Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

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VIII. On the Philosophy of the Hindus.

PART III.
[Read at a public meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, March 4th, 1826.]

[From the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society vol. i. p. 439 — 461.]

INTRODUCTION.

Of the six systems of philosophy received among learned Hindus, four have been noticed in the preceding parts of this essay, viz. the theistical and atheistical Sanc'hyas, the dialectic Nyaya, and the atomical Vaiseshica. The prior or practical Mimansa will be now considered; reserving the later or theological Mimansa, usually named Vedanta, for a future disquisition, should it appear requisite to pursue the subject, much concerning it being already before the public.

The object of the Mimansa is the interpretation of the Vedas. "Its purpose," says a commentator, [Somanat'ha in the Mayuc'ha, 2. 1. 17.] "is to determine the sense of revelation." Its whole scope is the ascertainment of duty. Here duly intends sacrifices and other acts of religion ordained by the Vedas. The same term [dharma) likewise signifies virtue, or moral merit; and grammarians have distinguished its import according to the gender of the noun. In one, (the masculine), it implies virtue; in the other (neuter), it means an act of devotion. [Medini cosha.] It is in the last-mentioned sense that the term is here employed; and its meaning is by commentators explained to be "the scope of an injunction; the object of a command; [Part'ha 1. 1. 2. Didh. ibid.] a purpose ordained by revelation with a view to a motive, such as sacrifice commanded by the Vedas, for the attainment of bliss;" [Apadeva; Nyaya-pracasa.] and such indeed is the main scope of every disquisition.

The prior (purva) Mimansa then is practical, as relating to works (carma) or religious observances to be undertaken for specific ends; and it is accordingly termed Carma-mimansa, in contradistinction to the theological, which is named Brahme-mimansa.

It is not directly a system of philosophy; nor chiefly so. But, in course of delivering canons of scriptural interpretation, it incidently touches upon philosophical topics; and scholastic disputants have elicited from its dogmas principles of reasoning applicable to the prevailing points of controversy agitated by the Hindu schools of philosophy.

Writers on the Mimansa.

The acknowledged founder of this school of scriptural interpretation is JAIMINI. He is repeatedly named as an authority in the sutras which are ascribed to him. Other ancient writers on the same subject, who are occasionally quoted in those aphorisms, as Atreya, Badari, Badarayana, [Author of the Brahme-sutras.] Labucayana, Aitisayana, &c. are sometimes adduced there for authority, but oftener for correction and confutation.

It is no doubt possible, that the true author of a work may speak in it of himself by name, and in the third person. Nor, indeed, is that very unusual. A Hindu commentator will, however, say, as the scholiasts of Menu's and of Yajnyawalcya's institutes of law do, that the oral instructions of the teacher were put in writing by some disciple; and, for this reason, the mention of him as of a third person is strictly proper.

The sutras, or aphorisms, thus attributed to Jaimini, are arranged in twelve lectures, each subdivided into four chapters, except the third, sixth, and tenth lectures, which contain twice as many; making the entire number sixty chapters. These again are divided into sections, cases, or topics (Adhicaranas), ordinarily comprising several sutras, but not uncommonly restricted to one; and instances may be noted where a single sentence is split into several adhicaranas; or, on the contrary, a single phrase variously interpreted becomes applicable to distinct cases; and sutras, united under the same head by one interpreter, are by another explained as constituting separate topics. The total number of sutras is 2,652, and of adhicaranas 915, as numbered by Mad'hava Acharya.

Like the aphorisms of other Indian sciences, those sutras are extremely obscure; or without a gloss utterly unintelligible. They must have been from the first accompanied by an oral or written exposition; and an ancient scholiast (Vritticara), is quoted by the herd of commentators for subsidiary aphorisms, supplying the defect of the text, as well as for explanatory comments on it.

Besides the work of the old scholiast, which probably is not extant in a complete form, the sutras have, as usual, been elucidated by a perpetual commentary, and by corrective annotations on it.

