Epilogue
The progress made in understanding cancer causation, especially with regard to the role of genetics, was outstanding between 1953 and 1972. Even more impressive has been the progress made after that period. Viral oncology efforts contributed greatly to this progress. The scientific aspects of these advances have been well documented. The science-administrative aspects and the managerial decisions behind these program developments, however, have not been well set forth. This manuscript attempts to correct this deficiency. Many people, especially the staff of the NCI, who played important roles in these developments, are identified. These developments made possible the decisions that gave stronger administrative support to viral oncology and the successful justifications for the requests for additional funding. The viral oncology Program and indeed the whole field of virology, benefited.
The NCI funding of the SVCP resources programs with contracts not only made possible more rapid scientific advances, but also led to the creation, as needs arose, of new commercial developments and even a whole new industry.
The 1969 discovery of oncogenes, viral and cellular, was an exceptionally important advance in cancer research because it demonstrated more concretely the role of genetics in cancer development at the molecular level. This finding, along with the discoveries of excision enzymes (allowing selective chemical dissection of DNA), and, later, cloning and oncogenes present in “normal” chromosomes, have led to explosive advances in cancer causation, genetics and developmental biology. Chemistry developments continue to yield new analytic procedures and syntheses (in the past 30 years the number of known chemical compounds has increased from 3 million to 23 million). Many signal chemical compounds that switch on or off reactions in the body’s metabolic pathways are being discovered. Other signal compounds switch off gene actions (repressor compounds) or switch on gene actions (derepressor compounds). Relationships between DNA coding and the protein structures are being worked out, and the way the proteins assume different configurations under different conditions and how the shapes affect the reactions are being discovered. Three dimensional computer imaging of these proteins is aiding drug discovery and development. Administrative decisions to put more funds into developing various resources needed for viral oncology research were also of great importance. These viral oncology program components made additional contributions to the laying of groundwork for further development of molecular biology and biotechnology. The current increased rapid rate of reporting of new findings is leading to greater understanding of cancer, one of mankind’s most feared enemies. NCI viral oncology activities in the years between 1953 and 1972 deserve to be recognized as a strong foundation for subsequent investigations in the virology area of research.
An Administrative History of the National Cancer Institute’s
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Reading List
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2. Albritton, Jr., C.C., The Abyss of Time, Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc., Los Angeles (1986).
3. Bernard, C., An Introduction to the Study of Exprimental Medicine (first published in 1865), Henry Schuman, Inc., New York (1949).
4. Barrett, P., Editor, The Collected Papers of Charles Darwin, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1977).
5. Bernstein, L., The Joy of Music, Simon and Schuster, New York (1959).
6. Blum, H.F., Time’s Arrow and Evolution, 2nd Edition, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1955).
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10. Briggs, J., Fractals. The Patterns of Chaos, Simon and Schuster, New York (1992).
11. Broda, E., Ludwig Boltzmann. Man – Physicist – Philosopher, Ox Bow Press, Woodbridge, CT (1983).
12. Bronowski, J., The Ascent of Man, Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1953).
13. - The Common Sense of Science, Vantage Books, New York.
14. - A Sense of the Future, the MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1977).
15. - The Visionary Eye: Essays in the Arts, Literature, and Science, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1978).
16. - The Origins of Knowledge and Imagination, Yale University Press, New Haven (1978).
17. Bronowski, J. and Mazlish, B., The Western Intellectual Tradition, Dorset Press (1986); first published by Harper & Brothers (1960).
18. Brooks, D.R. and Wiley, E.O., Evolution as Entropy: Toward a Unified Theory of Biology, (Second Edition), The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, (1988).
19. Burk, J.N., The Life and Works of Beethoven, Random House, New York (1943).
20. Burkhardt, F., Editor, Charles Darwin’s Letters. A Selection, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1996).
21. Clark, K., Civilisation, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York (1969).
22. Churchman, C.W., The Systems Approach, Dell Publishing Co., Inc., New York (1968).
23. Cleland, D.I. and King, W.R., Systems Analysis and Project Management, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York (1968).
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37. Einstein, A. and Infeld, L., The Evolution of Physics. The Growth of Ideas from Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta, Simon and Schuster, New York (1938).
