See, for example, G. R Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899-1914, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971; Frans Coetzee and Marilyn Shevin Coetzee, 'Rethinking the Radical Right in Germany and Britain before 1914', Journal of Contemporary History, 21.4, 1986, pp. 515-37; Anne Summers, 'The Character of Edwardian Nationalism: Three Popular Leagues', in Nationalist and Racialist Movements in Britain and Germany before 1914, ed. Paul Kennedy and Anthony Nicholls, London: Macmillan, 1981, pp. 68-87; Frans Coetzee, For Party or Country: Nationalism and the Dilemmas of Popular Conservatism in Edwardian England, New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

15. Richard Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: From Oswald Mosley's Blackshirts to the National Front, London: I. B. Tauris, 2nd edn, 1998, pp. 1-13; Arnd Bauerkamper, Die 'radikale Rechte' in Grossbritannien: Nationalistische, antisemitische und faschistische Bewegungen vom spaten 19. Jahrhundert his 1945, Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991, pp. 48, 89-92, 245. See also Phillips, The Diehards; G. R Searle, 'Critics of Edwardian Society: The Case of the Radical Right', in The Edwardian Age: Conflict and Stability 1900-1914, ed. Alan O'Day, London: MacmiIlan, 1979, pp. 79-96; Geoffrey Searle, 'The "Revolt from the Right" in Edwardian Britain', in Nationalist and Racialist Movements, ed. Kennedy and Nicholls, pp. 21-39; Alan Sykes, 'The Radical Right and the Crisis of Conservatism before the First World War', The Historical Journal, 26.3, 1983, pp. 661-76. In The Bolshevists of Ancient History by 'Apionus', London: Britons, 1924, p. 26, there is an explicit recognition of the debt owed to the Diehards by the interwar extreme right.

16. David Powell, The Edwardian Crisis: Britain, 1901-1914, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996, p. 61. The journalism of Arnold White lends credence to Powell's views. See especially White's best-known book, Efficiency and Empire, London: Methuen and Co., 1901.

17. Lord Willoughby de Broke, 'Introduction' to National Revival: A Re-Statement of Tory Principles, London: Herbert Jenkins, 1913, pp. x-xi. For more on Willoughby de Broke, see Gregory D. Phillips, 'Lord Willoughby de Broke: Radicalism and Conservatism', in Edwardian Conservatism: Five Studies in Adaptation, ed. J. A. Thompson and Arthur Mejia, London: Croom Helm, 1988, pp. 77-104.

18. T. E. Hulme, 'A Tory Philosophy', in Selected Writings, ed. Patrick McGuinness, Manchester: Carcanet, 1998, p. 167.

19. Oscar Levy, The Revival of Aristocracy, trans. Leonard A. Magnus, London: Probsthain and Co., 1906, p. 52.

20. Anthony M. Ludovici, A Defence of Aristocracy: A Textbook for Tories, London: Constable and Co., 1915.

21. George Brandes, Friedrich Nietzsche, trans. A. G. Chater, London: William Heinemann, 1914, pp. 3-56: 'An Essay on Aristocratic Radicalism'.

22. Dora Russell, Hypatia, or Woman and Knowledge, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1925, p. 8.

23. Arthur J. Penty, A Guildsman's Interpretation of History, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1920, p. 187. On distinctions within guild socialist thought, see Marc Stears, 'Guild Socialism and Ideological Diversity on the British Left, 1914-1926', Journal of Political Ideologies, 3.3, 1998, pp. 289-306.

24. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'The Carfax, the Suffolk Street, and the Twenty-One Galleries', New Age, XIV. 7, 18 December 1913, pp. 213-15; T. E. Hulme, 'Mr. Epstein and the Critics', New Age, XN.8, 25 December 1913, pp. 251-53, here at pp. 252-53. I am grateful to Patrick McGuinness for these references.

25. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'An Open Letter to My Friends', New Age, XN.9, 1 January 1914, pp. 278-81; letter from Wyndham Lewis, New Age, XN.1O, 8 January 1914, p. 319.

26. Anthony M. Ludovici, Man's Descent from the Gods. Or, the Complete Case Against Prohibition, London: William Heinemann, 1921, pp. 223-24.

27. Anthony M. Ludovici, The False Assumptions of 'Democracy', London: Heath Cranton, 1921, pp. 15, 25, 32-33.

28. Ludovici, False Assumptions, p. 214.

29. Anthony M. Ludovici, Man: An Indictment, London: Constable and Co., 1927, p.304.

30. Ludovici, Man: An Indictment, p. 306.

31. George Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers, The Clash of Culture and the Contact of Races: An Anthropological and Psychological Study of the Laws of Racial Adaptability, with Special Reference to the Depopulation of the Pacific and the Government of Subject Races, London: George Routledge and Sons, 1927, p. 6. See also George Stocking, After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888-1954, London: The Athlone Press, 1995, pp. 393-94.

32. White, Efficiency and Empire, p. 73; Arthur Bryant, Unfinished Victory, London: Macmillan and Co., 1940, p. 200. For more on Bryant, see Andrew Roberts, Eminent Churchillians, London: Phoenix, 1995, pp. 287-322; A. K. Chesterton, Empire or Eclipse: Grim Realities of the Mid-Twentieth Century, London: Candour Publishing Co., 1965, p. 7.

33. Ludovici, False Assumptions, p. 84.

34. Anthony M. Ludovici, A Defence of Conservatism: A Further Textbook for Tories, London: Faber and Gwyer, 1927, pp. 157 and 19.

35. James Marchant, Social Hygienics: A New Crusade, London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1909, pp. 54 and 75-76.

36. See, for example, William D. Rubinstein, 'Henry Page Croft and the National Party 1917-22', Journal of Contemporary History, 9.1, 1974, pp. 129--48; Richard C. Thurlow, 'Satan and Sambo: the Image of the Immigrant in English Racial Populist Thought since the First World War', in Hosts, Immigrants and Minorities: Historical Responses to Newcomers in British Society 1870-1914, ed. Kenneth Lunn, Folkestone: Dawson, 1980, pp. 39-63; Shmuel Almog, 'Antisemitism as a Dynamic Phenomenon: The "Jewish Question" in England at the End of the First World War', Patterns of Prejudice, 21.4, 1987, pp. 3-18; David Cesarani, 'Anti-Alienism in England after the First World War', Immigrants and Minorities, 6.1, 1987, pp. 5-29; David Cesarani, 'An Embattled Minority? The Jews in Britain during the First World War', Immigrants and Minorities, 8.1-2, 1989, pp. 61-81; Tony Kushner, 'Beyond the Pale? British Reactions to Nazi Anti-Semitism, 1933-39', Immigrants and Minorities, 8.1-2, 1989, pp. 143-60; David Cesarani, 'An Alien Concept? The Continuity of Anti-Alienism in British Society before 1940', in The Internment of Aliens in Twentieth Century Britain, ed. David Cesarani and Tony Kushner, London: Frank Cass, 1993, pp. 25-52.

37. Ludovici, Man: An Indictment, p. xvi.

38. Anthony M. Luciovici, Lysistrata, or Woman's Future and Future Woman, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1925, p. 83.

39. Cf. T Dundas Pillans, Plain Truths about Woman Suffrage, London: Watts and Co., 1909.

40. Ludovici, Man's Descent from the Gods, p. 222.

41. Anthony M. Ludovici, Woman: A Vindication, London: Constable and Co., 1923, p. 72.

42. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Future of Woman, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1936, pp. 27-28.

43. Ludovici, The Future of Woman, pp. 59-60.

44. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Night-Hoers, or The Case Against Birth-Control and an Alternative, London: Herbert Jenkins, 1928, p. 51. Their advocacy of birth control through voluntary sterilisation was also the reason why Ludovici refused to join the Eugenics Society.

45. Ludovici, Man: An Indictment, p. 337; Lysistrata, p. 108; The Future of Woman, p. 151.

46. Ludovici, A Defence of Conservatism, p. 228.

47. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'The Importance to Women of a Youthful Marriage', Marriage Hygiene, 1.4, 1935, pp. 393-407. The importance of this article lies in the seriousness with which Ludovici's ideas are taken by the doctors whose comments are included at the end.

48. Ludovici, Lysistrata, p. 115.

49. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Choice of a Mate, London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1935, p. 212.

50. Ludovici, The Night-Hoers, p. 250.

51. Willoughby de Broke, 'Introduction' to National Revival, pp. x-xi; Arnold White, The Views of 'Vanoc': An Englishman's Outlook, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1910, p. 281.

52. William Sanderson, That -which Was Lost: A Treatise on Freemasonry and the English Mistery, London: Constable and Co., 1930, p. 7. See also English Mistery Leaflet of 1934, no. 1, London: English Mistery, 1934, p. [1]: 'The word "Mistery" means an organised service. The English Mistery is a construction of all services. Every function of the Body Politic, large or small, composite or individual, has part in it.'

53. William Sanderson, Statecraft, London: Methuen and Co., 1927, pp. 2 and 12.

54. English Mistery, Order of 1930, no. 1: Constitution, London: English Mistery, 1930, p. 1; Order of 1933, no. 1, London: English Mistery, 1933, p. 1; Order of 1930, no. 4: Rules of Procedure for all Audiences of the Syndicate and Meetings of the Kin, London: English Mistery, 1930, p. 5.

55. English Mistery, Order of 1930, no. 5: Rules of Conduct for Companions, London: English Mistery, 1930, p. 9.

56. English Mistery, Leaflet of 1934, no. 2, London: English Mistery, 1934, p. 2; A Description of the English Mistery, London: English Mistery, 1938, p. 9. See also English Mistery, Leaflet of 1936, no. 3: Some Reasons for Fear, London: English Mistery, 1936.

57. James Marchant, Birth-Rate and Empire, London: Williams and Norgate, 1917, p.90.

58. Anthony Ludovici, Recovery: The Quest of Regenerate National Ullues, London: English Mistery, 1935, p. 10.

59. Ludovici, Confessions of an Antifeminist, p. 115.

60. Viscount Lymington, Famine in England, London: H. F. and G. Witherby, 1938, pp. 118, 42-43, 73, 208. See also Lieut.-Col. A. H. Lane, The Alien Menace: A Statement of the Case, London: H. A. King and Sons, 1929, a very influential antisemitic book whose basic watchword (pp. 83-84) was that 'Race is race, and blood is blood ... To speak of "new blood" is futile. We want no blood of that sort.' Lymington recommends Lane's book on p. 43 of Famine in England. As well as being a member of the IFL, Lane was also founder of the Militant Christian Patriots (1929). See Griffiths, Patriotism Perverted, pp. 44, 48.

61. Ludovici, Man: An Indictment, pp. 340-41; Lysistrata, p. 105 for almost the same formulation.

62. Ludovici, The Night-Hoers, p. 248.

63. Anthony M. Ludovici, Violence, Sacrifice and War, London: Holders Press for the St. James' Kin of the English Mistery, 1933, p. 6. Further references in the ten.

