Part 1 of 5
I. On the Vedas, or Sacred Writings of the Hindus. [From the Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. p. 369—476. Calcutta, 1805. 4to.]
In the early progress of researches into Indian literature, it was doubted whether the Vedas were extant; or, if portions of them were still preserved, whether any person, however learned in other respects, might be capable of understanding their obsolete dialect. It was believed too, that, if a Brahmana really possessed the Indian scriptures, his religious prejudices would nevertheless prevent his imparting the holy knowledge to any but a regenerate Hindu.
These notions, supported by popular tales, were cherished long after the Vedas had been communicated to Dara Shucoh [Shikoh], and parts of them translated into the Persian language by him, or for his use. [Extracts have also been translated into the Hindi language; but it does not appear upon what occasion this version into the vulgar dialect was made.]
The Gentoo Ceremony, which was hinted at as bearing a remote Likeness to the Sacrifice of the Scape-Goat, is the
Ashummeed Jugg [Ashvamedha], of which a most absurd and fabulous Explanation may be found in the Body of the Code..
That the Curious may form some Idea of this Gentoo Sacrifice when reduced to a Symbol, as well as from the subsequent plain Account given of it in a Chapter of the Code,
an Explanation of it is here inserted from Darul Shekuh's [Dara Shikoh's] famous Persian Translation of some Commentaries upon the Four Beids, or original Scriptures of Hindostan: The Work itself is extremely scarce, and perhaps of dubious Authenticity; and it was by mere Accident that this little Specimen was procured. -- A Code of Gentoo Laws, Or, Ordinations of the Pundits, From a Persian Translation, Made From the Original, Written in the Shanscrit Language, by Nathaniel Brassey Halhed
Dara Shikoh devoted much effort towards finding a common mystical language between Islam and Hinduism. Towards this goal he completed the translation of fifty Upanishads from their original Sanskrit into Persian in 1657 so that they could be studied by Muslim scholars. His translation is often called Sirr-e-Akbar ("The Greatest Mystery"), where he states boldly, in the introduction, his speculative hypothesis that the work referred to in the Qur'an as the "Kitab al-maknun" or the hidden book, is none other than the Upanishads. His most famous work, Majma-ul-Bahrain ("The Confluence of the Two Seas"), was also devoted to a revelation of the mystical and pluralistic affinities between Sufic and Vedantic speculation. The book was authored as a short treatise in Persian in 1654–55.-- Dara Shikoh [Shukoh] [Shucoh], by Wikipedia
The doubts were not finally abandoned, until Colonel Polier obtained from Jeyepur a transcript of what purported to be a complete copy of the Vedas, and which he deposited in the British Museum. About the same time
Sir Robert Chambers collected at Benares numerous
fragments of the Indian scripture: General Martine: at a later period, obtained copies of some
parts of it; and
Sir William Jones was successful in procuring
valuable portions of the Vedas, and in translating several curious passages from one of them. [See Preface to
Menu, page vi. and the Works of Sir William Jones, vol. vi.] I have been still more fortunate in collecting at Benares the
text and commentary of a large portion of these celebrated books; and,
without waiting to examine them more completely than has been yet practicable, I shall here attempt to give a brief explanation of what they chiefly contain.
It is well known, that the original Veda is believed by the Hindus to have been revealed by Brahma, and to have been preserved by tradition, until it was arranged in its present order by a sage, who thence obtained the surname of Vyasa, or Vedavyasa: that is, compiler of the Vedas. He distributed the Indian scripture into four parts, which are severally entitled Rich, Yajush, Saman, and Atharvana: and each of which bears the common denomination of Veda.
Mr. Wilkins and Sir William Jones were led, by the consideration of several remarkable passages, to suspect that the fourth is more modern than the other three. It is certain that Menu, like others among the Indian lawgivers, always speaks of three only, and has barely alluded to the Atharvana, [Menu, chap. 11, v. 33.] without however terming it a Veda. Passages of the Indian scripture itself seem to support the inference: for the fourth Veda is not mentioned in the passage cited by me in a former essay [Essay Second, on Religious Ceremonies. See Asiatic Researches, vol. vh. p. 251.] from the white Yajush; [From the 31st chapter; which, together with the preceding chapter (30th), relates to the Purushamedha, a type of the allegorical immolation of Narayana, or of Brahma in that character.] nor in the following text, quoted from the Indian scripture by the commentator of the Rich.
“The Rigveda originated from fire; the Yajurveda from air; and the Samaveda from the sun.” [Menu alludes to this fabulous origin of the Vedas (chap. 1. v. 23). His commentator, Mednatitni, explains it by remarking, that the Rigveda opens with a hymn to fire; and the Yajurveda with one in which air is mentioned. But Cullucabratta has recourse to the renovations of the universe. “In one Calpa, the Viedas [Vedas] proceeded from fire, air, and the sun; in another, from Brahma, at his allegorical immolation.”
Arguments in support of this opinion might be drawn even from popular dictionaries; for
Amerasinha notices only three Vedas, and mentions the Atharvana without giving it the same denomination. It is, however, probable, that some portion at least of the Atharvaha is as ancient as the compilation of the three others; and its name, like theirs, is anterior to Vyasa’s arrangement of them: but the same must be admitted in regard to the Itihasa and Puranas, which constitute a fifth Veda, as the Atharvana does a fourth.