38. Elsasser, W.M., Reflections on a Theory of Organisms; Holism in Biology, The Johns Hopkins University press, Baltimore (1987).
39. Farrant, P.A., Color in Nature, Cassel & Co., London (1999).
40. Gallo, R., Virus Hunting; AIDS, Cancer, and the Human Retrovirus: A Story of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books, New York, (1991).
41. Gardner, M., Fractal Music, Hypercards and More . . . , W.H. Freeman and Company, New York (1991).
42. Gleick, J., Chaos, Penguin Books, New York (1987).
43. Goodwin, B.C., Temporal Organization in Cells, Academic Press, New York (1963).
44. - Analytical Physiology of Cells and Developing Organisms, Academic Press, New York (1976).
45. Gould, S.J., Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and The Nature of History, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York (1989).
46. Gross, L., Oncogenic Viruses, (Third Edition), Two Volumes, Pergamon Press, New York (1983).
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49. Helmholtz, H., On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music, Dover Publications, New York (1954) [Second English Edition, based on the last German Edition of 1877].
50. Hiscocks, E.S., Laboratory Administration, Macmillan & Co, Ltd., London, England (1956).
51. Hoeber, R., Physical Chemistry of Cells and Tissues (with the collaboration of Hitchcock, D., Bateman, J., Goddard, D., and Fenn, W.), The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia (1945).
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59. Lavoisier, A., Elements of Chemistry (1789), Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1965).
60. Lewis, G.N. and Randall, M. (revised by Pitzer, K.S. and Brewer, L.), Thermodynamics, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York (1961).
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64. Lwoff, A., Biological Order, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1962).
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70. Minsky, M., The Society of the Mind, Simon and Schuster, New York (1986).
71. Monod, J., Chance and Necessity, Alfred A. Knopf, New York (1971).
72. Needham, J., Order and Life, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1936).
73. Newman, J.R., The World of Mathematics, Four Volumes, Simon and Schuster, New York (1956).
74. Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I., Self-Organization in Nonequilibrium Systems. From Dissipative Structures to Order through Fluctuations, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1977).
75. Nossal, G.J.V. and Coppel, R.L., Reshaping Life, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1989).
76. Pearson, K., The Grammar of Science, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., London (1937) [First published 1892].
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78. Peitgen, H.-O. and Saupe, D., Editors, The Science of Fractal Images, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1988).
79. Pledge, H.T., Science Since 1500, Peter Smith, Gloucester, MA (1969).
80. Posin, D.Q., Mendeleyev. The Story of a Great Scientist, McGraw-Hill book Company, Inc., New York (1948).
81. Poston, T. and Stewart, I., Catastrophe Theory and Its Applications, Pitman Publishing Limited, London (1978).
82. Prigogine, I., The End of Certainty, The Free Press, New York (1996).
83. Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I., Order Out of Chaos, Bantam Books, Inc., New York, (1984).
84. Prusinkiewicz, P. and Lindenmayer, A., The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1990).
85. Quastler, H., Editor, Information Theory in Biology, University of Illinois Press, Urbana (1953).
86. Raff, R. A. and Kaufman, T. C., Embryos, Genes, and Evolution, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN (1991)
87. Raff, R. A., The Shape of Life: Genes, Development, and the Evolution of Animal Form, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1996).
88. Rettig, R. A., Cancer Crusade: The Story of the National Cancer Act of 1971, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1977).
89. Rosen, R., Dynamical System Theory in Biology. Stability Theory and Its Applications, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1970).
90. Russell, B., A History of Western Philosophy, Simon and Schuster, New York (1945).
91. Schoenheimer, R., The Dynamic State of Body Constituents, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1946).
92. Schottenfeld, D. and Fraumeni, Jr., J., Editors, Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention, Oxford University Press, New York (1996). 93. Schrodinger, E., What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, The Macmillan Company, New York (1945).
94. Shimkin, M.B., Science and Cancer, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., (1964).
95. Smith, H.W., From Fish to Philosopher, The Natural History Library, Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York (1961).