64. See Rene Girard, Violence and the Sacred, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977; The Scapegoat, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986; 'Generative Scapegoating', in Violent Origins: Walter Burkert, Rene Girard, and Jonathan Z. Smith on Ritual Killing and Cultural Formation, ed. Robert G. Hamerton-Kelly, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987, pp. 73-105.

65. See Sven Lindqvist, 'Exterminate all the Brutes', trans. Joan Tate, London: Granta, 1997, and Aime Cesaire, Discourse on Colonialism, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972.

66. Gilbert Murray, 'The Exploitation of Inferior Races in Ancient and Modern Times', in Liberalism and the Empire: Three Essays by Francis W. Hirst, Gilbert Murray and J L. Hammond, London: R. Brimley Johnson, 1900, p. 156. See also George F. Shee, The Briton's First Duty: The Case for Conscription, London: Grant Richards, 1901. See now the impressive book by Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World, London: Verso, 2001.

67. Ludovici, Man: An Indictment, p. 308. Cf. Ludovici, A Defence of Conservatism, pp. 116-17 and 150.

68. Richard Thurlow, 'Anti-Nazi Antisemite: the Case of Douglas Reed', Patterns of Prejudice, 18.1, 1984, p. 26.

69. See Anthony M. Ludovici, Creation or Recreation?, London: First or St James' Kin of the English Mistery, 1934, p. 9; idem., 'The English Working Class', New Pioneer, 1.5, April 1939, p. 126.

70. Cobbett (Anthony M. Ludovici), Jews, and the Jews in England, London: Boswell Publishing Co., 1938, pp. 1-2. Further references in the text.

71. Compare Lane, The Alien Menace, p. 9; Pitt~Rivers, World Significance, p. 39; H. A. Gwynne, 'Preface' to The Cause of World Unrest, London: Grant Richards, 1920, pp. 13-14; Earl of Portsmouth (Viscount Lymington), Alternative to Death: The Relationship Between Soil, Family and Community, London: Faber and Faber, 1943, pp. 23-24; M. G. Murchin, Britain's Jewish Problem, London: Hurst and Blackett, 1939, passim; Bryant, Unfinished Victory, p. 204.

72. Julian Huxley, A. C. Haddon and A. M. Carr~Saunders, We Europeans: A Survey of 'Racial' Problems, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939 [1935].

73. Arnold White, The Modern Jew, London: William Heinemann, 1899, p. xvi; Lord Sydenham of Combe, The Jewish World Problem, London: Constable and Co., 1922, p. 11; Spencer, Democracy or Shylocracy?, pp. 15 and 17.

74. Cf. Sanderson, That W1Iich Was Lost, p. 78: 'It would be of little use to expel the Jews to-day, for we have all become Jews.'

75. Supplement to Number 20 of the Recorder's Quarterly Guide. Statecraft, Vol. II: Atonement in the Company of the English Mistery, March 1941, p. [1].

76. F. W. S. Craig, Minor Parties at British Parliamentary Elections 1885-1974, London: Macmillan, 1975, p. 9. See also my article 'The English Mistery, the BUF, and the Dilemmas of British Fascism', Journal of Modern History (forthcoming).

77. Quarterly Gazette of the English Array, no. 1, September 1937, p. 2; no. 2, December 1937, p. 1.

78. A. K. Chesterton, 'The War of the Jews' Revenge', New Pioneer, 1.6, May 1939, p. 146. For more on Chesterton, see David Baker, Ideology of Obsession: A. K Chesterton and British Fascism, London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.

79. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Hitler and the Third Reich', Part I, English Review, 63.1, 1936, pp. 35, 39. This quasi-religious aspect of Nazism was recognised by, among others, R. G. Collingwood, Aurel Kolnai, Georges Bataille and Eric Voegelin.

80. Ludovici, 'Hitler and the Third Reich', Part I, pp. 36, 37.

81. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Hitler and the Third Reich', Part II, English Review, 63.2, 1936, pp. 147, 148.

82. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Hitler and the Third Reich', Part III, English Review, 63.3, 1936, p. 234.

83. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Hitler and Nietzsche', Part I, English Review, 64.1, 1937, p.44.

84. Ludovici, 'Hitler and Nietzsche', Part I, pp. 49-50.

85. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Hitler and Nietzsche', Part II, English Review, 64.2, 1937, pp. 194-95. Further references in the text.

86. Ludovici, 'Hitler and Nietzsche', Part II, p. 196.

87. Ludovici, Confessions of an "Antifeminist, pp. 222, 223, 224. See Marius-Paul Nicolas, From Nietzsche Down to Hitler, trans. E. G. Echlin, London: William Hodge & Co., 1938.

88. Anthony M. Ludovici, English Liberalism, London: English Array by New Pioneer Periodicals, 1939, p. 10. Further references in the text.

89. See the magisterial book on the subject by A. W. Brian Simpson, In The Highest Degree Odious: Detention Without Trial in Wartime Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, rev. edn, 1994; see also Richard C. Thurlow, 'British Fascism and State Surveillance, 1934-45', Intelligence and National Security, 3.1, 1988, pp. 77-99.

90. Ludovici, Confessions of an Antifeminist, p. 162.

91. Earl of Portsmouth, Alternative to Death, pp. 17 and 35.

92. H. J. Massingham, ed., England and the Farmer: A Symposium, London: B. T. Batsford, 1941; Edmund B1unden, ed., Return to Husbandry, London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1943; Rolf Gardiner, England Herself; Ventures in Rural Restoration, London: Faber and Faber, 1943; George Stapledon, The Way of the Land, London: Faber and Faber, 1943; H. J. Massingham, ed., The Natural Order: Essays in. the Return to Husbandry, London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1945.

93. See my article 'The Far Right and the Back-to-the-Land Movement', in Cultural Expressions of the Far Right in Twentieth-Century Britain, ed. Julie V. Gottlieb and Tom Linehan, London: 1. B. Tauris, 2002. See also David Matless, Landscape and Englishness, London: Reaktion Books, 1998, pp. 103-70.

94. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Child: An Adult's Problem. First Aid to Parents, London: Carroll and Nicholson, 1948, pp. 20 and 21.

95. Anthony M. Ludovici, Health and Education Through Self-Mastery, London: Watts and Co., 1933. The starting point of the lecture was that mankind was confronted with an 'evolutionary cataclysm' (pp. ix-xii).

96. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Four Pillars of Health: A Contribution to Post-War Planning, London: Heath Cranton, 1945, p. 24. Further references in the text.

97. See Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Transform Society's Values', in Gentile and Jew: A Symposium on the Future of the Jewish People, ed. Chaim Newman, London: Alliance Press, 1945, pp. 165-85. This book remarkably has Ludovici side by side with James Parkes, one of the most tireless campaigners on behalf of the Jews.

98. Leese, Out of Step, p. 68.

99. On Verrall see Thurlow, Fascism in Britain, p. 264.

100. Anthony M. Ludovici, Enemies of Women: The Origins in Outline of Anglo-Saxon Feminism, London: Carroll and Nicholson, 1948, pp. 149-50.

101. Anthony M. Ludovici, The Quest of Human Quality: How to Rear Leaders, London: Rider and Co., 1952. References in the text.

102. On this point he contradicted A Defence of Aristocracy, which claimed that the medieval aristocracy was not wholly devoid of these qualities.

103. But, for more recent years, see Marek Kohn, The Race Gallery: The Return of Racial Science, London: Jonathan Cape, 1995.

104. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1951, p.216.

105. Havelock Ellis, The Task of Social Hygiene, London: Constable and Co., 1912, p. 203.

106. Anthony M. Ludovici, Religion for Infidels, London: Holborn Publishing Company, 1961, p. 49. Further references in the text.

107. For more on Britons, see Gisela C. Lebzelter, 'Henry Hamilton Beamish and the Britons: Champions of Anti-Semitism', in British Fascism, ed. Lunn and Thurlow, pp.41-56.

108. See Malcolm Chase, 'This is No Claptrap, This is Our Heritage', in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, ed. Christopher Shaw and Malcolm Chase, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989, pp. 128-46.

109. Ludovici, The Specious Origins of Liberalism, p. 87.

110. Griffiths, Patriotism Perverted. See also Aaron Goldman, 'The Resurgence of Antisemitism in Britain during World War II', Jewish Social Studies, 46.1, 1984, pp. 37-50.

111. See Tony Kushner, 'Anti-semitism and Austerity: The August 1947 Riots in Britain', in Racial Violence in Britain, 1894-1950, ed. Panikos Panayi, Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1993, pp. 149-68.

112. Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

113. Ludovici, Confessions of an Antifeminist, p. 254.

114. See, for example, Ashley Montagu, ed., The Concept of Race, New York: Free Press, 1964 for a contemporary book that argues for the scientific meaninglessness of 'race'.

115. Ludovici, Confessions of an Antifeminist, p. 279.

116. Kerr, Our Prophets, p. 99.

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PART 2 OF 2

Notes to chapter three

1. George Chatterton-Hill, The Philosophy of Nietzsche: An Exposition and an Appreciation, London: John Ouseley, n.d. [1913], pp. 254-55, 259.

2. George Chatterton-Hill, Heredity and Selection in Sociology, London: Adam and Charles Black, 1907, pp. xix-xx, 127, 154, 357, 367, 540. According to Hawkins, it is the extension of scientific determinism into the human social and psychological realm as well as the physical realm which is the distinctive feature of social Darwinism. See Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 31. But see also Gregory Claeys, 'The "Survival of the Fittest" and the Origins of Social Darwinism', Journal of the History of Ideas, 61.2, 2000, p. 238, for the argument that 'what was most distinctive about much (though not all) Social Darwinism was its concern not with "race" as such in the loose sense of a term of general classification but with a new definition of race directly attached to skin colour, in which ideas of racial hierarchy and supremacy were wedded to earlier notions of "fitness" .'

3. For a variety of opinions, see D. Gawronsky, Friedrich Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich, Bern: Verlag Herbert Lang & Cie., 1935; Heinrich Hartle, Nietzsche und der Nationalsozialismus, Munich: Zentralverlag der NSDAP, 1937; Richard Maximilian Lonsbach, Friedrich Nietzsche und die Juden: Ein Wirsuch, Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1939; Crane Brinton, 'The National Socialists' Use of Nietzsche' , Journal of the History of Ideas, 1.2, 1940; Konrad Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich, Celle: Verlag Joseph Giesel, 1947; Bernhard H. F. Taureck, Nietzsche und der Faschismus: Eine Studie uber Nietzsches politische Philosophie und ihre Folgen, Hamburg: Junius, 1989; Weaver Santaniello, Nietzsche, God, and the Jews: His Critique of Judeo-Christianity in Relation to the Nazi Myth, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994; Martha Zapata Galindo, Triumph des Willens zur Macht: Zur Nietzsche-Rezeption im NS-Staat, Hamburg: Argument Verlag, 1995; Jacob Golomb, ed., Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, London: Routledge, 1997.

4. Robert C. Bannister, Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979, chapter 10, 'The Nietzsche Vogue', pp. 201-11.