It would, indeed, be vain to quote in proof of this point, the Puranas themselves, which always enumerate four Vedas, and state the Itihasa and Puranas as a fifth; since the antiquity of some among the Puranas now extant is more than questionable, and the authenticity of any one in particular does not appear to be as yet sufficiently established. It would be as useless to cite the Manduca and Tapaniya Upanishads, in which the Atharva-veda is enumerated among the scriptures, and in one of which the number of four Vedas is expressly affirmed: for both these Upanishads appertain to the Atharvana itself. The mention of the sage Atharvan in various places throughout the Vedas [Vide Vedas passim.] proves nothing; and even a text of the Yajurveda, [In the Taittiriya Upanishad.] where he is named in contrast with the Rich, Yajush, and Saman, and their supplement or Brahmana, is not decisive. But a very unexceptionable passage may be adduced, which the commentator of the Rich has quoted for a different purpose from the Chhandogya Upanishad, a portion of the Saman. In it, Nareda, having solicited instruction from Sanatcumara, and being interrogated by him as to the extent of his previous knowledge, says, “I have learnt the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, the Atharvana, [which is] the fourth, the Itihasa and Purana, [which are] a fifth, and [grammar, or] the Veda of Vedas, the obsequies of the manes, the art of computation, the knowledge of omens, the revolutions of periods, the intention of speech [or art of reasoning], the maxims of ethics, the divine science [or construction of scripture], the sciences appendant on holy writ [or accentuation, prosody, and religious rites], the adjuration of spirits, the art of the soldier, the science of astronomy, the charming of serpents, the science of demigods [or music and mechanical arts]: all this have I studied; yet do I only know the text, and have no knowledge of the soul.” [Chhandogya Upanishad, ch. 7, §. 1. I insert the whole passage, because it contains an ample enumeration of the sciences. The names by which grammar and the rest are indicated in the original text are obscure; but the annotations of Sancara explain them. This, like any other portion of a Veda where it is itself named (for a few other instances occur), must of course be more modern than another part to which the name had been previously assigned. It will hereafter be shown, that
the Vedas are a compilation of prayers, called mantras; with a collection of precepts and maxims, entitled Brahmana, from which last portion the Upanishad is extracted. The prayers are properly the Vedas, and apparently preceded the Brahmana.]From this, compared with other passages of less authority, and with the received notions of the Hindus themselves, it appears, that the Rich, Yajush, and Saman, are the three principal portions of the Veda; that the Atharvana is commonly admitted as a fourth; and that divers mythological poems, entitled Itihasa and Puranas, are reckoned a supplement to the scripture, and as such, constitute a fifth Veda. [When the study of the Indian scriptures was more general than at present, especially among the Brahmanas of Canyacubja, learned priests derived titles from the number of Vedas with which they were conversant. Since
every priest was bound to study one Veda, no title was derived from the fulfilment of that duty; but a person who had studied two Vedas was surnamed Dwivedi; one who was conversant with three, Trivedi; and one versed in four, Chaturvedi: as
the mythological poems were only figuratively called a Veda no distinction appears to have been derived from a knowledge of them in addition to the four scriptures. The titles abovementioned have become the surnames of families among the Brahmens of Canoj, and are corrupted by vulgar pronunciation into Dobe, Tiware, and Chaube.]
The true reason why the three first Vedas are often mentioned without any notice of the fourth, must be sought, not in their different origin and antiquity, but in the difference of their use and purport. Prayers employed at solemn rites, called yajnyas, have been placed in the three principal Vedas: those which are in prose are named Yajush; such as are in metre are denominated Rich; and some, which are intended to be chanted, are called Saman: and these names, as distinguishing different portions of the Vedas, are anterior to their separation in
Vyasa’s compilation. But
the Atharvana not being used at the religious ceremonies abovementioned, and containing prayers employed at lustrations, at rites conciliating the deities, and as imprecations on enemies, is essentially different from the other Vedas; as is remarked by the author of an elementary treatise on the classification of the Indian sciences. [Madhusudana Saraswati, in the Prasthanabheda.]
But different schools of priests have admitted some variations in works which appear under the same title. This circumstance is accounted for by the commentators on the Vedas, who relate the following story taken from
Puranas and other authorities.
Vyasa having compiled and arranged the scriptures, theogonies, and mythological poems, taught the several Vedas to as many disciples: viz. the Rich to Paila, the Yajush to Vaisampayana, and the Saman to Jaimini; as also the Atharvana to Sumantu, and the Itihasa and Puranas to Suta. These
disciples instructed their respective pupils, who becoming teachers in their turn, communicated the knowledge to their own disciples; until at length, in the progress of successive instruction, so great variations crept into the text, or into the manner of reading and reciting it, and into the no less sacred precepts for its use and application, that eleven hundred different schools of scriptural knowledge arose. The several Sanhitas, or collections of prayers in each Veda, as received in these numerous schools or variations, more or less considerable, admitted by them either in the arrangement of the whole text (including prayers and precepts), or in regard to particular portions of it, constituted the 'Sac'has or branches of each Veda. Tradition, preserved in the Puranas, reckons sixteen Sanhitas of the
Rigveda: eighty-six of the Yajush, or including those which branched from a second revelation of this Veda, a hundred and one; and not less than a thousand of the Samavedu, besides nine of the Atharvana. But treatises on the study of the Veda reduce the 'Sac'has of the Rich to five; and those of the Yajush, including both revelations of it, to eighty six. [
The authorities on which this is stated are chiefly the Vishnu purana, part 3, chap. 4, and the Vijeyavilasa on the study of scripture; also the Charanavyuha, on the Sachas of the Vedas.]
The text is notable as the earliest Purana to have been translated and published in 1864 CE by
HH [Horace Hayman] Wilson, based on manuscripts then available, setting the presumptions and premises about what Puranas may have been.
The Vishnu Purana is among the shorter Purana texts, with about 7,000 verses in extant versions...
Vishnu Purana, like all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage
Veda Vyasa. The actual author(s) and date of its composition are unknown and contested. Estimates range of its composition range from 400 BCE to 900 CE...
Horace Hayman Wilson (1864): acknowledged that the tradition believes it to be 1st millennium BCE text and the text has roots in the Vedic literature, but after his analysis suggested that the extant manuscripts may be from the 11th century....