96. Smith, J. Maynard, The Problems of Biology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England (1986).
97. Strickland, S.P., Politics, Science, and Dread Disease, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (1972).
98. Suner, A.P., Classics of Biology, Philosophical Library, New York (1955).
99. Thom, R., Structural Stability and Morphogenesis, W.A. Benjamin, Inc., Reading, MA (1975).
100. Thompson, D’Arcy W., On Growth and Form (Second Edition), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England (1942).
101. Tufte, E.R., The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Graphics Press, Cheshire, Connecticut (1983).
102. - Envisioning Information, Graphics Press, Cheshire, Connecticut (1990).
103. Varmus, H. and Weinberg, R.A., Genes and the Biology of Cancer, Scientific American Library, New York (1993).
104. Vogel, S., Life’s Devices: The Physical World of Animals and Plants, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1988).
105. Von Bertalanffy, L., Problems of Life. An Evaluation of Modern Biological Thought, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1949).
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108. Waddington, C.H., The Nature of Life, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London, England (1961).
109. Waldrop, M.M., Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos, Simon & Schuster, New York (1992).
110. Wallace, A.R., The Malay Archipelago. The Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise. A Narrative of Travel with Studies of Man and Nature, Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1962) [The Tenth Edition was published in 1890. Wallace dedicated the book to Charles Darwin. The First Edition was dated 1868].
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112. Webb, J.E., Space Age Management: The Large Scale Approach, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York (1969).
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114. Whewell, W., Theory of Scientific Method, Edited by R.E. Butts, Hackett publishing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana (1989) [Largely based on Whewell’s History of the Inductive Sciences (1837), The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (1840), and other writings].
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117. Wilson, E. O., The Diversity of Life, W.W. Norton & Company, New York (1992).
118. Woodgate, H.S., Planning By Network, Business Publications Limited, London, England (1964).
1. Ackoff, R.L., Gupta, S.K. and Minas, J.S., Scientific Method: Optimizing Applied Research Decisions, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1962).
2. Albritton, Jr., C.C., The Abyss of Time, Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc., Los Angeles (1986).
3. Bernard, C., An Introduction to the Study of Exprimental Medicine (first published in 1865), Henry Schuman, Inc., New York (1949).
4. Barrett, P., Editor, The Collected Papers of Charles Darwin, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1977).
5. Bernstein, L., The Joy of Music, Simon and Schuster, New York (1959).
6. Blum, H.F., Time’s Arrow and Evolution, 2nd Edition, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1955).
7. Bonner, J.T., Morphogenesis, an Essay on Development, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1952); Reprinted by Atheneum, New York (1963).
8. - On Development: The Biology of Form, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (1974).
9. - The Evolution of Complexity by Means of Natural Selection, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1988).
10. Briggs, J., Fractals. The Patterns of Chaos, Simon and Schuster, New York (1992).
11. Broda, E., Ludwig Boltzmann. Man – Physicist – Philosopher, Ox Bow Press, Woodbridge, CT (1983).
12. Bronowski, J., The Ascent of Man, Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1953).
13. - The Common Sense of Science, Vantage Books, New York.
14. - A Sense of the Future, the MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1977).
15. - The Visionary Eye: Essays in the Arts, Literature, and Science, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1978).
16. - The Origins of Knowledge and Imagination, Yale University Press, New Haven (1978).
17. Bronowski, J. and Mazlish, B., The Western Intellectual Tradition, Dorset Press (1986); first published by Harper & Brothers (1960).
18. Brooks, D.R. and Wiley, E.O., Evolution as Entropy: Toward a Unified Theory of Biology, (Second Edition), The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, (1988).
19. Burk, J.N., The Life and Works of Beethoven, Random House, New York (1943).
20. Burkhardt, F., Editor, Charles Darwin’s Letters. A Selection, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1996).
21. Clark, K., Civilisation, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York (1969).
22. Churchman, C.W., The Systems Approach, Dell Publishing Co., Inc., New York (1968).
23. Cleland, D.I. and King, W.R., Systems Analysis and Project Management, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York (1968).
24. Cooper, G.M., Oncogenes, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc., Boston (1990).
25. Darnell, J., Lodish, H. and Baltimore, D., Molecular Cell Biology, Scientific American Books, Inc., New York, (1986).
26. Darwin, Charles, The Voyage of the Beagle, Bantam books, New York (1958) [The voyage lasted from 1831 to 1836].
27. - Journal of Researches, P.F. Collier and Son, New York (1900 [Originally published in 1845].