5. See, for example, Steven A. Gelb, 'Degeneracy Theory, Eugenics, and Family Studies', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 26.3, 1990, pp. 242-45.

6. Pauline M. H. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, its Sources and its Critics in Britain, London: Routledge, 1992, pp. 103-05.

7. For the connection between Blacker and Ludovici see Chapter 4 below.

8. P. V. Cohn, 'Belloc and Nietzsche', New Age, XII.9, 2 January 1913, p. 215.

9. See David S. Thatcher, Nietzsche in England 1890-1914: The Growth of a Reputation, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970, pp. 22-23, 58.

10. Thomas Common, 'The New Outlook', Notes for Good Europeans (The Good European Point of View), 1.1, 1903, pp. 4, 11.

11. Thomas Common, 'Defects of Popular Secularism', Notes for Good Europeans (The Good European Point of View), 1.2, 1903-1904, pp. 47-48.

12. Thomas Common, Nietzsche as Critic, Philosopher, Poet and Prophet: Choice Selections from His Works, London: Grant Richards, 1901, pp. xi, xii.

13. Thatcher, Nietzsche in England, pp. 23-24.

14. Alexander Tille, Von Darwin bis Nietzsche, Leipzig: Verlag von C. G. Naumann, 1895, p. vii. Further references in the text. See also W. Rheinhard, Der Mensch als Thierrasse und seine Triebe: Beitrage zu Darwin und Nietzsche, Leipzig: Verlag von Theod. Thomas, 1902, pp. 222-23 for the argument that the superman is, on the basis of Darwin's theory of evolution, unlikely to emerge.

15. Alexander Tille, 'Introduction' to The Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, VIII: Thus Spake Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, trans. Alexander Tille, London: H. Henry & Co., 1896, p. xxiii.

16. Alexander Tille, 'Introduction' to The Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, XI: The Case of Wagner, Nietzsche contra Wagner, The Twilight of the Idols, The Antichrist, trans. Thomas Common, London: H. Henry & Co., 1896, pp. x, xvi, xvii. For the argument that Nietzsche's thought owed more to Lamarck than Darwin, see Claire Richter, Nietzsche et les theories biolilgiques contemporaines, Paris: Mercure de France, 1911.

17. J. M. Kennedy, The Quintessence of Nietzsche, London: T. Werner Laurie, 1909, p. 80. Further references in the text.

18. J. M. Kennedy, Tory Democracy, London: Stephen Swift and Co., 1911, pp. 54 (on romanticism) and 21 (on race).

19. See Otto Ammon, Der Darwinismus gegen die Sozialdemokratie: Anthropologische Plautiereien, Hamburg: Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei A. G., 1891; idem., Die naturliche Auslese beim Menschen. Auf Grund der anthropologischen Untersuchungen der Wehrpflichtigen in Baden und anderer Materialien, Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer, 1893; idem., Die Gesellschaftsordnung und ihre naturliche Grundlagen: Entwurf einer Sozial-Anthropologie zum Gebrauch for alle Gebildeten, die sich mit sozialen Fragen befassen, Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer, 2nd edn, 1896 [18950.

20. It was also successful in the United States. Dolson, for example, recommended Lichtenberger's book. Grace Neal Dolson, The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1901, p. 85.

21. Henri Lichtenberger, The Gospel of Superman: The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, trans, J. M. Kennedy, Edinburgh/London: T.N. Foulis, 1910, p. 138. Further references in the text.

22. See Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, p. 363; Uli Linke, Blood and Nation: The European Aesthetics of Race, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.

23. F. C. S. Schiller, 'The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche', Quarterly Review, January 1913, pp. 157, 158, 160.

24. Arthur W. Knapp, Friedrich Nietzsche: A Plain Account of the Fiery Philosopher, London: Watts & Co., 1910, p. II.

25. M. A. Mugge, Friedrich Nietzsche: His Life and Work, London/Leipsic: T. Fisher Unwin, 2nd edn, 1909, p. viii. Further references in the text.

26. Keith Ansell-Pearson, Viroid Life: Perspectives on Nietzsche and the Transhuman Condition, London: Routledge, 1997, p. 87. It should be noted that this is where the similarities between Mugge and Ansell-Pearson end! Mugge reiterated his view of Nietzsche as eugenicist in his more popular book, Friedrich Nietzsche, London: T. C. & E. C. Jack, n.d. [1913], pp. 76-80 and passim. For more on Mugge see the section on 'Eugenicists' below.

27. A. R. Orage, Friedrich Nietzsche: The Dionysian Spirit of the Age, London/Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis, 1906, p. 68. Further references in the text.

28. A. R. Orage, Nietzsche in Outline and Aphorism, Edinburgh/London: T. N. Foulis, 1907, p. 123. Further references in the text.

29. 'Philosophy of Violence: Dean Inge on Nietzsche', Church Family Newspaper, December 1914, report of a speech given by Inge at St Paul's Chapter House, 7 December 1914.

30. Havelock Ellis, 'Nietzsche', in Affirmations, London: Walter Scott, 1898, p. 68. Further references in the text.

31. Havelock Ellis, The Task of Social Hygiene, London: Constable and Co., 1912, p.24.

32. Havelock Ellis, My Confessional, London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1934, p.203.

33. Havelock Ellis, 'The Control of Population', in On Life and Sex: Essays of Love and Virtue. Two Volumes in One, Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing Company, 1937, vol. II, pp. 169-70. Originally published as More Essays of Love and Virtue (1931). Further references in the text.

34. Thatcher, Nietzsche in England, p. 195.

35. Thatcher, Nietzsche in England, p. 206.

36. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'Nietzsche and Science', Spectator, 8 January 1910.

37. Claud W. Mullins, 'Eugenics, Nietzsche and Christianity', Eugenics Review, 4.4, 1913, pp. 394-95.

38. Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton. Volume IIIA: Correlation, Personal Identification and Eugenics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930, p. 403, citing Galton, 'Eugenic Qualities of Primary Importance', Eugenics Review, 1.1, 1909, p.76.

39. Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton. Volume IIIB: Characterisation, Especially by Letters. Index, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930, p. 600.

40. Maximilian A. Mugge, 'Eugenics and the Superman: A Racial Science and a Racial Religion', Eugenics Review, 1.3, 1909, p. 184. Further references in the text.

41. J. A. Lindsay, 'Eugenics and the Doctrine of the Super-Man" Eugenics Review, 7.4, 1916, p. 249. Further references in the text.

42. George Pitt Rivers, letter to the Eugenics Review, 12.1, 1920, pp. 71-73.

43. George Adath, 'The True Aristocracy', Eugenics Review, 14.3, 1922, p. 174.

44. See the letters held by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Record Centre, Stratford-upon-Avon. See also Roland Quinault, 'Portrait of a "Diehard": Greville Verney, Nineteenth Lord Willoughby de Broke', in Compton Verney: A History of the House and its Owners, ed. Robert Bearman, Stratford-upon-Avon: Compton Verney House Trust/Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, 2000, pp. 157-74

45. R. Austin Freeman, 'The Sub-Man', Eugenics Review, 15.2, 1923, pp. 383-92. Further references in the text.

46. See, for example, C. C. Everett, '''Beyond Good and Evil": A Study of the Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche', The New World, VII.28, 1898, pp. 684--703; Heinrich Goebel and Ernest Antrim, 'Friedrich Nietzsche's Uebermensch' and The Editor, 'Immorality as a Philosophic Principle', The Monist, IX.4, 1899, pp. 563-71 and 572-616; Dolson, The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche.

47. William Wallace, 'Nietzsche's Criticism of Morality' and 'Thus Spake Zarathustra', in Lectures and Essays on Natural Theology and Ethics, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898, pp. 511-29 and 530-41.

48. Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, 'The Life and Opinions of Friedrich Nietzsche', in Man's Place in Ihe Cosmos, Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1902, pp. 313, 312, 317, 316. Further references in the text. This chapter was a reprint of two earlier articles in Blackwood's Magazine, CLXII, 1897, and the Contemporary Review, LXXIII, 1898.

49. Thomas Common, 'Professor Seth's Attacks on Nietzsche', University Magazine and Free Review, XI, April 1899, p. 50. Further references in the text. The confusion over names here is a result of the fact that the first article was published under the name Andrew Seth, the second under the name Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison.

50. Maurice Adams, 'The Ethics of Tolstoy and Nietzsche', International Journal of Ethics, XI.I, 1900, here at p. 94. Further references in the text.

51. L. H. Green, 'Nietzsche, Eugenics, and Christianity', The Commonwealth, XIX.218, 1914, p. 51. This .article was published in four parts over vol. XIX, issues 218-221. Further references in the text, giving issue number then page number.

52. Charles M. Bakewell, 'The Teachings of Friedrich Nietzsche', International Journal of Ethics, IX.4, 1898, p. 314. Further references in the text.

53. William Barry, Heralds of Revolt: Studies in Modern Literature and Dogma, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904, p. 373. Further references in the text.

54. Peter Weingart, Jurgen Kroll and Kurt Bayertz, Rasse, Blut und Gene: Geschichte der Eugenik und Rassenhygiene in Deutschland, Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992, p. 72. They do, however, note (n.69) that there was a difference between Nietzsche's 'genuinely philosophical project' and the eugenicists' 'scientifically grounded programme of socio-technological reform', though both can be called a 'Zuchtungsidee'.

55. I have not written specifically about gender here, although it is clearly another Nietzschean concern which ties in with the general concern of the degeneration theorists, because the topic has been widely addressed elsewhere. See Maria Sophia Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth-Century Europe, London: Routledge, 1996; Angus McLaren, Reproductive Rituals: The Perception of Fertility in England from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century, London: Methuen 1984; C. Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989; Wendy Kline, Building a Better Race: Gender, Sexuality and Eugenics from the Turn of the Century to the Baby Boom, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001; Roy Porter and Lesley Hall, The Facts of Life: The Creation of Sexual Knowledge in Britain, 1650-1950, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995; Daniel Pick; Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder; c. 1848-c. 1918, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980, New York: Pantheon Books, 1986; Karen Offen, 'Depopulation, Natalism, and Feminism', American Historical Review, 89, 1984, pp. 653-71; Anna Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', History Workshop, 5, 1978, pp. 9-65, among others. On women in eugenics, see Alice Ravenhill, 'Eugenic Ideals for Womanhood', Eugenics Review, 1.4, 1910, pp. 265-74; Richard Allen Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990, pp. 127-37.

56. See Kushner and Knox, Refugees in an Age of Genocide; Pick, Faces of Degeneration; idem., Svengali's Web: The Alien Enchanter in Modern Culture, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.

Notes to chapter four

1. Frank Dikotter, 'Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics', American Historical Review, 103.2, 1998, pp. 467-78.

2. Philip J. Pauly, 'The Eugenics Industry: Growth or Restructuring?', Journal of the History of Biology, 26.1, 1993, pp. 131-45.