The author of the extant commentary is Sabara Swami Bhatta, from whom it takes the name of Sahara bhashya. He quotes occasionally the ancient scholiast, sometimes concurring with, sometimes dissenting from him.

The annotations (vartica) are by Bhatta Cumarila Swami, who is the great authority of the Mimansaca school, in which he is emphatically designated by his title, Bhatta, equivalent to Doctor. He frequently expounds and corrects Sabara's gloss, often delivers a different interpretation, but in many instances passes entire sections without notice, as seeing no occasion for emendation or explanation of the commentary, which he must be considered therefore as tacitly ratifying. The ancient scholiast is sometimes cited by him, adopting or amending the scholia; and he criticises the text itself, and arrangement of Jaimini.

Next to him in celebrity is a writer usually cited under the title of Guru; more rarely under the designation of Prabhacara. [MADH. 1.1.3.] His work I have had no opportunity of examining with a view to the present essay, and he is known to me chiefly from references and quotations; as in Madhava's summary, where his opinions are perpetually contrasted with Cumarila's; and in the text and commentary of the Sastra-dipica, where his positions are canvassed and compared with those of numerous other writers.

Cumarila Bhatta figures greatly in the traditionary religious history of India. He was predecessor of Sancara Acharya, and equally rigid in maintaining the orthodox faith against heretics, who reject the authority of the Vedas. He is considered to have been the chief antagonist of the sect of Buddha, and to have instigated an exterminating persecution of that heresy. [Preface to Wilson's Dictionary, p. xix.] He does, indeed, take every occasion of controverting the authority and doctrine of Sacya or BUDDHA, as well as Arhat or Jina, together with obscurer heretics, Bod'hayana and Masaca; and he denies them any consideration, even when they do concur upon any point with the Vedas. [Mim. 1. 3. 4.] The age of Cumarila, anterior to Sancara, [Sabara Swami Acharya is expressly named by Sancara in his commentary on the latter Mimansa (see Brahma Sutra, 3. 3. 53); and there are allusions to Cumarila Bhatta, if no direct mention of him.] and corresponding with the period [of the persecution of the Bauddhas, goes back to an antiquity of much more than a thousand years. He is reputed to have been contemporary with Sudhanwa, but the chronology of that prince's reign is not accurately determined. [Preface to Wilson's Dictionary, p. xviii.]

Next in eminence among the commentators of the Mimansa is Part'ha-Sarat'hi Misra, who has professedly followed the guidance of CUMARILA BHATTA. His Commentary, entitled Sastra-dipica, has been amply expounded in a gloss bearing the title of Mayuc'ha- mala, by Somanat'ha, a Carnataci-Brahman, whose elder brother was high priest of the celebrated temple at Vencatadri (or Vencatagiri). [135 miles west from Madras.] Part'ha-Sarat'hi is author likewise of the Nyaya-ratna- mala and other known works.

A compendious gloss on the text of Jaimini, following likewise the same guidance (that of Cumarila), is the Bhatta-dipica of C'handa-deva, author of a separate and ampler treatise, entitled Mimansa-caustubha, to which he repeatedly refers for a fuller elucidation of matters briefly touched upon in his concise but instructive gloss. This work is posterior to that of Madhava Acharya, who is sometimes quoted in it, and to Part'ha-Sarat'hi, who is more frequently noticed.

The Mimansa-nyaya-viveca is another commentary by a distinguished author, Bhavanat'ha Misra. I speak of this and of the foregoing as commentaries, because they follow the order of the text, recite one or more of the aphorisms from every section, and explain the subject, but without regularly expounding every word, as ordinary scholiasts, in a perpetual gloss.

Among numerous other commentaries on Jaimini's text, the Nyayavali-didhiti of Raghavananda is not to be omitted. It contains an excellent interpretation of the sutras, which it expounds word by word, in the manner of a perpetual comment. It is brief, but clear; leaving nothing unexplained, and wandering into no digressions.