28. - The Origin of Species by Natural Selection or, The Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, A.L. Burt Company, Publishers, New York (6th Edition) [The First Edition was published in 1859].
29. - The Descent of Man and Selections in Relation to Sex, P.F. Collier and Son, New York (1900) [Originally published in 1871].
30. - The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1986) [Based on the 1888 Edition; the First Edition was published in 1877].
31. - The Autobiography of Charles Darwin and Selected Letters, Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1958) [Edited by Francis Darwin; first published in 1892].
32. Davidson, M., Uncommon Sense. The Life and Thought of Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972), Father of General Systems Theory, J.P. Tarcher, Inc., Los Angeles (1983).
33. Dawkins, R., The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press, New York (1976).
34. - The Blind Watchmaker, W. W. Norton & Company, New York (1987).
35. - Unweaving the Rainbow, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston (1998).
36. Dubos, R. J., The Professor, the Institute, and DNA, The Rockefeller University Press, New York, (1976).
37. Einstein, A. and Infeld, L., The Evolution of Physics. The Growth of Ideas from Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta, Simon and Schuster, New York (1938).
38. Elsasser, W.M., Reflections on a Theory of Organisms; Holism in Biology, The Johns Hopkins University press, Baltimore (1987).
39. Farrant, P.A., Color in Nature, Cassel & Co., London (1999).
40. Gallo, R., Virus Hunting; AIDS, Cancer, and the Human Retrovirus: A Story of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books, New York, (1991).
41. Gardner, M., Fractal Music, Hypercards and More . . . , W.H. Freeman and Company, New York (1991).
42. Gleick, J., Chaos, Penguin Books, New York (1987).
43. Goodwin, B.C., Temporal Organization in Cells, Academic Press, New York (1963).
44. - Analytical Physiology of Cells and Developing Organisms, Academic Press, New York (1976).
45. Gould, S.J., Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and The Nature of History, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York (1989).
46. Gross, L., Oncogenic Viruses, (Third Edition), Two Volumes, Pergamon Press, New York (1983).
47. Groves, L., Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project, Harper, New York (1962) [Unabridged paperback edition with a new Introduction by Edward Teller, published by Da Capo Press, Inc. (1983)].
48. Hanson, J.K. and Morrison, D., Of Kinkajous, Capybaras, Horned Beetles, Seladangs, and the Oddest and Most Wonderful Mammals, Insects, Birds, and Plants of Our World, HarperCollins Publishers, New York (1991).
49. Helmholtz, H., On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music, Dover Publications, New York (1954) [Second English Edition, based on the last German Edition of 1877].
50. Hiscocks, E.S., Laboratory Administration, Macmillan & Co, Ltd., London, England (1956).
51. Hoeber, R., Physical Chemistry of Cells and Tissues (with the collaboration of Hitchcock, D., Bateman, J., Goddard, D., and Fenn, W.), The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia (1945).
52. Hogben, L., Mathematics for the Million, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York (1940).
53. - Mathematics in the Making, Crescent Books, Inc., London (1960).
54. Kaandorp, J.A., Fractal Modelling. Growth and Form in Biology, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1994).
55. Kauffman, S.A., The Origins of Order, Oxford University Press, New York (1993).
56. - At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity, Oxford University Press, New York (1995).
57. Kuhn, T.S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd Edition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1970).
58. Laplace, P.S., A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities (translated from the Sixth French Edition; the Third Edition dates from 1820), Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1951).
59. Lavoisier, A., Elements of Chemistry (1789), Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1965).
60. Lewis, G.N. and Randall, M. (revised by Pitzer, K.S. and Brewer, L.), Thermodynamics, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York (1961).
61. Lindley, D., Boltsmann’s Atom, Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York (2001).
62. Lotka, A.J., Elements of Mathematical Biology, Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1956) [Published in 1924 as Elements of Physical Biology].
63. Luria, S.E., Life, The Unfinished Experiment, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York (1973).
64. Lwoff, A., Biological Order, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1962).
65. Mach, E., The Science of Mechanics. A Critical and Historical Account of its Development, 4th English Edition, The Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago (1919) [First Edition published in 1883].