3. On which the literature is vast. See the standard work by Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism, 1870--1945, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. See also Peter Weingart, Jurgen Kroll and Kurt Bayertz, Rasse, Blut und Gene: Geschichte der Eugenik und Rassenhygiene in Deutschland, Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp, 1988; Ute Deichmann and Benno Muller-Hill, 'Biological Research at Universities and Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes in Nazi Germany', in Science, Technology and National Socialism, ed. Monika Renneberg and Mark Walter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 160-83; Peter Weingart, 'The Rationalization of Sexual Behaviour: The Institutionalization of Eugenic Thought in Germany', Journal of the History of Biology, 20.2, 1987, pp. 159-93; Sheila Faith Weiss, 'The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany', Osiris, n.s., 3, 1987, pp. 193-236; Benno Muller-Hill, Murderous Science: Elimination by Scientific Selection of Jews, Gypsies, and Others. Germany 1933-1945, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988; idem., 'Human Genetics and the Mass Murder of Jews, Gypsies, and Others', in The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined, ed. Michael Berenbaum and Abraham J. Peck, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1998, pp. 103-14; Arnd Kruger, 'A Horse Breeder's Perspective: Scientific Racism in Germany, 1870-1933' and Peter Weingart, 'The Thin Line Between Eugenics and Preventive Medicine', both in Identity and Intolerance: Nationalism, Racism, and Xenophobia in Germany and United States, ed. Norbert Finzsch and Dietmar Schirmer, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 371-95 and 397-412; Uli Linke, Blood and Nation: me European Aesthetics of Race, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.

4. Donald MacKenzie, 'Eugenics in Britain', Social Studies of Science, 6.3-4, 1976, pp. 499-532; idem., 'Karl Pearson and the Professional Middle Class', Annals of Science, 36.2, 1979, pp. 125-43; G. R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain 1900-1914, Leyden: Noordhoff International Publishing, 1976; idem., 'Eugenics and Class', in Biology, Medicine and Society 1840--1940, ed. Charles Webster, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981, pp. 217-42; Greta Jones, 'Eugenics and Social Policy Between the Wars', The Historical Journal, 25.3, 1982, pp. 717-28; Pauline M. H. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Generics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society and its Critics in Britain, London: Routledge, 1992.

5. F. C. S. Schiller, Social Decay and Eugenical Reform, London: Constable and Co., 1932, p. 104. See also Leonard Darwin, 'The Cost of Degeneracy', Eugenics Review, 5.2, 1913, pp. 93-100; A. F. Tredgold, 'Eugenics and the Future Progress of Man', Eugenics Review, 3.2, 1911, pp. 94-117; idem., 'The Study of Eugenics', Quarterly Review, 217.432, 1912, pp. 43-67; idem., 'Heredity and Environment in Regard to Social Reform', Quarterly Review, 219.437, 1913, pp. 364-83.

6. J. A. Hobson, 'Race Eugenics as a Policy', in Free Thought in the Social Sciences, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1926, p. 220.

7. Robert Reid Rentoul, Race Culture; Or, Race Suicide? (A Plea for the Unborn), London/Felling-on-Tyne: The Walter Scott Publishing Co., 1906, pp. xii, 4-5. Further references in the text.

8. See, for example, George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985; Sander Gilman, 'Black Sexuality and Modern Consciousness', in Blacks and German Culture, ed. Reinhold Grimm and Jost Hermand, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986, pp. 35-53; Roger Bartra, Wild Men in the Looking Glass: The Mythic Origins of European Otherness, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1994; Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race, London: Routledge, 1995; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest, London: Routledge, 1995; Susanne Zantop, Colonial Fantasies: Conquest, Family, and Nation in Precolonial Germany, 1770-1870, Durham, NC/London: Duke University Press, 1997; Adam Lively, Masks: Blackness, Race and the. Imagination, London: Chatto & Windus, 1998.

9. See William B. Provine, 'Geneticists and the Biology of Race Crossing', Science, 182, 23 November 1973, pp. 790-96, and Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2nd edn, 1995.

10. Advertisement in the English Review, 45.6, 1937, between pp. 708 and 709.

11. Charles Wicks teed Armstrong, The Survival of the Un fittest, London: The C. W Daniel Company, 1927, pp. 9, 158. Further references in the text.

12. Anthony M. Ludovici, 'The False Assumptions of 'Democracy', London: Heath Cranton, 1921, p. 114.

13. Ludovici, False Assumptions, p. 214.

14. Anthony M. Ludovici, Lysistrata, or Woman 's Future and Future Woman, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1925, p. 115.

15. Anthony M. Ludovici, Man: An Indictment, London: Constable and Co., 1927, p.306.

16. Anthony M. Ludovici, Violence, Sacrifice and Mir, London: Holders Press for the St James's Kin of the English Mistery, 1933, pp. 11-12.

17. Ludovici to Blacker, 12 July 1928. Eugenics Society Archive, PP/CPB/A4/1 (Blacker General). This letter was a response to Blacker's review in the Eugenics Review of Ludovici's The Night Hoers (1928) which suggested that Ludovici's proposals for culling the unfit would be rendered unnecessary by advances in pre-natal selection. On Blacker see Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, pp. 170-77.

18. Eugenics Society to Ludovici, 8 November 1927. Eugenics Society Archive, SA/EUG/C.212 (Eugenics Society: People. A. M. Ludovici 1927-1947).

19. Ibid., Ludovici to Blacker, 4 August 1932; Blacker to Ludovici, 2 August 1933. On the English Mistery see above, Chapter 2.

20. C. P. Blacker, Eugenics in Prospect and Retrospect: The Galton Lecture 1945, London: Hamish Hamilton Medical Books, 1945, pp. 5, 8, 9; idem., Eugenics: Galton and After, London: Gerald Duckworth and Co., 1952, pp. 139, 291.

21. Havelock Ellis, The Task of Social Hygiene, London: Constable and Co., 1912, p. 20; idem., The Problem of Race-Regeneration, London: Cassell and Co., 1911, p. 69 on the feeble-minded.

22. This is the argument of Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics.

23. Dorothy Porter, '''Enemies of the Race": Biologism, Environmentalism, and Public Health in Edwardian England', Victorian Studies, 34.2, 1991, p. 164.

24. See, for example, Eden Paul, Socialism and Eugenics, Manchester: National Labour Press, 1911, originally a lecture given to the Poole and Branksome ILP, 25 June 1911; H. C. Bibby, Heredity, Eugenics and Social Progress, London: Victor Gollancz, 1939. See also Michael Freeden, 'Eugenics and Progressive Thought: A Study in Ideological Affinity', The Historical Journal, 22.3, 1979, pp. 645-71; Diane Paul, 'Eugenics and the Left', Journal of the History of Ideas, 45.4, 1984, pp. 567-90. 25. See the studies of MacKenzie and Searle cited in note 4.

26. William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

27. On 'race' and 'nation' as synonyms, see Jose Harris, Private Lives, Public Spirit: A Social History of Britain 1870-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 233-37. For correctives see Wolfgang Mock, 'The Function of "Race" in Imperialist Ideologies: The Example of Joseph Chamberlain', in Nationalist and Racialist Movements in Britain and Germany Before 1914, ed. Paul Kennedy and Anthony Nicholls, London: Macmillan, 1981, pp. 190-203; J. W. Burrow, The Crisis of Reason: European Thought, 1848-1914, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000, p. 102.

28. W.C.D. and C.D. Whetham, 'The Extinction of the Upper Classes', The Nineteenth Century, 66, July 1909, pp. 97-108; idem., 'Eminence and Heredity', The Nineteenth Century, 69, May 1911, pp. 818-32; the citations come from W. C. D. Whetham, 'Inheritance and Sociology', The Nineteenth Century, 65, January 1909, p. 81, and idem., An Introduction to Eugenics, Cambridge: Bowes and Bowes, 1912, p. 41. See also idem., The Family and the Nation: A Study in Natural Inheritance and Social Responsibility, London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1909; idem., 'Decadence and Civilisation', The Hibbert Journal, 10.1, 1911, pp. 179-200; idem., Heredity and Society, London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912.

29. C.T. Ewart, 'Eugenics and Degeneracy', Journal of Mental Science, 56.235, 1910, pp. 672-73.

30. James Marchant, Birth-Rate and Empire, London: Williams and Norgate, 1917, pp. 103, 102, 162.

31. W. H. Mallock, Aristocracy and Evolution: A Study of the Rights, the Origin, and the Social Functions of the Wealthier Classes, London: Adam and Charles Black, 1898; Anon. [Arthur Bountwood], National Revival: A Re-Statement oj Tory Principles, London: Herbert Jenkins, 2nd edn, 1913; J. M. Kennedy, Tory Democracy, London: Stephen Swift and Co., 1911; Anthony M. Ludovici, A Defence of Aristocracy: A 'Textbook for Tories, London: Constable and Co., 1915; idem., A Defence of Conservatism: A Further 'Textbook for Tories, London: Faber and Gwyer, 1927; Viscount Lymington, Ich Dien: The Tory Path, London: Constable and Co., 1931; Philippe Mairet, Aristocracy and the Meaning of Class Rule: An Essay upon Aristocracy Past and Future, London: The C.W. Daniel Company, 1931.

32. Lord Selborne, obituary of Willoughby de Broke, sent to Lady Willoughby de Broke May 1924. Bodleian Library, Selborne MSS, 94/157-160.

33. Among Willoughby de Broke's articles in the National Review, see especially 'The Tory Tradition', 58.344, October 1911, pp. 201-213, and 'National Toryism', 59.351, May 1912, pp. 413-27. Letter from Willoughby de Broke to Andrew Bonar Law, 5 May 1912, House of Lords Record Office (HLRO), Hist. Coil., Bonar Law Papers, BL 26/3/11.

34. George Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997 [1935], pp. 47-48.

35. Willoughby de Broke, 'Introduction' to C. W. Saleeby, The Whole Armour of Man: Preventive Essays for Victory in the Great Campaigns of Peace to Come, London: Grant Richards, 1919, pp. 7-9. See also Willoughby de Broke's letters to Saleeby, Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Records Office, Stratford-up on-Avon, DR 145, in one of which (DR 145/2), he says to Saleeby that in his book Heredity and Race Culture, 'you revealed yourself to me as a prophet ...'

36. Paul, Socialism and Eugenics; Bibby, Heredity, Eugenics and Social Progress; H. G. Wells, Mankind i1l the Making, London: Chapman and Hall, 1903.

37. Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton. Volume IIIA: Correlation, Personal Identification and Eugenics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930, p. 353.

38. Karl Pearson, National Life from the Standpoint of Science, London: Adam and Charles Black, 2nd edn, 1905, pp. x, "21, 23-24.

39. Dan Stone, 'White Men with Low Moral Standards? German Anthropology and the Herero Genocide', Patterns of Prejudice, 35.2, 2001, pp. 33-45.

40. Pearson, National Life, p. 54.

41. Karl Pearson, The Groundwork of Eugenics, London: Dulau and Co., 1909, p. 20.

42. Karl Pearson, 'Some Recent Misinterpretations of the Problem of Nurture and Nature' , in The Relative Strength of Nurture and Nature, ed. Ethel M. Elderton, London: Cambridge University Press, 1915, pp. 58-59.