It results from the many revisions which the text and exposition of it have undergone, with amendments, one while arriving by a different process of reasoning at the same conclusion, another time varying the question and deducing from an unchanged text an altered argument for its solution, that the cases (adhicaranas) assume a very diversified aspect in the hands of the many interpreters of the Mimansa.

A summary or paraphrase of Jaimini's doctrine was put into verse by an ancient author, whose memorial verses are frequently cited by the commentators of Jaimini, under the title of Sangraha.

Another metrical paraphrase is largely employed in the Vartica, or is a part of that work itself. An entire chapter occurs under the title of Sloca vartica: other whole chapters of Cumarila's performance are exclusively in prose. In many, verse and prose are intermixed.

The most approved introduction to the study of the Mimansa is the Nyaya-mala-vistara by Madhava Acharya. It is in verse, attended with a commentary in prose by the same author. It follows the order of Jaimini's text; not by way of paraphrase, but as a summary (though the title rather implies amplification) of its purport, and of approved deductions from it; sometimes explaining separately  the doctrine of Bhatta and of Guru, under each head; at other times that of the old scholiast; but more commonly confined to that of Bhatta alone; yet often furnishing more than one application to the same text, as Bhatta himself does.

MADHAVA ACHARYA was both priest and minister, or civil as well as spiritual adviser of Bucca-Raya and Harihara, sovereigns of Vidyanagara on the Godovari, as his father Mayana had been of their father and predecessor Sangama, who reigned over the whole peninsula of India.

Like the numerous other writings which bear his name, the Nyalamala was composed, not by himself, but by his directions, under the more immediate superintendence of his brother, Sayana-Acharya; and it appears from its preface to have been the next performance undertaken after the completion of their commentary on Parasara's institutes of law; and it suitably enough preceded the great commentary of the same authors on the whole of the Vedas.

According to history, confirmed by authentic inscriptions, Madhava flourished towards the middle of the fourteenth century: the sovereigns whose confidence he enjoyed reigned from that time to the end of the century.

Analysis of the Mimansa.

From this brief notice of the principal writers on the Mimansa, I pass to the subject which has occupied them.

A complete adhicarana, or case, consists of five members, viz. 1, the subject, or matter to be explained; 2, the doubt, or question arising upon that matter; 3, the first side (purva-pacsha), or prima facie argument concerning it; 4, the answer (uttara) or demonstrated conclusion (siddhanta); 5, the pertinence or relevancy.

The last-mentioned appertains to the whole arrangement as well as to its subdivisions; and commentators are occupied with showing the relation and connexion of subjects treated in the several lectures and chapters, and their right distribution, and appropriate positions.

The text of Jaimini's aphorisms does not ordinarily exhibit the whole of the five members of an adhicarana. Frequently the subject, and the question concerning it, are but hinted, or they are left to be surmised; sometimes the disputable solution of it is unnoticed, and the right conclusion alone is set forth. The rest is supplied by the scholiasts; and they do not always concur as to the most apposite examples, nor concerning the presumed allusions of the text.

Its introductory sutras propose the subject in this manner. "Now then the study of duty is to be commenced. Duty is a purpose which is inculcated by a command. Its reason must be inquired." [JAIM. l. 1. 1 — 3.]

That is, according to the interpretation of commentators, 'Next, after reading the Veda; and therefore, for the sake of understanding it; the duty enjoined by it is to be investigated. Duty is a meaning deduced from injunction: its ground must be sifted. A command is not implicitly received for proof of duty.'

The business of the Mimansa, then, being to investigate what is incumbent as a duty to be performed, the primary matter for inquiry is proof and authority (pramana). This, accordingly, is the subject of the first lecture, comprising four chapters, which treat of the following matters: 1st, precept and its cogency; 2, affirmation or narrative (art'havada), as well as prayer and invocation (mantra), their cogency as inculcating some duty; 3, law memorial (smrti), and usage (achara), their authority as presumption of some cogent revelation; 4, modifying ordinance and specific denomination, distinguished from direct or positive injunction.