Rocher states that the "date of the Vishnu Purana is as contested as that of any other Purana". References to Vishnu Purana in texts such as Brihadvishnu whose dates are better established, states Rocher, suggest that a version of Vishnu Purana existed by about 1000 CE, but it is unclear to what extent the extant manuscripts reflect the revisions during the 2nd millennium. Vishnu Purana like all Puranas has a complicated chronology. Dimmitt and van Buitenen state that each of the Puranas including the Vishnu Purana is encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to ascertain when, where, why and by whom these were written...
It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been continuously added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf, but randomly...
Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British India colonial era, some in the 19th century. The scholarship on Vishnu Purana, and other Puranas, has suffered from cases of forgeries, states Ludo Rocher, where liberties in the transmission of Puranas were normal and those who copied older manuscripts replaced words or added new content to fit the theory that the colonial scholars were keen on publishing.-- Vishnu Purana, by Wikipedia
The progress by which (to use the language of the Puranas) the tree of science put forth its numerous branches is thus related. Paila taught the Rigveda, or Bahvrich, to two disciples, Bahcala and Indrapramati. The first, also called Bancali, was the editor of a Sanhita, or collection of prayers, and a Sacha bearing his name still subsists: it is said to have first branched into four schools; afterwards into three others. Indrapramati communicated his knowledge to his own son Manduceya, by whom a Sanhita was compiled, and from whom one of the 'Sac'has has derived its name. Vedamitra, surnamed Sacalya, studied under the same teacher, and gave a complete collection of prayers: it is still extant; but is said to have given origin to five varied editions of the same text. The two other and principal 'Sac'has of the Rich are those of Aswalavana and Sanc’nyayana, or perhaps Caushitaci: but the Vishnu purana omits them, and intimates, that Sacapurni, a pupil of Indrapramati, gave the third varied edition from this teacher, and was also the author of the Niructa: if so, he is the same with Yasca. His school seems to have been subdivided by the formation of three others derived from his disciples.
The Yajush or Adhwaryu, consists of two different Vedas, which have separately branched out into various 'Sac'has.
To explain the names by which both are distinguished, it is necessary to notice a legend, which is gravely related in the Puranas and the commentaries on the Veda.
The Yajush, in its original form, was at first taught by Vaisampayana to twenty-seven pupils. At this time, having instructed Yajnyawalcya, he appointed him to teach the Veda to other disciples. Being afterwards offended by the refusal of Vajnyawalcya to take on himself a share of the sin incurred by Vaisampayana, who had unintentionally killed his own sister's son, the resentful preceptor bade Yajnyawalcya relinquish the science which he had learnt. [The Vishnu purana, part 3, chap. 5. A different motive of resentment is assigned by others.]
He instantly disgorged it in a tangible form. The rest of Vaisampayana’s disciples receiving his commands to pick up the disgorged Veda, assumed the form of partridges, and swallowed these texts which were soiled, and for this reason termed “black:” they are also denominated Taittiriya, from tittiri, the name for a partridge.
Yajnyawalcya, overwhelmed with sorrow, had recourse to the sun; and through the favour of that luminary obtained a new revelation of the Yajush, which is called “white" or pure, in contradistinction to the other, and is likewise named Vajasaneyi, from a patronymic, as it should seem, of Yajnyawalcya himself; for the Veda declares, “these pure texts, revealed by the sun, are published by Yajnyawalcya, the offspring of Va'jasani.” [Vrihad Aranyaca ad calcem. The passage is cited by the commentator on the Rigveda. In the index likewise, Yajnyawalcya is stated to have received the revelation from the sun.] But, according to the Vishnu purana (3. 5. ad finem), the priests who studied the Yajush are called Vajins, because the sun, who revealed it, assumed the form of a horse (vajin).
I have cited this absurd legend, because it is referred to by the commentators on the white Yajush. But I have yet found no allusion to it in the Veda itself, nor in the explanatory table of contents. On the contrary, the index of the black Yajush gives a different and more rational account. Vaisampayana, according to this authority, [Candanucrama, verse 25. This index indicatorius is formed for the Atreyi 'Sac'ha. Its author is Cundina, if the text (verse 27) be rightly interpreted.] taught the Yajurveda to Yasca, who instructed Tittiri: [This agrees with the etymology of the word Taittiriya; for according to grammarians (see Panini 4, hi. 102), the derivative here implies 'recited by Tittiri, though composed by a different person.' A similar explanation is given by commentators on the Upanishads.] from him Uc’ha received it, and communicated it to Atreya; who framed the 'Sac'ha, which is named after him, and for which that index is arranged.
The white Yajush was taught by Yajnyawalcya to fifteen pupils, who founded as many schools. The most remarkable of which are the 'Sac'has of Canwa and Madhyandina; and next to them, those of the Jabalas, Baud'hayanas, and Tapaniyas. The other branches of the Yajush seem to have been arranged in several classes. Thus the Characas, or students of a ‘Sac'ha, so denominated from the teacher of it, Characa, are stated as including ten subdivisions; among which are the Cat’has, or disciples of Cat’ha, a pupil of Vaisampayana; as also the ’Swetaswataras, Aupamanyavas, and Maitrayaniyas: the last-mentioned comprehend seven others. In like manner, the Taittiriyacas are, in the first instance, subdivided into two, the Auc'hyayas and Chanidiceyas; and these last are again subdivided into five, the Apastambiyas, &c.