43. Francis Galton, Essays in Eugenics, cited in Searle, Eugenics and Politics, p. 35.

44. On women in the eugenics movement see Rosaleen Love, "'Alice in Eugenics-Land": Feminism and Eugenics in the Scientific Careers of Alice Lee and Ethel Elderton', Annals of Science, 36.2, 1979, pp. 145-58.

45. Karl Pearson and Margaret Maul, 'The Problem of Alien Immigration into Great Britain, Illustrated by an Examination of Russian and Polish Jewish Children', Annals of Eugenics: A Journal for the Scientific Study of Racial Problems, 1.1&2, 1925, pp. 7, 126, 127, and passim.

46. Searle, Eugenics and Politics, p. 38.

47. R. F. Horton, National Ideals and Race-Regeneration, London: Cassell and Co., 1912, pp. 18-19. Further references in the text.

48. Arnold White, Efficiency and Empire, London: Methuen and Co., 1901; idem., 'Eugenics and National Efficiency', Eugenics Review, 1.2, 1909, pp. 105-11; idem., The Views of 'Vanoc': An Englishman's Outlook, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1910, pp. 275-306.

49. Arnold White, ed., The Destitute Alien in Great Britain: A Series of Papers Dealing with the Subject oj Foreign Pauper Immigration, London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1892; idem., The English Democracy: Its Promises and Perils, London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1894, pp. 150-70; idem., The Modern Jew, London: William Heinemann, 1899, in which he set out to show that England was 'dominated by cosmopolitan and materialist influences fatal to the existence of the English nation' (pp. xi-xii). In Efficiency and Empire he wrote (p. 80) that 'Rule by foreign Jews is being set up.'

50. Leonard Darwin, The Need for Eugenic Reform, London: John Murray, 1926, pp. 495-96.

51. Leonard Darwin, What is Eugenics?, London: Watts & Co., 1928, pp. 75-76, 77-78.

52. C.W. Saleeby, 'The Progress of Eugenics', New Age, 7.1, 1910, supplement, p. 4. In a letter to Galton on 7 February 1909 Pearson made his antipathy quite plain: 'If our youthful efforts were mixed up in any way with the work of Havelock Ellis, Slaughter or Saleeby, we should kill all chance of founding Eugenics as an academic discipline.' See Pearson, Life, Letters, p. 372. Cf. letters of 10 February 1909 (p. 372) and 6 April 1909 (p. 379).

53. C.W. Saleeby, The Methods of Race-Regeneration, London: Cassell and Co., 1911, p. 8.

54. C.W. Saleeby, Woman and Womanhood: A Search for Principles, London: William Heinemann, 1912, pp. 58, 167.

55. Cf. C.W. Saleeby, The Progress of Eugenics, London: Cassell and Co., 1914, pp. 155, 182.

56. C.W. Saleeby, Parenthood and Race Culture: An Outline of Eugenics, London: Cassell and Co., 1909, p. xi.

57. Saleeby, The Whole Armour of Man, p. 39.

58. F.C.S. Schiller, Tantalus, or The Future of Man, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1924, pp. 42, 52. 59. F.C.S. Schiller, Eugenics and Politics, London: Constable and Co., 1926, p. 15. Further references in the text.

60. Schiller, Social Decay and Eugenical Reform, p. 110.

61. A. C. Gotto, 'Eugenics and Imperial Development', Eugenics Review, 11.3, 1919, p. 13 5. The discussion was held at Bedford College on 8 July 1919.

62. Eugenics Society archive SA/EUG/D.179 (Eugenics Society 'General', Race Crossing Investigation 1924-1927), especially Secretary [Cora Hodson] to Lady Barr, 27 November 1924, and Bates to Hodson, 8 October 1927.

63. Eugenics Society archive, SA/EUG/D.103 (Immigration and Emigration c.1925-1958). A good critique of this paper was made by anthropologist Kenneth Little in The Times, 13 October 1958.

64. See Eugenics Society archive, SA/EUG/D.104 (Immigrants, research into, 1954-1966).

65. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics, pp. 257, 67, 104.

66. See, for example, G. P. Balzarotti and C. S. Stock, 'Niceforo on the Highly Superior German', Eugenics Review, 10.1, 1918, pp. 30-41; H. J. Fleure, 'The Nordic Myth: A Critique of Current Racial Theories', Eugenics Review, 22.2, 1930, pp. 117-21; C. P. Blacker, 'Eugenics in Germany', Eugenics Review, 25.3, 1933, pp. 157-59; Felix Tietze, 'Eugenic Measures in the Third Reich', Eugenics Review, 31.2, 1939, pp. 105-07. The Eugenics Review still permitted a high-ranking German public health officer to state the case for German sterilisation measures during the war: F. J. Wittelshoefer, 'German Eugenic Legislation in Peace and War', Eugenics Review, 34.3, 1942, pp. 91-92. The most important anti-racist statements by scientists were Julian Huxley, A. C. Haddon and A. M. Carr-Saunders, ~ Europeans: A Survey of 'Racial' Problems, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939 [1935], and J.B.S. Haldane, Heredity and Politics, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1938.

67. Provine, 'Geneticists', p. 794.

68. Provine, 'Geneticists', p. 794.

69. Haldane, Heredity and Politics, p. 34.

70. Lancelot Hogben, Dangerous Thoughts, London, 1940, cited in Richard A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990, p. 197.

71. See Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 229-35.

72. Searle, Eugenics and Politics, pp. 40-41, 44.

73. Searle, Eugenics and Politics, p. 44.

74. As Hamish G. Spencer and Diane B. Paul have shown in 'The Failure of a Scientific Critique: David Heron, Karl Pearson and Mendelian Eugenics', British Journal of the History of Science, 31.4, 1998, pp. 441-52. On the biometrics/eugenics debate, see now M. Eileen Magnello, 'The Non-Correlation of Biometrics and Eugenics: Rival Forms of Laboratory Work in Karl Pearson's Career at University College London', History of Science, 37.2, 1999, pp. 123-50.

75. Diane B. Paul and Hamish G. Spencer, 'The Hidden Science of Eugenics', Nature, 374.6520, 23 March 1995, p. 302. For an exception see 'Lens' (C. W. Saleeby), 'Imperial Eugenics, Part IV: Preventive Eugenics', New Statesman, 6.150, 19 February 1916, p. 466: 'The idea that we shall purify the race from its morbid elements even by the most rigorous and absolute segregation or sterilization of unsatisfactory individuals, though practised upon a scale undreamt of by anyone, is seen to be mythical. All the time new degeneracy is being originated in and through the healthy persons whom the purely Darwinian-Galtonian idea of selection assumes to be beyond need of any protection.' Perhaps it was his enmity towards the biometricians which helped Saleeby see what Pearson did not, though it was staring him in the face.

76. R. Austin Freeman, Social Decay and Regeneration, London: Constable and Co., 1921, p. 260 (on Labour), p. 318. Further references in the text. That Freeman was not a scientist did not prevent his views being taken seriously, at least by the Eugenics Society. Sections of his book were adapted for publication in the Eugenics Review. See R. Austin Freeman, 'The Sub-Man', Eugenics Review, 15.2, 1923, pp. 383-92 (in which the 'sub-man' is compared with 'the aboriginal negro', pp. 388-89); and 'Segregation of the Fit: A Plea for Positive Eugenics', Eugenics Review, 23.3, 1931, pp. 207-13, in which (p. 212) Freeman softened the racism of his 1921 book, now saying that the prime qualification of 'fitness' was intelligence.

Notes to chapter five

1. Michael Freeden, 'Eugenics and Progressive Thought: A Study in Ideological Affinity', The Historical Journal, 22.3, 1979, pp. 645-71; Diane Paul, 'Eugenics and the Left', Journal of the History of Ideas, 45.4, 1984, pp. 567-90.

2. Arthur Schnitzler, The Road to the Open, trans. Horace Samuel, Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1991 [1908), p. 347.

3. See G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Social Thought, 1899-1914, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971; David Cesarani, 'Anti-Alienism in England after the First World War', Immigrants and Minorities, 6.1, 1987, pp. 5-29; idem., 'An Alien Concept? The Continuity of Anti-Alienism in British Society Before 1940', in The Internment of Aliens in Twentieth Century Britain, ed. David Cesarani and Tony Kushner, London: Frank Cass, 1993, pp. 25-52.

4. F. C. S. Schiller, Tantalus or The Future of Man, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1924; idem., Eugenics and Politics, London: Constable and Co., 1926; idem., Social Decay and Eugenical Reform, London: Constable and Co., 1932; William Cecil Dampier Whetham and Catherine Dunning Whetham, The Family and the Nation: A Study in National Inheritance and Social Responsibility, London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1909; idem., 'Inheritance and Sociology', The Nineteenth Century, 65, January 1909, pp. 74-90; idem., 'The Extinction of the Upper Classes', The Nineteenth Century, 66, July 1909, pp. 97-108; idem., 'Decadence and Civilisation', The Hibbert Journal, X.1, October 1911, pp. 179-200; idem., 'Eminence and Heredity', The Nineteenth Century, 69, May 1911, pp. 818-32; idem., 'The Influence of Race on History', in Problems in Eugenics: Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress held at the University of London, July 24th to 30th, 1912, London: Eugenics Education Society, 1912, vol. I, pp. 237-46; idem., An Introduction to Eugenics, Cambridge: Bowes and Bowes, 1912; idem., Heredity and Society, London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912, among other works.

5. Arthur James Balfour, Decadence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908; G. K. Chesterton, Eugenics and Other Evils, London: Cassell and Co., 1922.

6. C. W. Saleeby, Parenthood and Race Culture: An Outline of Eugenics, London: Cassell and Co., 1909, pp. viii, ix, xiii.

7. C. W. Saleeby, The Methods of Race-Regeneration, London: Cassell and Co., 1911, pp. 8 and 22.

8. C. W. Saleeby, The Progress of Eugenics, London: Cassell and Co., 1914, pp. 167-68 and 245. Cf. Saleeby's comments on Galton's ideas, cited in 'Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope and Aims', Sociological Papers, 1905, pp. 82-84.

9. James Marchant, Social Hygienics: A New Crusade, London: Swan Sonnenschein, published for the National Social Purity Crusade, 1909, pp. 12 and 54.

10. James Marchant, Birth-Rate and Empire, London: Williams and Norgate, 1917, pp. 90, 91, 97, 161-62.

11. But see George Stocking, 'The Persistence of Polygenist Thought in Post-Darwinian Anthropology', in his Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968, pp. 42-68 for the reasons why not all race-thinking was connected to the development of genetics and eugenics.

12. Karl Pearson and Margaret Moul, 'The Problem of Alien Immigration into Great Britain, Illustrated by an Examination of Russian and Polish Jewish Children', Annals of Eugenics, 1.1&2, 1925, pp. 126 and 124; Eugenics Society, Memorandum on Alien Immigration, typescript, n.d., c.1925; Are You an Englishman? Then Read This!, n.p, n.d., c.1925, both in the Eugenics Society Archives, SNEUG/D.103.