Proceeding with the subject as above proposed, the Mimansa declares that perception or simple apprehension is no reason of duty, for it apprehends a present object only, whereas duty concerns the future. [JAIM. 1. 1. 4.] Simple apprehension is defined in these words: "when the organs of man are in contiguity with an object, that source of knowledge is perception.''

The ancient scholiast has here introduced definitions of other sources of knowledge which the author had omitted, viz. inference, verbal communication, comparison, presumption, and privation. None of these are reasons of duty except verbal communication; for the rest are founded on perception, which itself is not so. Verbal communication is either human, as a correct sentence (apta-vacya), or superhuman, as a passage of the Vedas. It is indicative or imperative; and the latter is either positive or relative: Ex. 1. "This is to be done:" 2. "That is to be done like this."

"On sight of one member of a known association, the consequent apprehension of the other part which is not actually proximate, is (anumana) inference. [Anc. Schol. Didh., Part'h., &c.] The association must be such as had been before directly perceived, or had become known by analogy.

"Comparison (upamana) is knowledge arising from resemblance more or less strong. It is apprehension of the likeness which a thing presently seen bears to one before observed: and likeness or similitude is concomitancy of associates or attributes with one object, which were associated with another.

"Presumption (art'hapatti) is deduction of a matter from that which could not else be. It is assumption of a thing not itself perceived, but necessarily implied by another which is seen, heard, or proven.

"Knowledge of a thing which is not proximate (or subject to perception) derived through understood sound, that is through words the acceptation whereof is known, is (sastra) ordinance or revelation. It is (sabda) verbal communication."

These five sources of knowledge, or modes of proof, as here defined, are admitted by all Mimansacas: and the followers of Prabhacara are stated to restrict their admission to those five. [Vedanta-sic'hamani.] Bhatta with his disciples, guided by the ancient scholiast, adds a sixth, which is privation (abhava); and the Vedantis or Uttara Mimansacas concur in the admission of that number.

The Charvacas, as noticed in the first part of this essay, [Ante, p. 152.] recognise but one, viz. perception. The followers of Canade and those of Sugata (Buddha) acknowledge two, perception and inference. The Sanc'hyas reckon three, including affirmation. [Ante, p. 165 — 168.] The Naiyayicas, or followers of Gotama, count four, viz. the foregoing together with comparison. The Prabhacaras, as just now observed, admit five. And the rest of the Mimansacas, in both schools, prior and later Mimansa, enumerate six. [Vedanta sic'ham.] It does not appear that a greater number has been alleged by any sect of Indian philosophy.

The first six lectures of Jaimini's Mimansa treat of positive injunction: it is the first half of the work. The latter half, comprising six more lectures, concerns indirect command: adapting to a copy, with any requisite modifications, that which was prescribed for the pattern or prototype.

The authority of enjoined duty is the topic of the first lecture: its differences and varieties, its parts (or appendant members, contrasted with the main act), and the purpose of performance, are successively considered in the three next, and complete the subject of "that which is to be performed." The order of performance occupies the fifth lecture; and qualification for its performance is treated in the sixth.

The subject of indirect precept is opened in the seventh lecture generally, and in the eighth particularly. Inferrible changes, adapting to the variation or copy what was designed for the type or model, are discussed in the ninth, and bars or exceptions in the tenth. Concurrent efficacy is considered in the eleventh lecture; and co-ordinate effect in the twelfth: that is, the co-operation of several acts for a single result is the subject of the one; and the incidental effect of an act, of which the chief purpose is different, is discussed in the other.

These which are the principal topics of each lecture are not, however, exclusive. Other matters are introduced by the way, being suggested by the main subject or its exceptions.

In the first chapter of the first lecture occurs the noted disquisition of the Mimansa on the original and perpetual association of articulate sound with sense. [A passage cited by writers on the dialectic Nyaya from the disquisition on the perpetuity of sound (see ante, page 185), is not to be found in Jaimini's sutras: it must have been taken from one of his commentators.]