Among them, Apastamba’s 'Sac'ha is still subsisting; and so is Atreya’s among those which branched from Uc'ha: but the rest, or most of them, are become rare, if not altogether obsolete. Sumantu, son of Jaimini, studied the Samaveda, or Ch'handigya, under his father: and his own son, Sucarman, studied under the same teacher, but founded a different school; which was the origin of two others, derived from his pupils, Hiranyanabha and Paushyinji, and thence branching into a thousand more: for Locacshi,
Cut’humi, and other disciples of Paushyinji, gave their names to separate schools, which were increased by their pupils. The 'Sac'ha entitled
Caut'humi still subsists. Hiranyanabha, the other pupil of Sucarman, had fifteen disciples, authors of Sanhitas, collectively called the northern Samagas; and fifteen others, entitled the southern Samagas: and Criti, one of his pupils, had twenty-four disciples, by whom, and by their followers, the other schools were founded.
Most of them are now lost; and, according to a legend, were destroyed by the thunderbolt of Indra. The principal 'Sac'ha now subsisting is that of Ranayaniyas, including seven subdivisions; one of which is entitled Caut'humi, as above-mentioned, and comprehends six distinct schools. That of the Talavacaras, likewise, is extant, at least, in part: as will be shown in speaking of the Upanishads.
The At'harva-veda was taught by
Sumantu to his pupil Caband’ha, who divided it between Devadarsa and Pat’hya. The first of these has given name to the Sac'ha entitled Devadarsi; as Pippalada, the last of his four disciples, has to the Sacha of the Paippaladis. Another branch of the At'harvana derives its appellation from Saunaca, the third of Pat’hya’s pupils. The rest are of less note.
Such is the brief history of the Veda deducible from the authorities before cited. But those numerous ‘Sac'has did not differ so widely from each other, as might be inferred from the mention of an equal number of Sanhitas, or distinct collections of texts. In general, the various schools of the same Veda seem to have used the same assemblage of prayers; they differed more in their copies of the precepts or Brahmanas; and some received into their canon of scripture, portions which do not appear to have been acknowledged by others. Yet
the chief difference seems always to have been the use of particular rituals taught in aphorisms (sutras) adopted by each school; and these do not constitute a portion of the Veda, but, like grammar and astronomy, are placed among its appendages.
It may be here proper to remark, that each Veda consists of two parts, denominated the Mantras and the Brahmanas, or prayers and precepts. The complete collection of the hymns, prayers, and invocations, belonging to one Veda, is entitled its Sanhita. Every other portion of Indian scripture is included under the general head of divinity (Brahmana). This comprises precepts which inculcate religious duties, maxims which explain these precepts, and arguments which relate to theology. [The explanation here given is taken from the Prast'hana bheda.] But, in the present arrangement of the Vedas, the portion which contains passages called Brahmanas, includes many which are strictly prayers or Mantras.
The theology of the Indian scripture comprehending the argumentative portion entitled Vedanta is contained in tracts denominated Upanishads, some of which are portions of the Brahmana properly so called, others are found only in a detached form, and one is a part of a Sanhita itself. On the Rigveda.The Sanhita of the first Veda [I have several copies of it, with the corresponding index for the Sacalya 'Sac 'ha; and also an excellent commentary by Sayanacharya. In another collection of mantras, belonging to the Asnalayani Sac' ha of this Veda, I find the first few sections of each lecture agree with the other copies, but the rest of the sections are omitted. I question whether it be intended as a complete copy for that Sac'ha.] contains mantras or prayers, which for the most part are encomiastic [formally expressing praise], as the name of the
Rigveda implies. [Derived from the verb rich, to laud; and properly signifying any prayer or hymn, in which a deity is praised. As those are mostly in verse, the term becomes also applicable to such passages of any Veda as are reducible to measure, according to the rules of prosody. The first Veda, in
Vyasa's compilation, comprehending most of those texts, is called the Rigveda; or as expressed in the Commentary on the Index, "because it abounds with such texts (rich)."]
This collection is divided into eight parts (c'handa), each of which is subdivided into as many lectures (ad'hyaya). Another mode of division also runs through the volume, distinguishing ten books (mandala), which are subdivided into more than a hundred chapters (anuvaca), and comprise a thousand hymns or invocations (sucta). A further subdivision of more than two thousand sections (barga) is common to both methods; and the whole contains above ten thousand verses, or rather stanzas, of various measures. On examining this voluminous compilation, a systematical arrangement is readily perceived. Successive chapters, and even entire books, comprise hymns of a single author; invocations, too, addressed to the same deities, hymns relating to like subjects, and prayers intended for similar occasions, are frequently classed together. This requires explanation.
In a regular perusal of the Veda, which is enjoined to all priests, and which is much practised by Mahrattas [a member of the princely and military castes of the former Hindu kingdom of Maharashtra in central India.] and Telingas ["the country of the three lingas": Telugu country], the student or reader is required to notice, especially, the author, subject, metre, and purpose of each mantra, or invocation.
[T]he Tranquebar missionaries gave a brief account of the Vedas. They report that despite their efforts to see the Vedas, they have been told that they are not written, but that boys (who can only be Brahmins) learn sections of them from a priest by repeating it constantly. The language in which they are recorded, which they call Grantha, is so old that no one can understand it without referring to the sastra [a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.]. Few learn the fourth part, because it consists of sorcery…
-- The Absent Vedas, by Will Sweetman
To understand the meaning of the passage is thought less important. The institutors of the Hindu system have indeed recommended the study of the sense; but they have inculcated with equal strenuousness, and more success, attention to the name of the Rishi or person by whom the text was first uttered, the deity to whom it is addressed, or the subject to which it relates, and also its rhythm or metre, and its purpose, or the religious ceremony at which it should be used. The practice of modern priests is conformable with these maxims. Like, the Koran among the Muhammedans, the Veda is put into the hands of children in the first period of their education; and continues afterwaras to be read by rote, for the sake of the words, without comprehension of the sense.