13. Havelock Ellis, The Problem of Race-Regeneration, London: Cassell and Co., 1911, p. 69.

14. Havelock Ellis, The Task of Social Hygiene, London: Constable and Co., 1912, pp. 21, 24 and 24 n2, 196, and 43.

15. Anthony M. Ludovici, Who is to be Master of the World? An Introduction to the Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, London: T. N. Foulis, 1909, p. 187.

16. Anthony M. Ludovici, Violence, Sacrifice and War, London: Holders Press for the St James' Kin of the English Mistery, 1933, pp. 11-12 and 15.

17. Anthony M. Ludovici, The False Assumptions of 'Democracy', London: Heath Cranton, 1921, p. 204.

18. Arnold White, Efficiency and Empire, London: Methuen and Co., 1901, p. 73. This book was extremely influential, being the main text for the 'national efficiency' movement.

19. Mikulas Teich, 'The Unmastered Past of Human Genetics', in Fin de siecle and its Legacy, ed. Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 306-07.

20. Francis Galton, Memories of My Life, London: Methuen and Co., 1908, p. 323.

21. See, for example, A. C. Pigou, 'Some Aspects of the Problem of Charity', in The Heart of the Empire, London, 1901.

22. Valere Fallon, Eugenics, trans. Ernest C. Messenger, London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1923, pp. 33, 36 and 46. Incidentally, the writings of Fallon and others disprove the claim that eugenics and Catholicism are mutually incompatible. See www.eugenics-watch.com

23. See, for example, the debate between Michael Freeden and Greta Jones on the influence of eugenics on the left: Michael Freeden, 'Eugenics and Progressive Thought'; Greta Jones, 'Eugenics and Social Policy between the Wars', The Historical Journal, 25.3, 1982, pp. 717-28; Michael Freeden, 'Eugenics and Ideology', The Historical Journal, 26.4, 1983, pp. 959-62.

24. Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: 'Euthanasia' in Germany 1900-1945, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, chapter 10, 'Learning from the Past? The Singer Debate', pp. 291-98.

25. R. G. Collingwood, 'Fascism and Nazism', 'The Utilitarian Civilisation', and 'The Prussian Philosophy', all in Essays in Political Philosophy, ed. David Boucher, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989, pp. 187-206; Georges Bataille, 'The Notion of Expenditure' and 'The Psychological Structure of Fascism', in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings 1927-1939, ed. Allan Stoekl, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1985, pp. 116-29 and 137-60.

26. For good introductions to the huge literature, see Benno Muller-Hill, 'Human Genetics and the Mass Murder of Jews, Gypsies, and Others', in The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined, ed. Michael Berenbaum and Abraham J. Peck, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1998, pp. 103-14; Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. See also Paul Weindling, Epidemics and Genocide in Eastern Europe, 1890-1945, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

27. E. Thomas Wood and Stanislaw M. Jankowski, Karshi: How One Man Tried to Stop the Holocaust, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1994, p. 188.

28. White, Efficiency and Empire, pp. 116-17. Originally published as 'The Cult of Infirmity" National Review, XXXIV, October 1899, pp. 236-45, here at p. 243.

29. Arnold White, The Views of 'Vanoc': An Englishman's Outlook, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co., 1910, pp. 282-83.

30. A. F. Tredgold, 'Eugenics and the Future Progress of Man', Eugenics Review, III.2, 1911, p. 100. For one of the more noteworthy attacks on eugenics see 'The Danger of Eugenics', The Nation, IY.24, 13 March 1909, pp. 886-88.

31. Saleeby, The Methods of Race-Regeneration, pp. 46-47.

32. Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton. Volume IIIA: Correlation, Personal Identification and Eugenics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930, p. 427.

33. Birmingham Post, 4 February 1910. This and all the following newspaper citations are to be found in the Eugenics Society Archive, SAlEUGIN.3 (press cuttings).

34. Daily Express, 4 March 1910.

35. The Globe, 4 March 1910; Evening News, 4 March 1910; Illustrated London News, 12 March 1910.

36. Yorkshire Daily Post, 8 March 1910. See also the Morning Past, 8 March 1910.

37. Daily Sketch, 10 March 1910; Manchester Dispatch, 22 March 1910. On Shaw and 'lethal chambers' see also G. R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain 1900-1914, Leyden: Noordhoff International Publishing, 1976, p. 92.

38. Mathew Thomson, The Problem of Mental Deficiency: Eugenics, Democracy, and Social Policy in Britain, c.1870-1959, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998, chapter 5.

39. Saleeby, The Progress of Eugenics, p. 155.

40. W. Duncan McKim, Heredity and Human Progress, New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1900, p. 188.

41. Evidence of W. J. H. Brodrick to Association for Moral and Social Hygiene Committee of Enquiry into Sexual Morality 1918-19, cited in Roy Porter and Lesley Hall, The Facts of Life: The Creation of Sexual Knowledge in Britain, 1650-1950, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995, pp. 188-89.

42. George Bernard Shaw, Prefaces, London: Constable and Co., 1934, pp. 296, 297-98.

43. Leonard Darwin, The Need for Eugenic Reform, London: John Murray, 1926, p. 17 L Cf. p. 184: 'Certain methods of eliminating inferior types, including the lethal chamber and imprisonment, are of course to be unhesitatingly condemned, and all methods must be used, with great circumspection.' Darwin recommends 'conception control' on pp. 179-83.

44. Charles Wicksteed Armstrong, The Survival of the Unfittest, London: The C. W. Daniel Company, 1927, pp. 10-11, 75. Incidentally, on p. 31 of this book, Armstrong predicts, with some prescience, a future German invasion, 'for the Germans are always ready to make the most of science for advancing national aims and aspirations, whether it be by means of forces destructive in war or constructive in eugenics'.

45. Richard C. Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: From Oswald Mosley's Blackshirts to the National From, London: I.B. Tauris, 2nd edn, 1998, p. 49.

46. Searle, Eugenics and Politics, p. 92. Cf. Richard A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990, p. 64.

47. H. G. Wells, The Shape of Things to Come: The Ultimate Revolution, London: Everyman, 1993 [1933], pp. 201-02. This book reveals the extent of Wells's obsession with poison gas. His description of the bodies 'bunched together very curiously in heaps, as though their last effort had been to climb on to each other for help. This attempt to get close to someone seems to be characteristic of death by this particular gas' (p. 202) can be read alongside testimonies provided by Richard Glazar, Filip Muller, Zalman Gradowski, and other members of the Treblinka or Auschwitz Sonderkommando. Incidentally, Wells's rebarbative prescience stretched to the Jews, when he wrote that it was 'quite a probable thing now' that the Jews would be 'murdered and exterminated' and went to say that 'It is quite possible that the Jewish story will end in forcible sterilisation and death.' See Travels of a Republican Radical in Search of Hot Water, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939, pp. 60-61.

48. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2nd edn, 1985, p. 75.

49. Anthony M. Ludovici, Religionfor Infidels, London: Holborn Press, 1961, p. 69.

50. Ludovici, Religion for Infidels, pp. 83, 128 and 129-30.

Notes to conclusion

1. See 'Germany Fears Superman's Return', The Observer, 10 October 1999, p. 26. See also the articles on the subject in Die Zeit: Thomas Assheuer, 'Das Zarathustra-Projekt', 2 September 1999; Peter Sloterdijk, 'Die kritische Theorie ist tot: Peter Sloterdijk schreibt an Assheuer und Habermas', 9 September 1999; and Ernst Tugendhat, 'Es gibt keine Gene fur Moral', 23 September 1999.

2. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufman and R. J. Hollingdale, New York: Vintage Books, 1968, §957, p. 501.

3. Peter Sloterdijk, 'The Operable Man: On the Ethical State of Gene Technology', lecture at the UCLA conference Enhancing the Human, 21 May 2000. Text available online at www.goethe.de/uk/bos/engiischlprogrammiensplot2.htm

4. Andrew Fisher, 'Flirting with Fascism: The Sloterdijk Debate', Radical Philosophy, 99, January/February 2000, available online at www.ukc.ac.uk/secl/philosophy/ rp/ For a good collection of material relating to the debate see also www.kath.ch/dossiers/sloterdijk/htm For a (not entirely clear) statement of Sloterdijk's ideas, see his 'Regeln fur den Menschenpark: Bin Antwortschreiben zum Brief uber den Humanismus', online at http://menschenpark.tripod.com

5. David King, 'Eugenic Tendencies in Modern Genetics', in Redesigning Life? The Worldwide Challenge to Genetic Engineering, ed. Brian Tokar, London: Zed Books, 2001, p.175. .

6. See, for example, Richard Lynn, Dysgenics: Genetic Deteriorations in Modern Populations, London: Praeger, 1998; Kevin MacDonald, Separation and Its Discontents: Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Anti-Semitism, London: Praeger, 1998.

7. Kate Taylor, 'Clutching at Straws', Searchlight, 300, June 2000, pp. 4-5.

8. Among major critiques of this kind of thinking, see Steven Rose, Leon J. Kamin and R. C. Lewontin, Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984; Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1997; R. C. Lewontin, The Doctrine of DNA: Biology as Ideology, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1993; Ashley Montagu, ed., Race and IQ, New York: Oxford University Press, expanded edn, 1999. For a more optimistic view of the role of individual choice see Matt Ridley, Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters, London: Fourth Estate, 2000, pp. 286-300.

9. See Ned Block, 'How Heritability Misleads about Race', in Race and IQ, ed. Montagu, pp. 444-86.

10. Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glaubetman, 'Introduction' to The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, Opinions, ed. Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman, New York: Times Books, 1995, p. ix.

11. Franz Boas, Anthropology and Modern Life, New York: Dover Publications, 1962 [1928], p. 121.

12. Richard Lynn, 'Is Man Breeding Himself Back to the Age of the Apes?', The Times, 24 October 1994, reprinted in The Bell Curve Debate, ed. Jacoby and Glauberman, pp. 354-57, here at pp. 355 and 356.

13. Karl Pearson, 'On the Inheritance of the Mental and Moral Characters in Man, and its Comparison with the Inheritance of the Physical Characters', Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 33, 1903, p. 206.

14. See the discussion of R. Austin Freeman at the end of Chapter 4. The term 'under-man' comes from Lothrop Stoddard, The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-Man, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922, and is an obvious contrast to Nietzsche's Ubermensch or superman.

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PART 1 OF 2

Bibliography

Unpublished Primary Sources

Bodleian Library, Oxford:

MS Autogr. C.26 (correspondence of Anthony M. Ludovici and Anne Thompson); MS Eng.lett. c.299-301, d.314-315 (correspondence of James Marchant); MSS Selborne 74-75, 94 (correspondence of Lords Selborne and Willoughby de Broke).

Edinburgh University Library (Special Collections Division):

MS 3121 (Ludovici MSS).