"It is a primary and natural connexion," Jaimini affirms, "not merely a conventional one. The knowledge of it is instruction, since the utterance of a particular sound conveys knowledge, as its enunciation is for a particular sense. It matters not whether the subject have been previously apprehended (the words being intelligible, or the context rendering them so). Precept is authoritative, independently of human communication." [JAIM. 1. 1. 5.]

Grammarians assume a special category, denominated sp'hota, for the object of mental perception, which ensues upon the hearing of an articulate sound, and which they consider to be distinct from the elements or component letters of the word. Logicians disallow that as a needless assumption. [Didh., Part'h, and Madh.] They insist, however, that "sound is an effect, because it is perceived as the result of effort; because it endures not, but ceases so soon as uttered; because it is spoken of as made or done; because it is at once apprehended in divers places at the same instant, uttered by divers persons; because it is liable to permutation; and because it is subject to increase of intensity with the multitude of utterers." To all which the answer is, that " the result of an effort is uniform, the same letters being articulated. Sound is unobserved though existent, if it reach not the object (vibrations of air emitted from the mouth of the speaker proceed and manifest sound by their appulse to air at rest in the space bounded by the hollow of the ear; for want of such appulse, sound, though existent, is unapprehended). [Didh.] Sound is not made or done, but is used; it is uttered, not called into existence. Its universality is as that of the sun (common to all). The permutation of letters is the substitution of a different one (as a semivowel for a vowel), not the alteration of the same letter. Noise, not sound, is increased by a multitude of voices. Sound is perpetual, intended for the apprehension of others: it is universal, a generic term being applicable to all individuals. Its perpetuity is intimated by a passage of the Veda, which expresses "Send forth praise, with perpetual speech." [JAIM. 1. 1. 6. 1—18 and Com.]

The first chapter terminates with an inquiry into the authority of the Veda, which is maintained to be primeval and superhuman; although different portions of it are denominated from names of men, as Cat'haca, Caut'huma, Paishpala, &c. and although worldly incidents and occurrences are mentioned. Those denominations of particular portions, it is affirmed, have reference to the tradition by which a revelation has been transmitted. They are named after the person who uttered them, as to him revealed.

The eternity of the Veda, or authenticity of its revelation, is attempted to be proved by showing that it had no human origin; and for this purpose, the principal argument is, that no human author is remembered. In the case of human compositions, it is said, contemporaries have been aware that the authors of them were occupied in composing those works: not so with the Veda, which has been handed down as primeval, and of which no mortal author was known.

It is, however, acknowledged, that a mistake may be made, and the work of a human author may be erroneously received as a part of the sacred book by those who are unacquainted with its true origin. An instance occurs among those who use the Bahvrich, a sac'ha of the Rigveda, by whom a ritual of Aswalayana has been admitted, under the title of the fifth Aranyaca, as a part of the Rigveda.

The Veda received as holy by orthodox Hindus consists of two parts, prayer and precept (mantra and brahmana). Jaimini has attempted to give a short definition of the first, adding that the second is its supplement; "whatever is not mantra, is brahmaha." [Mim. 2. 1. 7.] The ancient scholiast has endeavoured to supply the acknowledged defect of Jaimini's imperfect definition, by enumerating the various descriptions of passages coming under each head. Later scholiasts have shown, that every article in that enumeration is subject to exceptions; and the only test of distinction, finally acknowledged, is admission of the expert, or acceptance of approved teachers, who have taught their disciples to use one passage as a prayer, and to read another as a precept, Jaimini's definition, and his scholiast's enumeration, serve but to alleviate "the task of picking up grains."

Generally, then, a mantra is a prayer, invocation, or declaration. It is expressed in the first person, or is addressed in the second. It declares the purpose of a pious act, or lauds or invokes the object. It asks a question or returns an answer; directs, inquires, or deliberates; blesses or imprecates, exults or laments, counts or narrates, &c.