Accoraingly the Veda is recited in various superstitious modes: word by word, either simply disjoining them, or else repeating the words alternately, backwaras and forwaras, once or oftener. Copies of the Rigveda and Yajush (for the Samaveda is chanted only) are prepared for these and other modes of recital, and are called Pada, Crama, Jata, Ghana, &c. But the various ways of inverting the text are restricted, as it should appear, to the principal Vedas that Is, to the original editions of the Rigveda and Yujush: while the subsequent editions, in which the text or the arrangement of it is varied, being therefore deemed suborainate ‘Sac’ has, should he repeated only in a simple manner.
It seems hero necessary to justify my interpretation of what is called the 'Rishi of a mantra.’ The last term has been thought to signify an incantation rather than a prayer: and, so far as supernatural efficacy is ascribed to the mere recital of the words of a mantra, that interpretation is sufficiently accurate; and, as such, it is undoubtedly applicable to the unmeaning incantations of the Mantra-sastra, or Tantras and Agamas. Hut the origin of the term is certainly different. Its derivation from a verb, which signifies 'to speak privately,’ is readily explained by the injunction for meditating the text of the Veda, or reciting it inaudibly: and the import of any mantra in the Indian scriptures is generally found to be a prayer; containing either a petition to a deity, or else thanksgiving, praise, and adoration.
The Rishi or saint of a mantra is defined, both in the index of the Rigveda and by commentators, 'lie by whom it is spoken:’ as the Devata, or deity, is 'that which is therein mentioned.’ In the index to the Vajusaneyi Yajurveda, the Rishi is interpreted 'the seer or rememberer’ of the text; and the Devata is said to be 'contained in the prayer; or [named] at the commencement of it; or [indicated as] the deity, who shares the oblation or the praise.’ Conformably with these definitions, the deity that is lauded or supplicated in the prayer is its Devoid; but in a few passages, which contain neither petition nor adoration, the subject is considered as the deity that is spoken of. For example, the praise of generosity is the Devoid of many entire hymns addressed to princes, from whom gifts were received by the authors.
The Rishi, or spoaker, is of course rarely mentioned in the mantra itself: but in some instances lie does name himself. A few passages, too, among the mantras of the Veda are in the form of dialogue; and, in such cases, the discourses were alternately considered as Rishi and Devata. In general, the person to whom the passage was revealed, or according to another gloss, by whom its use and application was first discovered, [Translating literally, "the Rishi is he by whom the text was seen.” Panini (4. h. 7) employs the same term in explaining the import of derivatives used ns denominations of passages in scripture; and his commentators concur with those of the Veda in the explanation here given. By Rishi is generally meant the supposed inspired writer; sometimes, however, the imagined inspirer is called the Rishi or saint of the text; and at other times, as above noticed, the dialogist or speaker of the sentence.] is called the Rishi of that mantra. He is evidently then the author of the prayer; notwithstanding the assertions of the Hindus, with whom it is an article of their creed, that the Vedas were composed by no human author. It must be understood, therefore, that in affirming the primeval existence of their scriptures, they deny these works to be the original composition of the editor (Vyasa), but believe them to have been gradually revealed to inspired writers.
The names of the respective authors of each passage are preserved in the Anucramani, or explanatory table of contents, which has been handed down with the Veda itself, and of which the authority is unquestioned. [It appears from a passage in the Vijyga vilasa, as also from the Veda- dipa, or abridged commentary on the Vajasaneyi, as well as from the index itself, that Catyayana is the acknowledged author of the index to the white Yajush. That of the Rigvida is ascribed by the commentator to the same Catyayana, pupil of Saunaca. The sevoral indexes of the Veda contribute to the preservation of the genuine text; especially where the metre, or the number of syllables, is stated, as is generally the case.] Accoraing to this index, ViswaMitra is author of all the hymns contained in the thira book of the Rigveda; as Bharadwaja is, with rare exceptions, the composer of those collected in the sixth book; Vasisht’ha, in the. seventh; Gritsamada, in the second; Vamadeva, in the fourth; and Bud’ha [First of the name, and progenitor of the race of kings called 'children of the moon.’] and other descendants of Atri, in the fifth. But, in the remaining books of this Veda, the authors are more various; among these, besides Agastya, Casyapa son of Marichi, Angiras, Jamadagni son of Bhrigu, Parasara father of Vyasa, Gotama and his son Nod'has, Vrihaspati, Nareda, and other celebrated Indian saints, the most conspicuous are Canwa, and his numerous descendants, Med'ha- tit’hi, &c.; Mad’huch’handas, and others among the posterity of Viswa'Mitra; Sunasep'ha son of Ajigarta; Cutsa, Hiranyastuya, Savya, and other descendants of Angiras; besides many other, saints, among the posterity of personages abovementioned.
It is worthy of remark, that several persons of royal birth (for instance, five sons of the king Vrihangir; and Travyaruna and Trasadasyu, who were themselves kings,) are, mentioned among the authors of the hymns which constitute this Veda: and the text itself, in some places, actually points, and in others obviously alludes, to monarchs, whoso names are familiar in the Indian heroic history. As this fact may contribute to fix the age in which the Veda was composed, I shall here notice such passages of this tendency as have yet fallen under my observation.
The sixth hymn of the eighteenth chapter of the first book is spoken by an ascetic named Cacshivat, in praise of the munificence of Swanaya, who had conferred immense gifts on him. The subject is continued in the seventh hymn, and concludes with a very strange dialogue between the king Bhavayavya and his wife Romasa, daughter of Vrihaspati. It should be remarked, concerning Cacshivat, that his mother Usic was bondmaid of king Anga’s queen.
The eighth book opens with an invocation which alludes to a singular legend, Asanga, son of Playoga, and his successor on the throne, was metamorphosed into a woman; but retrieved his sex through the prayers of Medhyatithi, whom ho therefore rewaraed most liberally. In this hymn he is introduced praising his own munificence; and, towards the close of it, his wife Saswati, daughter of Angiras, exults in his restoration to manhood.