Contemporary Medical Archives Centre, Well come Institute for the History of Medicine, London:

Eugenics Society Archive files: SNEUG/G.212 (people: A. M. Ludovici 1927-1947); SNEUGIN.3 (press cuttings); SAiEUGID.179 (race crossing investigation 1924-1927); SNEUGID.I03 (immigration and emigration cl925-1958); SNEUGID.104 (immigrants; research into, 1954-1966); SAlEUGJJ.17 (miscellanea, leaflets etc.). C. P. Blacker files: PP/CPB/AA/I (Blacker general); PP/CPB/A, 4/2 (Blacker, general correspondence); PP/CPBIH.2 (Blacker MSS. of reviews).

Hampshire Record Office, Winchester:

Wallop Collection: 15M841F132-305, F364-422 (papers of Gerald Vernon Wallop, 9th Earl of Portsmouth).

House of Lords Record Office:

Historical Collection: Willoughby de Broke papers; R. D. Blumenfeld papers; Bonar Law papers.

Mrs. Maud Rosenthal, personal possessions:

Oscar Levy, Autobiography; Oscar Levy, My Battle for Nietzsche in England; correspondence of Oscar Levy; press cuttings relating to Oscar Levy.

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DR 145 (correspondence of Lord Willoughby de Broke and G. W Saleeby).

Newspapers and Journals

Annals of Eugenics
English Review
Eugenics Review
Hidden Hand, or Jewry Uber Alles
Jewish Chronicle
National Review
New Age
New Pioneer
Nineteenth Century and After
Notes for Good Europeans (The Good European Point of View)
Quarterly Gazette of the English Mistery
Quarterly Review
Recorder's Quarterly Guide for Members of the English Mistery

Published Works by Oscar Levy

Das neunzehnte Jahrhundert, Dresden: E. Pierson's Verlag, 1904

The Revival of Aristocracy, trans. Leonard A. Magnus, London: Probsthain and Co., 1906

Aus dem Exil: verse eines Entkommenens, London: Probsthain and Co., 1907

'Introduction' to Leo G. Sere, On the Tracks of Life: The Immorality of Morality, trans. J. M. Kennedy, London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1909, pp. ix-xiv

'Vorrede des Ubersetzers' in Lord Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli), Contarini Fleming: Ein psychologischer Roman, trans. Oskar Levy, Berlin: Oesterheld and Co., 1909, pp. 5-31

'Nietzsche in England: An Introductory Essay by the Editor', in The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Vol. 1: Thoughts out of Season, Part One, ed. Oscar Levy, trans. Anthony M. Ludovici, Edinburgh and London: T. N. Foulis, 1909, pp. xi-xxviii

'The Nietzsche Movement in England: A Retrospect, a Confession, and a Prospect', in The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Vol. 18: Index to the Complete Works, ed. Oscar Levy, London and Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis, 1913, pp. ix-xxxvi

'An Interpretation of Heinrich Heine's "Atta Troll"', in Heinrich Heine, Ana Troll, trans. Herman Scheffauer, London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1913, pp. 3-22

'Dr. Oscar Levy and Nietzsche Pioneers', letter to T. P.'s 'Weekly, XXI, no. 551, 30 May 1913, p. 694

'The Life, Work and Influence of Count Arthur de Gobineau', introductory essay to Arthur de Gobineau, The Renaissance: Savonarola Cesare Borgia Julius 11 - Leo X - Michael Angelo, trans. Paul V. Cohn, London: William Heinemann, 1913, pp. iii-lxvi

'Introduction' to Arthur de Gobineau, The Inequality of Human Races, trans. Adrian Collins, London: William Heinemann, 1915, pp. vii-ix

Kriegsaphorismen fur Europaer oder solche, die es werden wollen: ein Versuch zur geistigen Mobilisierung, Bern/Biel/Zurich: Verlag von Ernst Kuhn, 1917

'The Jewish Problem', Plain English, II.50, 18 June 1921, pp. 496-97

'Preface' to Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche, ed. Oscar Levy, trans. Anthony M. Ludovici, London: William Heinemann, 1921, pp. v-ix

'The Spirit of Israel', The Review of Nations, March 1927

'Introduction' to Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, trans. Thomas Common, rev. Oscar Levy and John L. Beevers, London: George Allen and Unwin, 6th edn, 1967 (1909), pp. 19-62

The Idiocy of Idealism, London: William Hodge and Co., 1940

'Defensor Fidei' [Oscar Levy), 'Drei Briefe aus Nietzsches Nachlass', Neues Tagebuch, 19 September 1936, pp. 907-09

'Defensor Fidei' [Oscar Levy], 'Das Zeitalter der Religionen', Neues Tagebuch, October 1936

'Defensor Fidei' (Oscar Levy], 'De Nietzsche a Hitler', Neues Tagebuch, 4, 1937, pp.37-39

Published Works by Anthony M. Ludovici

Who is to be Master of the World? An Introduction to the Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, London: T. N. Foulis, 1909

'Translator's Preface' in The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Vol. 1: Thoughts out of Season, Part One, ed. Oscar Levy, trans. Anthony M. Ludovici, Edinburgh and London: T. N. Foulis, 1909, pp. xxix-xxxviii

'Nietzsche and Science', The Spectator, 8 January 1910

Nietzsche: His Life and Works, London: Constable and Co., 1910

Nietzsche and Art, London: Constable and Co., 1911

'Nietzsche and Bergson: A Comparison' (3 parts), T. P.'s Weekly, XX, nos. 518-520, 11 October 1912, 18 October 1912, 25 October 1912, pp. 457, 495, 529-530

ed., The Letters of a Post-Impressionist: Being the Familiar Correspondence of Vincent Van Gogh, London: Constable and Co., 1912

A Defence of Aristocracy: A Textbook for Tories, London: Constable and Co., 1915

Mansel Fellewes, London: Grant Richards, 1918

Catherine Doyle: The Romance of a Thrice-Married Lady, London: Hutchinson and Co., 1919

Too Old for Dolls, London: Hutchinson and Co., 1920

What Woman Wishes, London: Hutchinson and Co., 1921

Man's Descent from the Gods. Or, the Complete Case Against Prohibition, London: William Heinemann, 1921

The False Assumptions of 'Democracy', London: Heath Cranton, 1921

The Goddess that Grew Up, London: Hutchinson and Co., 1922

French Beans, London: Hutchinson and Co., 1923

Woman: A Vindication, London: Constable and Co., 1923

The Taming of Don Juan, London: Hutchinson and Co., 1924

Lysistrata, or Woman's Future and Future Woman, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1925

Personal Reminiscences of Auguste Rodin, London: John Murray, 1926

Man: An Indictment, London: Constable and Co., 1927

A Defence of Conservatism: A Further Textbook for Tories, London: Faber and Gwyer, 1927

The Night-Hoers, or The Case Against Birth-Control and an Alternative, London: Herbert Jenkins, 1928

'The Fad of Feminism', in Joshua Brookes, Fads and Fallacies, with chapters by Anthony Ludovici and Ellis Barker, London: Brentano's, 1929, pp. 227-37

The Sanctity of Private Property, London: Heath Cranton, 1932

The Secret of Laughter, London: Constable and Co., 1932

Health and Education Through Self-Mastery, London: Watts and Co., 1933

Violence, Sacrifice and War, London: Holders Press for the St. James' Kin of the English Mistery, 1933

Creation or Recreation?, London: First or St James' Kin of the English Mistery, 1934

'The Importance to Women of a Youthful Marriage', Marriage Hygiene, 1.4, 1935, pp. 393-407

The Choice of a Mate, London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1935

Recovery: The Quest of Regenerate Natlonal Values, London: English Mistery, 1935

The Future of Woman, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1936

The Truth about Childbirth: Lay Light on Maternal Morbidity and Mortality, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1937

English Liberalism, London: English Array by New Pioneer Periodicals, 1939

'Transform Society's Values', in Gentile and Jew: A Symposium on the Future of the Jewish People, ed. Chaim Newman, London: Alliance Press, 1945, pp. 165-85

The Four Pillars of Health: A Contribution to Post-War Planning, London: Heath Cranton, 1945

'Dr. Oscar Levy', New English Weekly, XXX.5, 14 November 1946, pp. 49-50 'Rilke's Rodin', London Forum, 1.1, 1946, pp. 41-50

'The Martyrdom of Man in Sex', Marriage Hygiene, n.s., 1.1, 1947, pp. 21-27

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[admin]

Index

Action Francaise 4
Adams, Maurice 88-89, 90
Adath, George 84
Ammon, Otto 70
anti-feminism 3, 34, 37, 38, 40-42, 60
antisemitism 3, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 2~1. 28, 31,
34, 47, 48, 49, , 9, 60
Archiv fur Rassen- und Gesell-schaftsbiologie
111, 132
Arendt, Hannah 57
Armstrong, Charles 97, 112, 131
Auschwitz 124, 135
Austria 61

Bakewell, Charles 91, 92
Balfour, Arthur 36, 116
Bannister, Robert 64,
Barkan, Elazar 120
Barnhill, J, B. 67
Barry, William 91-92
Bataille, Georges 7, 123
Bates, J, H. G. 110
Bauerkamper, Arnd 60
Baur, Erwin 113
Beamish, Henry Hamilton 58, 131
Beaumont, Michael 43
Bebel, August 68
Beckett, Francis 49, 53
Bedford College for Women 128
Belloc, Hilaire 24
Belzec 124
Benda, Julien 7
Benoist, Alain de 57
Berg, Leo 8, 22
Bertram, G, C, L. 111
Birdwood, Lady 21
Biometrics Laboratory 105
Blacker, C. P. 65, 98, 99
Bloch, Ernst 10
Bloomfield, E. 119
Blunden, Edmund 53
Boas, Franz 138
Boer War 116
Bountwood, Arthur 102
British Council Against European
Commitments (BCAEC) 49, 53
British National Party (BNP) 55, 59
British People's Party 49
British Union of Fascists (BUF) 1, 2, 37, 49
Britons 58, 59, 131
Brodrick, W. J. H. 129
Bryant, Arthur 39, 53, 61
Buckley, Elsie 15
Burleigh, Michael 123

Calvin, Jean 30
Carus, Paul 16
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart 16, 17
Chatterton-Hill, George 18, 62-63, 64, 111
Chesterton, A. K. 40, 49, 50
Chesterton, G, K. 14, 116
China 45
Christ 13, 31, 45
Christianity 13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 26-27, 28,
30, 31, 58, 67, 69, 71, 72, 76-77, 79-80,
86-87, 89, 90-92, 98, 122, 132-133
Ciechanowski, Jan 124
Clarke, Peter 4
Cobbett, William 46, 47
Cohn, Paul 66
Collingwood, R. G. 1, 10, 11, 123
Common, Thomas 66, 67, 68, 69, 87-88
Copernicus 67
Crew, F. A. E. 83
Cromwell, Oliver 30
Czechoslovakia 26