Here is to be remarked, that changes introduced into a prayer to adapt it, mutalis mutandis, to a different ceremony from that for which primarily it was intended, or the insertion of an individual's personal and family names where this is requisite, are not considered to be part of the mantra.

It is likewise to be observed, although mantras of the Vedas are ordinarily significant, that the chants of the Samaveda are unmeaning. They consist of a few syllables, as ira ayira, or gira gayira, repeated again and again, as required by the tune or rhythm. Nevertheless, significant mantras are likewise chanted; and two of the books of the Samuveda are allotted to hymns of this description. The hymns consist of triplets {inch) or triple stanzas.

The first, or pattern verse or stanza, is found, with the name of the appropriate tune, in the Chhandas or Yonigrant'ha; and the two remaining verses or stanzas, to complete the triplet, are furnished in the supplementary book called Uttara-grant'ha.

Mantras are distinguished under three designations. Those which are in metre are termed rich, those chanted are saman, and the rest are yajush, sacrificial prayers in prose (for yajush imports sacrifice). Nevertheless, metrical prayers occur in the Yajurveda, and prose in the Samaveda.

Metrical prayers are recited aloud: those termed saman with musical modulation; but the prose inaudibly muttered. [Mim. 3. 3. 1.] Such, however, as are vocative, addressed to a second person, are to be uttered audibly, though in prose: for communication is intended. [Ib. 2. 1. 7—14.]

Metrical prayers, however, belonging to the Yajurveda are inaudibly  recited; and so are chants belonging to the same inaudibly chanted: for prayers take the character of the rite into which they are introduced; and where the same rite is ordained in more than one Veda, it appertains to that with which it is most consonant, and the prayer is either audibly or inaudibly chanted accordingly. [Ib. 3. 3. 1— 3. Instances of the same prayer recurring either word for word, or with very slight variation, in more than one Veda, are innumerable. An eminent example is that of the celebrated Gayatri, of which the proper place is in the Rig-veda (3. 4. 10.), among hymns of Viswamitra. It is, however, repeated in all the Vedas, and particularly in the 3d, 22d and 36th chapters of the white Yajush. (3, § 35; 22, § 9; and 36, § 3.) Another notable instance is that of the Purusha-sucta, of which a version was given, from a ritual in which it was found cited (ante, p. 104). It has a place in the Rig-veda (8. 4. 7.) among miscellaneous hymns; and is inserted, with some little variation, among prayers employed at the Purusha-medha, in the 31st chapter of the white Vajur-veda. On collation of those two Vedas and their scholia, I find occasion to amend one or two passages in the version of it formerly given: but for this I shall take another opportunity. That remarkable hymn is in language, metre, and style, very different from the rest of the prayers with which it is associated. It has a decidedly more modern tone; and must have been composed after the Sanscrit language had been refined, and its grammar and rhythm perfected. The internal evidence which it furnishes, serves to demonstrate the important fact, that the compilation of the Vedas, in their present arrangement, took place after the Sanscrit tongue had advanced, from the rustic and irregular dialect in which the multitude of hymns and prayers of the Veda was composed, to the polished and sonorous language in which the mythological poems, sacred and prophane (puranas and cavyas), have been written.]

The prayers termed rich and saman are limited by the metre and the chant respectively; but those which are in prose are regulated as to their extent by the sense. A complete sentence constitutes a single yajush: the sense must be one, and would be deficient were the phrase divided. Nevertheless, the sentence which constitutes a prayer may borrow, from a preceding or from a subsequent one, terms wanting to perfect the sense, unless an intervening one be incompatible with that construction. [Mim. 2. 1. 14—18.]

The brahmum of the Veda is in general a precept; or it expresses praise or blame, or a doubt, a reason, or a comparison; or intimates a derivation; or narrates a fact or an occurrence: and a characteristic sign of it is that it very generally contains the particle "so" (iti or itiha); as a mantra usually does the pronoun of the second person "thee," either expressed or understood, "(thou) art." [Sab. &c. on Mim. 1. 4. 1. and 2. 1. 7.]