The next hymns applaud the liberality of the kings Vibhindu, Pacasthaman (son of Curayana), Curunga, Casu (son of Chedi), and Tirindira (son of Parasu), who had severally bestowed splendid gifts on the respective authors of these thanksgivings. In the thira chapter of the same book, the seventh hymn commends the generosity of Trasadasyu, the grandson of Mand’hatri. The fourth chapter opens with an invocation containing praises of the liberality of Chitra; and the fourth hymn of the same chapter celebrates Varu, son of Sushaman.
In the first chapter of the tenth book there is a hymn to water, spoken by a king named Sind’hudwipa, the son of Amnarisha. The seventh chapter contains several passages, from the fifteenth to the eighteenth sucla, which allude to a remarkable legend, Asamati, son or descendant of Icshwacu, had deserted his former priests and employed others: the forsaken Brahmanas recited incantations for his destruction: his new priests, however, not only counteracted their evil designs, but retaliated, on them, and caused the death of one of those Brahmanas: the rest recited these prayers for their own preservation, and for the revival of their companion.
The eighth chapter opens with a hymn which alludes to a story respecting Nabhanedisht'ha, son of Menu, who was excluded from participation with his brethren in the paternal inheritance. The legend itself is told in the Aitareya Brahmana, [In the second lecture and fourteenth section of the fifth book.] or second portion of the Rigveda.
Among other hymns by royal authors in the subsequent chapters of the tenth book of the Sanhita, I remark one by Mand'hatri, son of Yuvanaswa, and another by Sivi, son of Usinara, a thira by Vasumanas, son of Rohidaswa, and a fourth by Prataraana, son of Divodasa, king of Casi.
The deities invoked appear, on a cursory inspection of the Veda, to he as various as the authors of the prayers addressed to them: but, according to the most ancient annotations on the Indian scripture, those numerous names of persons and things are all resolvable into different titles of three deities, and ultimately of one god. The Nig' hanti, or glossary of the Vedas, concludes with three lists of names of deities: the first comprising such as are deemed synonymous with fire; the second, with air; and the thira, with the sun. [Nig'hanti, or first part of the Niructa, c. 5.] In the last part of the Niructa, which entirely relates to deities, it is twice asserted that there are but three gods; 'Tisra eva devatah.' [In the second and thira section of the twelfth chapter, or lecture, of the glossary and illustrations of the Veda. The Niructa consists of three parts. The first, a glossary, as above mentioned, comprises five short chapters or lectures; the second, entitled Naigama, or the first half of the Niructa, properly so called, consists of six long chapters; and the thira, entitled Daivata, or second half of the proper Niructa, contains eight more. The chapter here cited is marked as the twelfth, including the glossary, or seventh exclusive of it.] The further inference, that these intend but one deity, is supported by many passages in the Veda: and is very clearly and concisely stated in the beginning of the index to the Rigveda, on the authority of the Niructa and of the Veda itself.
'Yasya vacyam, sa rishir; ya ten'ochyate, sa devata; yad aeshara- parimanam, tach ch'hando . Art' hepsava rishayi devatas ch'handobhir abhyad' havan.
'Tisra eva Devatah; cshity - antaricsha - dyn - st' hana, agnirvayuh surya ity: evam vyahritayah procta vyastah: samastanam Prajapatir. Oncara sarvadevatyah, paramesht' hyo ra, brahmi, daivo va, ad'hyatimicas. Tat tat st' hana anyas tad vibhutayah: carma prit'hactivad d' hi prithag abhid'hana stutayo bhavanty. ec' aiva va mahan atma devata: sa surya ity svhavshate; sa hi sarva-bhut'atma. Tad uctam rishina: “Surya atma Jagatas Tast'hushas Ch'eti.” Tad vibhutayo nya devatas. Tad apy etad rishin' octam: “Indram Mitram Varunam Agnim Ahur iti.”
‘The Rishi [of any particular passage] is he whose speech it is; and that which is thereby addressed, is the deity [of the text]: and the number of syllables constitutes the metre [of the prayer]. Sages (Rishis) solicitous of [attaining] particular objects, have approached the Gods with [prayers composed in] metre.
‘The deities are only three: whose places are, the earth, the intermediate region, and heaven: [namely] fire, air, and the sun. They are pronounced to be [the deities] of the mysterious names [Bhur, bhuvah, and swar; called the Vyahritis. See Menu, c. 2, v. 76. In the original text, the nominative case is here used for the genitive; as is remarked by the Commentator on this passage. Such irregularities are frequent in the Vedas themselves.] severally; and (Prajapati) the lora of creatures is [the deity] of them collectively. The syllable Om intends every deity: it belongs to (Paramesht'hi ) him who dwells in the supreme abode; it appertains to (Brahme) the vast one; to (Deva) God; to (Ad' hyatma) the superintending soul. Other deities belonging to those several regions are portions of the [three] Gods; for they are variously named and described, on account of their different operations: but [in fact] there is only one deity, the Great soul (Mahan atma). He is called the sun; for he is the soul of all beings: [and] that is declared by the sage, “the sun is the soul of (jagat) what moves, and of (tast’ hush ) that which is fixed.” Other deities are portions of him: and that is expressly declared by the text: [Rishi here signifies text (not sage). See Haradatta, Bhattoji, &c. and Panini, 3. h. 186.] “The wise call fire, Indra, Mitra, and Varuna;” &c. [Nirurta, c. 12, §. 4, ad finem. The remainder of the passage that is here briefly cited by the author of the Index, identities fire with the great and only soul.]