66. - The Analysis of Sensations, from the 5th German Edition of 1906, Dover Publications, Inc., New York (1959) [First Edition published in 1885].
67. - Space and Geometry in the Light of Physiological, Psychological, and Physical Inquiry, The Open Court Publishing Company, LaSalle, Illinois (1906).
68. Malthus, T., A Summary View of the Principle of Population, published in 1830, reprinted in Three Essays on Population by Thomas Malthus, Julian Huxley and Frederick Osborn, The New American Library of World Literature, Inc. (1960).
69. Mandelbrot, B.B., The Fractal Geometry of Nature, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York (1997).
70. Minsky, M., The Society of the Mind, Simon and Schuster, New York (1986).
71. Monod, J., Chance and Necessity, Alfred A. Knopf, New York (1971).
72. Needham, J., Order and Life, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1936).
73. Newman, J.R., The World of Mathematics, Four Volumes, Simon and Schuster, New York (1956).
74. Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I., Self-Organization in Nonequilibrium Systems. From Dissipative Structures to Order through Fluctuations, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1977).
75. Nossal, G.J.V. and Coppel, R.L., Reshaping Life, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1989).
76. Pearson, K., The Grammar of Science, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., London (1937) [First published 1892].
77. Peitgen, H.-O. and Richter, P.H., The Beauty of Fractals, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1986).
78. Peitgen, H.-O. and Saupe, D., Editors, The Science of Fractal Images, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1988).
79. Pledge, H.T., Science Since 1500, Peter Smith, Gloucester, MA (1969).
80. Posin, D.Q., Mendeleyev. The Story of a Great Scientist, McGraw-Hill book Company, Inc., New York (1948).
81. Poston, T. and Stewart, I., Catastrophe Theory and Its Applications, Pitman Publishing Limited, London (1978).
82. Prigogine, I., The End of Certainty, The Free Press, New York (1996).
83. Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I., Order Out of Chaos, Bantam Books, Inc., New York, (1984).
84. Prusinkiewicz, P. and Lindenmayer, A., The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1990).
85. Quastler, H., Editor, Information Theory in Biology, University of Illinois Press, Urbana (1953).
86. Raff, R. A. and Kaufman, T. C., Embryos, Genes, and Evolution, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN (1991)
87. Raff, R. A., The Shape of Life: Genes, Development, and the Evolution of Animal Form, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1996).
88. Rettig, R. A., Cancer Crusade: The Story of the National Cancer Act of 1971, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1977).
89. Rosen, R., Dynamical System Theory in Biology. Stability Theory and Its Applications, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1970).
90. Russell, B., A History of Western Philosophy, Simon and Schuster, New York (1945).
91. Schoenheimer, R., The Dynamic State of Body Constituents, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1946).
92. Schottenfeld, D. and Fraumeni, Jr., J., Editors, Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention, Oxford University Press, New York (1996). 93. Schrodinger, E., What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, The Macmillan Company, New York (1945).
94. Shimkin, M.B., Science and Cancer, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., (1964).
95. Smith, H.W., From Fish to Philosopher, The Natural History Library, Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York (1961).
96. Smith, J. Maynard, The Problems of Biology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England (1986).
97. Strickland, S.P., Politics, Science, and Dread Disease, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (1972).
98. Suner, A.P., Classics of Biology, Philosophical Library, New York (1955).
99. Thom, R., Structural Stability and Morphogenesis, W.A. Benjamin, Inc., Reading, MA (1975).
100. Thompson, D’Arcy W., On Growth and Form (Second Edition), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England (1942).
101. Tufte, E.R., The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Graphics Press, Cheshire, Connecticut (1983).
102. - Envisioning Information, Graphics Press, Cheshire, Connecticut (1990).
103. Varmus, H. and Weinberg, R.A., Genes and the Biology of Cancer, Scientific American Library, New York (1993).
104. Vogel, S., Life’s Devices: The Physical World of Animals and Plants, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1988).
105. Von Bertalanffy, L., Problems of Life. An Evaluation of Modern Biological Thought, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1949).
106. - Theoretische Biologie. Band II, Stoffwechsel, Wachstum, A. Franke, Bern (1951).
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