Daily Express 127
Dangerfield, George 103
Darre, Walther 50
Darwin, Charles 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
73, 74, 78, 79, 86, 87, 91, 93, 107, 130
Darwin, Leonard 94, 107-108, 109, 110,
130-131
Darwinism 64, 78, 86, 89, 91, 92
see also social Darwinism
Davenport, Charles 96, 113
Diehards 10, 36, 37, 84, 102
Disraeli, Benjamin 16, 17, 21
Dorman-Smith, Reginald 43
Douglas, Alfred 23
Douglas, Norman 29
Durkheim, Emile 118

Eagle and the Serpent 67
East, Edward Murray 96
Eatwell, Roger 3, 4
Ellis, Havelock 8, 14, 34, 57, 64, 65, 71, 75,
76, 77, 78, 81, 99, 100, 113, 119, 120
English Array 35, 44, 46, 49, 52
Quarterly Gazette 49
see also English Mistery
English Mistery 15, 35, 42-49, 52, 54, 99
see also English Array
English Review 15, 50, 98
Epstein, Jacob 38
Eugenics Record Office 105
Eugenics Review 62, 73, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,
88, 98, 107
Eugenics Society 64, 65, 73, 81, 82, 83, 84,
85, 95, 97, 98, 100, 103, 107-111, 112,
116, 119, 126, 127, 130
Ewart, C. T. 101

Fabians 100
Fallon, Val ere 122
Farnham, Lord 36
fascism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 25, 26, 27, 34,
35, 44, 46, 49, 53, 54, 136
feminism 7, 40-42, 51, 55, 63, 64, 93
see also anti-feminism
Fischer, Eugen 112
Fisher, Ronald A. 64, 94, 113
Fleming, Miss 110
Fleure, H. J. II 0
Ford, Henry 22
Forster-Nietzsche, Elisabeth 33
France 7, 8, 9, 24, 25, 61
Frankfurter, Felix 124
Freeman, Richard Austin 85, 113, 114
Fuller, J. F. C. 49

Galton, Francis 16, 62, 73, 74, 80, 81, 94,
105, 109, 111, 116, 117, 119, 121, 127,
129, 131, 132
Galton Laboratory 103, 104, 105, 127,
132
Gardiner, Rolf 49, 53
Geneticists' Manifesto (1939) 101, 121
Germany 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 15, 18, 19, 22, 24, 27,
31, 35, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 53, 70, 88,
94, 99, 101, 111, 125, 131, 132
Girard, Rene 45
Glauberman, Naomi 137
Gobineau, Arthur de 15, 17, 28
Goebbe1s, Joseph 27
Gotto, A. C. 109
Gourdieff, Georges Ivanovitch 74
Grant, Madison 118
Greece 15
Green, L. H. 90-91, 92
Grey, Richard de 49
Griffin, Roger, 3, 4
Griffiths, Richard 4
guild socialism 37

Habermas, Jurgen 136
Haddon, Alfred Cort 47
Haldane, J. B. S. 94, 111, 112
Hardy-Weinberg Principle 113
Hartle, Heinrich 8, 27
Hegel, G. W. F. 12
Hereros 104
Herrnstein, Richard 137, 138
Hidden Hand or Jewry Uber Alles 24
Hilberg, Raul 133
Himmler, Heinrich 129
historicisation 26, 122-123
Hitler, Adolf 1, 6, 24, 26, 27, 28, 31, 39,
42, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 58, 123,
131
Mein Kampf 26
Hobson, J. A. 95
Hodson, Cora 110
Hogben, Lancelot 111, 112
Holderness, Hardwicke 49
Holocaust 4, 7, 54, 55, 57, 123, 124, 129,
132, 133
Horton, Rev. 106, 117
Hulme, T. E. 5, 37, 38, 65
Huxley, Julian 47, 112
Huxley, Thomas Henry 72

Imperial Fascist League (IFL) 35, 43, 131
Inge, William 75, 128
International Eugenics Congress 84
Ireland 36
Irish home rule 2, 36, 102
Italy 1, 4, 11, 15, 24, 25, 44

Jacoby, Russell 137
Jennings, Herbert Spencer 96
Jewish Chronicle 28
Jews 2, 6, 8, 12, 13, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 40, 43, 46-49, 50, 52,
54, 55, 56, 57, 93, 97, 105, 107, 116,
118, 119, 129
Italian 25
see also antisemitism
Johnson, Roswell H. 96, 107
Joyce, William 49

Karski, Jan 124
Kaufmann, Walter 93
Kennedy, J. M. 69, 70, 71, 76, 84, 102
Kerr, Robert Bird 61
Kevles, Daniel 94
Kinship in Husbandry 44, 53
Knapp, Arthur 72, 80

Lamarck, Chevalier de 47, 117, 118, 119
Lamarckianism 34, 38, 42, 55, 60, 116, 119
Lane, A. H. 3
Law, Andrew Bonar 103
Leese, Arnold 35, 53, 55, 59
Lenin, Vladimir I1'ich 21
Lenz, Fritz 111
Levy, Frieda 18
Levy, Maud 18
Levy, Oscar I, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12-32, 35,
37, 39, 50, 51, 52, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69,
75, 78, 83, 89
Lewis, Wyndbam 38, 65
Lichtenberger, Henri 71
Lidbetter, E. J. 110
Lindsay, J. A. 82-83
Ludovici, Anthony Mario 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14,
15, 29, 32, 33-61, 64, 65, 69, 75, 76, 77,
78, 86, 89, 97~9, 108, 112, 120-121,
122, 125, 131, 132-133, 136
Luther, Martin 17, 18, 21
Lymington, Viscount (Gerald Wallop) 3, 5,
44, 49, 53, 57
Lynn, Richard 138

Macbride, Ernest 111
MacKenzie, Donald 100, 103, 113
Marchant, James 40, 43, 101-102, 117-118
Massingham, H.J. 53
Maurras, Charles 5
Mazumdar, Pauline 64, 100, 111, 113
Mendel, Gregor 113, 116, 117, 118, 119
Milner, Lord 36
Mohammed 91
Montaigne, Michel de 33
Morris, William 38
Mosley, Oswald 1, 97
Mosse, George L. 94, 132
Moul, Margaret 105, 119
Mugge, Maximilian 8, 16, 62, 64, 65, 73, 76,
81, 82, 84, 86, 88, 89
Mullins, Claud 79-80
Murray, Charles 137, 138
Mussolini, Benito 1, 6, 24, 25, 27, 58

National Birth-Rate Commission 103
National Council for Public Morals 103
'national efficiency' 10, 11, 36, 59, 116, 125
National Front 40, 55, 59
National Review 102-103
National Socialist League 49
National Social Purity Crusade 40, 43,
101-102, 117, 122
Nazism 2, 6, 8, 9, 20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32,
35, 39, 44, 50, 51, 55, 56, 61, 99, 101,
112, 123, 124--125, 129, 132, 133, 137
neo-Malthusianism 122
Neues Tagebuch 28
New Age I, 5, 10, 12, 14, 19, 20, 27, 38, 61,
66, 74, 83, 98
New English Weekly 27
New Pioneer 47, 49, 50, 52
New Right 39, 47, 57
Newton, Isaac 67
Nicolas, Marius-Paul51
Nietzsche, Friedrich 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 and
passim
The Antichrist 89
The Case of Wagner 68
The Genealogy of Morals 12, 17
Thus Spake Zarathustra 11, 13, 24, 28, 68
The Will to Power 135, 136
Nineteenth Century and After 49
Nordau, Max 8, 78
Notes for Good Europeans 67

Orage, A. R. 10, 12, 14, 15, 74, 75
Order of the Red Rose 43
Ouspensky, Piotr Demianovich 74

Palestine 6, 15
Pankhurst, Sylvia 37
Paxton, Robert 3
Payne, Stanley 4
Pearson, Karl 3, 67, 80, 83, 94, 103-106,
107, 108, 111, 113, 119, 127, 131, 132,
138
Penry, Arthur 37
Peru 45
Pitt-Rivers, George Lane-Fox 5, 12, 20, 21,
22, 25, 29, 32, 39, 83-84
Plain English 23
Popenoe, Paul 96, 107
Portsmouth, Earl of see Lymington, Viscount
Pound, Ezra 34
Pringle-Pattison, Andrew Seth 86-88

Ramsay, Captain Archibald Henry Maule 53
Ranke, Leopold 31
Reed, Douglas 46
Regulation 18B 53
Renton, Dave 3
Rentoul, Robert Reid 95-97, 108, 112
Review of Nations 26
Rhodesia 58
Right Club 53
Robespierre, Maximilien 21, 30
Rodin, Auguste 15, 35
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 30
Russell, Dora 37, 41
Russia 7, 9, 131
Rutzen, John de 49

Saleeby, Caleb Williams 84, 94, 103,
108-109, 116-117, 118, 120, 122,
126-127, 128, 129
Sanderson, William 3, 42, 43, 44, 49
Santaniello, Weaver 8
Sarolea, Charles 62, 71
Savonarola 21
Scandinavia 6
Scharlieb, Mary 117
Schiller, Ferdinand C. S. 8, 71, 72, 94, 101,
109, 116
Schneider, William 101
Schnitzler, Arthur 115
Searle, Geoffrey R. 100, 112, 113, 131
Segev, Tom 6
Seklew, Malfew 67
Selborne, Lord 102
Serbia 124
sexology 8, 41, 76, 78, 99
Shaw, George Bernard 6, 14, 30, 34, 65, 78,
85, 90, 115, 127-128, 130
Singer, Peter 123
Sinti and Roma 123
Slaughter, J. W. 128
Sloterdijk, Peter 135-136
Sobibor 124
social Darwinism 23, 34, 39, 42, 66, 69
Socrates 50, 54, 58
Spencer, Herbert 38, 72
Spencer, Harold 48
Stein, Maximilian 8, 22
Steinberg, Auguste 22
Sternhell, Ze' ev 4
Streicher, Julius 2
Sturmer 2, 28
Sydenham of Combe, Lord 48
Switzerland 18

Thatcher, David S. 78
Thurlow, Richard 60, 131
Tille, Alexander 8, 62, 67, 68, 69, 88
Tolstoy, Leo 88, 89
Treblinka 124
Tredgold, A. F. 126
Treitschke, Heinrich von 83, 88
Tugendhat, Ernst 135
Turkey 15
Tyndall, John 59

United States 6, 85-86, 94, 96, 107,
124

Verrall, Richard 55

Wales 81
Wallace, William 86
Walsingham, Lord 49
Webb, Beatrice 6, 34, 108, 117, 130
Webb, Sydney 6, 34, 108, 117, 130
Webster, Nesta 21, 47
Wells, H. G. 6, 115, 132
Whetham, Catherine 101, 109, 116
Whetham, William C. D. 3, 101, 109, 116
White, Arnold 3, 39, 42, 48, 81, 107, 121,
125-126
Wilde, Oscar 23
Williams, E. E. 34, 116
Willoughby de Broke, Lord 3, 36, 37, 42, 60,
84, 102-103
Wilson, C. W. 127
Wrench, G. T. 14

Yeats, W.B. 34, 65