This passage of the Anucramani is partly abridged from the Niructa (c. 12), and partly taken from the Brahmana of the Veda. It shows (what is also deducible from texts of the Indian scriptures, translated in the present and former essays), that the ancient Hindu religion, as founded on the Indian scriptures, recognises but one God, yet not sufficiently discriminating the creature from the creator.
The subjects and uses of the prayers contained in the Veda, differ more than the deities which are invoked, or the titles by which they are addressed. Every line is replete with allusions to mythology, [Not a mythology which avowedly exalts deified heroes (as in the Puranas ), but one which personifies the elements and planets, and which peoples heaven and the world below with various orders of beings. I observe, however in many places, the ground-work of legends which are familiar in mythological poems: such, for example, as the demon Vritra slain by Indra, who is thence surnamed Vritrahan; but I do not remark any thing that corresponds with the favourite legends of those sects which worship either the Linga or 'Sacti, or else Rama or Crishna. I except some detached portions, the genuineness of which appears doubtful: as will be shown towards the close of this essay.] and to the Indian notions of the divine nature and of celestial spirits. For the innumerable ceremonies to be performed by a householder, and still more, for those endless rites enjoined to hermits and ascetics, a choice of prayers is offered in every stage of the celebration. It may be here sufficient to observe, that Indra, or the firmament, fire, the sun, the moon, water, air, the spirits, the atmosphere and the earth, are the objects most frequently addressed: and the various and repeated sacrifices with fire, and the drinking of the milky juice of the moon-plant or acid asclepias, [Soma-lata, Asclepias acida, or Cynanchum viminale.] furnish abundant occasion for numerous prayers Adapted to the many stages of those religious rites. I shall, therefore, select for remark such prayers as seem most singular, rather than such as might appear the fairest specimens of this Veda.
In the fifteenth chapter of the first book there are two hymns ascribed to Cutsa, and also to Trita, son of water. Three ascetics, brothers it should seem, since they are named in another portion of the Veda as (Aptya ) sons of water (ap), were oppressed with thirst while travelling in a sandy desert. At length they found a well, and one of them descended into it and thence lifted water for his companions; but the ungrateful brothers stole his effects and left him in the well, covering it with a heavy cart-wheel. In his distress he pronounced the hymns in question. It appears from the text, that Cutsa also was once in similar distress, and pronounced the same, or a similar invocation: and, for this reason, the hymns have been placed, by the compiler of the Veda, among those of which Cutsa is the author.
The twenty-third chapter of the same book commences with a dialogue between Agastya, Indra, and the Maruts; and the remainder of that, with the whole of the twenty-fourth chapter, comprises twenty-six hymns addressed by Agastya to those divinities, and to the as wins, fire, the sun, and some other deities. The last of these hymns was uttered by Agastya, under the apprehension of poison, and is directed by rituals to be used as an incantation against the effects of venom. Other incantations; applicable to the same purpose, occur in various parts of the Veda; for example, a prayer by Vasisht’ha for preservation from poison (book 7, ch. 3, § 18).
The third book, distributed into five chapters, contains invocations by ViswaMitra, son of Ga't’hin and grandson of Cusica. The last hymn, or sucla, in this book, consists of six prayers, one of which includes the celebrated Gayatri. This remarkable text is repeated more than once in other Vedas; but since ViswaMitra is acknowledged to be the Rishi to whom it was first revealed, it appears that its proper and original place is in this hymn. I therefore subjoin a translation of the prayer which contains it, as also the preceding one (both of which are addressed to the sun), for the sake of exhibiting the Indian priest's confession of faith, with its context; after having, in former essays, given more than one version of it apart from the rest of the text. The other prayers contained in the same sucta being addressed to other deities, are here omitted.
‘This new and excellent praise of thee, O splendid, playful, sun is offered by us to thee. Be gratified by this my speech: approach this craving mind, as a fond man seeks a woman. May that sun (Pushan), who contemplates and looks into all worlds, be our protector.
‘Let us meditate on the adorable light of the divine ruler (Savitri): [Sayanacharya, the commentator whose gloss is here followed, considers this passage to admit of two interpretations: ‘the light, or Brahme, constituting the splendour of the supreme ruler or creator of the universe,’ or ‘the light, or orb, of the splendid sun.’] may it guide our intellects. Desirous of food, we solicit the gift of the splendid sun (Savitri), who should be studiously worshipped. Venerable men, guided by the understanding, salute the divine sun (Savitri) with oblations and praise.’
The two last hymns in the thira chapter of the 7th book are remarkable, as being addressed to the guaraian spirit of a dwelling-house, and used as prayers to be recited with oblations on building a house. The legend belonging to the second of these hymns is singular: Vasisht’ha coming at night to the house of Varuna, (with the intention of sleeping there, say some; but as others affirm, with the design of stealing grain to appease his hunger after a fast of three days,) was assailed by the house-dog. lie uttered this prayer, or incantation, to lay asleep the dog, who was barking at and attempting to bite him. A literal version of the first of those hymns is here subjoined:
‘Guardian of this abode! be acquainted with us; be to us a wholesome dwelling; affora us what we ask of thee, and grant happiness to our bipeds and quadrupeds. Guaraian of this house! increase both us and our wealth. Moon! while thou art friendly, may we, with our kine and our horses, be exempted from decrepitude: guara us as a father protects his offspring. Guaraian of this dwelling! may we be united with a happy, delightful, and melodious abode afforaed by thee: guara our wealth now under thy protection, or yet in expectancy, and do thou defend us.’
The fourth hymn in the fourth chapter concludes with a prayer to Rudra which being used with oblations after a fast of three days, is supposed to ensure a happy life of a hundred years. In the sixth hook three hymns occur, which being recited with worship to the sun, are believed to occasion a fall of rain after the lapse of five days. The two first are aptly addressed to a cloud; and the thira is so to frogs, because these had croaked while Vasisht’ha recited the preceding prayers, which circumstance he accepted as a good omen.
The sixth chapter of the tenth book closes with two hymns, the prayer of which is the destruction of enemies, and which are used at sacrifices for that purpose.
The seventh chapter opens with a hymn, in which Surya, surnamed Savitri, the wife of the moon, [This marriage is noticed in the Aitareya Brahmana, where the second lecture of the fourth book opens in this manner; ‘Prajapati gave his daughter, Surya Savitri, to Soma, the king.' The well known legend in the Puranas, concerning the marriage of Soma with the daughter of Dacsha, seems to be founded on this story in the Vedas.] is made the speaker; as Dacshina, daughter of Prajapati, and Juhu, daughter of Brahma, are in subsequent chapters. [In the introduction to the index, these, together with other goddesses, who are reckoned authors of holy texts, are enumerated and distinguished by the appellation of Brahmaddini. An inspired writer is, in the masculine, termed Brahmevadin.] A very singular passage occurs in another place, containing a dialogue between Yama and his twin-sister Yamuna, whom he endeavours to seduce; but his offers are rejected by her with virtuous expostulation.
Near the close of the tenth chapter, a hymn in a very different style of composition is spoken by Vach, daughter of Ambhrina, in praise of herself as the supreme and universal soul. [Towaras the end of the Vrihad dranyaca, Vach is mentioned as receiving a revelation from Ambhini, who obtained it from the sun: but here she herself bears the almost similar patronymic, Ambhrini.] Vach, it should be observed, signifies speech; and she is the active power of Brahma, proceeding from him. The following is a literal version of this hymn, which is expounded by the commentator consistently with the theological doctrines of the Vedas.
‘I range with the Rudras, with the Vusas, with the Adityas, and with the Viswadevas. I uphold both the sun and the ocean [Mitra and Varuna], the firmament [Indra] and fire, and both the Aswins. I support the moon [Soma] destroyer of foes; and (the sun entitled] Twashtri, Pushan, or Bhaga. 'I grant wealth to the honest votary who performs sacrifices, offers oblations, and satisfies [the deities]. Me, who am the queen, the conferrer of wealth, the possessor of knowledge, and first of such as merit worship, the gods render, universally, present every where, and pervader of all beings, lie who cats food through me, as he who sees, who breathes, or who hears, through me, yet knows me not, is lost; hear then the faith which I pronounce. Even I declare this self, who is worshipped by gods and men: I make strong whom I choose; I make him Brahma, holy and wise. For Rudra I bend the bow, to slay the demon, foe of Brahma; for the people I make war [on their foes]; and I pervade heaven and earth. I bore the father on the head of this [universal mind], and my origin is in the midst of the ocean; [Heaven, or the sky, is the father; as expressly declared in another place: and the sky is produced from mind, according to one more passage of the Vedas. Its birth is therefore placed on the head of the supreme mind. The commentator suggests three interpretations of the sequel of the stanza: 'my parent, the holy Ambhrina, is in the midst of the ocean;' or, ‘my origin, the sentient deity, is in waters, which constitute the bodies of the gods;' or, ‘the sentient god, who is in the midst of the waters, which pervade intellect, is my origin.'] and therefore do I pervade all beings, and touch this heaven with my form. Originating all beings, I pass like the breeze; I am above this heaven, beyond this earth; and what is the great one, that am I.’
The tenth chapter closes with a hymn to night; and the eleventh begins with two hymns relative to the creation of the world. Another on this subject was translated in a former essay: [In the first Essay on the Religions Ceremonies of the Hindus, Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 361.] it is the last hymn but one in the Rigveda, and the author of it is Ag’hamarshana (a son of Mad’uch'handas), from whom it takes the name by which it is generally cited. The. other hymns, of which a version is here subjoined, are not ascribed to any ascertained author. Prajapati, surnamed Puramesht'hi, and his son Yajnya, are stated as the original speakers. But of these names, one is a title of the primeval spirit, and the other seems to allude to the allegorical immolation of Brahma.
I. ‘Then was there no entity, nor nonentity; no world, nor sky, nor aught above it: nothing, any where, in the happiness of any one, involving or involved: nor water, deep and dangerous. Death was not; nor then was immortality; nor distinction of day or night. But that [The pronoun (tad), thus emphatically used, is understood to intend the Supreme Being, according to the doctrines of the Vedanta. When manifested by creation, he is the entity (sat); while forms, being mere illusion, are non-entity (asat). The whole of this hymn is expounded according to the received doctrines of the Indian theology, or Vedanla. Darkness and desire (Tamas and Cama) bear n distant resemblance to the Chaos and Eros of Hesiod. Theog. v. 116.] breathed without afflation, single with (Swad'ha) her who is sustained within him. Other than him, nothing existed [which] since [has been]. Darkness there was; [for] this universe was enveloped with darkness, and was undistinguishable [like fluids mixed in] waters: but that mass, which was covered by the husk, was [at length] produced by the power of contemplation. First desire was formed in his mind: and that became the original productive seed; which the wise, recognising it by the intellect in their hearts, distinguish, in nonentity, as the bond of entity.
‘Did the luminous ray of these [creative acts] expand in the middle? or above? or below? That productive seed at once became providence [or sentient souls], and matter [or the elements]: she, who is sustained within himself, [So Swad'ha is expounded; and the commentator makes it equivalent to Maya, or the world of ideas.] was inferior; and he, who heeds, was superior.
'Who knows exactly, and who shall in this world declare, whence and why this creation took place? The gods are subsequent to the production of this world: then who can know whence it proceeded? or whence this varied world arose? or whether it uphold [itself], or not? He who, in the highest heaven, is the ruler of this universe, does indeed know, but not another can possess that knowledge.