In a still more general view the brahmana is practical, directing religious observances, teaching the purpose, time, and manner of performing them, indicating the prayers to be employed, and elucidating their import. The esoteric brahmana comprises the upanishads, and is theological.

It becomes a question which the Mimansa examines at much length, whether those passages of the Veda which are not direct precepts, but are narrative, laudatory, or explanatory, are nevertheless cogent for a point of duty. In this inquiry is involved the further question, whether a consciousness of the scope of an act is essential to its efficacy for the production of its proper consequence. The Mimansa maintains that narrative or indicative texts are proof of duty, as concurrent in import with a direct precept. There subsists a mutual relation between them. One enjoins or forbids an act; the other supplies an inducement for doing it or for refraining from it: "Do so, because such is the fruit." The imperative sentence is nevertheless cogent independently of the affirmative one, and needs not its support. The indicative phrase is cogent, implying injunction by pronouncing benefit.

It virtually prescribes the act which it recommends. [Mim. 1. 2. 1-3.] Inference, however, is not to be strained. It is not equally convincing as actual perception: a forthcoming injunction or direct precept has more force than a mere inference from premises. [Ib. 1. 2. 3.]

A prayer, too, carries authority, as evidence of a precept bearing the like import. This is a visible or temporal purpose of a prayer; and it is a received maxim, that a perceptible purpose being assignable, prevails before an imperceptible one. But the recital of a particular prayer at a religious rite, rather than a narrative text of like import, is for a spiritual end, since there is no visible purpose of a set form of words. [Mim. 1. 2. 4.]

Besides the evidence of precept from an extant revelation or recorded hearing (sruti) of it, another source of evidence is founded on the recollections (smriti) of ancient sages. They possess authority as grounded on the Veda, being composed by holy personages conversant with its contents. Nor was it superfluous to compose anew what was there to be found; for a compilation, exhibiting in a succinct form that which is scattered through the Veda, has its use. Nor are the prayers which the smrti directs unauthorized, for they are presumed to have been taken from passages of revelation not now forthcoming. Those recollections have come down by unbroken tradition to this day, admitted by the virtuous of the three tribes, and known under the title of Dharma-sastra, comprising the institutes of law, civil and religious. Nor is error to be presumed which had not, until now, been detected. An express text of the Veda, as the Mimansa maintains, [lb. 1. 3. 1.] must then be concluded to have been actually seen by the venerable author of a recorded recollection (smrti).

But if contradiction appear, if it can be shown that an extant passage of the Veda is inconsistent with one of the smriti, it invalidates that presumption. An actual text, present to the sense, prevails before a presumptive one. [lb. 1. 3. 2.]

Or though no contrary passage of the Veda be actually found, yet if cupidity, or other exceptionable motive may be assigned, revelation is not to be presumed in the instance, the recollection being thus impeached. [1b. 1 3. 3.]

The 'Sacyas (or Bauddhas) and Jainas (or Arhatas), as Cumarila acknowledges, are considered to be Cshatriyas. It is not to be concluded, he says, that their recollections were founded upon a Veda which is now lost. There can be no inference of a foundation in revelation, for unauthentic recollections of persons who deny its authenticity. Even when they do concur with it, as recommending charitable gifts and enjoining veracity, chastity, and innocence, the books of the Sacyas are of no authority for the virtues which they inculcate. Duties are not taken from them: the association would suggest a surmise of vice, [lb. 1. 3. 4.] tainting what else is virtuous. The entire Veda which is directed to be studied is the foundation of duty; and those only who are conversant with it are capable of competent recollections.

Usage generally prevalent among good men, and by them practised as understanding it to be enjoined and therefore incumbent on them, is mediately, but not directly, evidence of duty: but it is not valid if it be contrary to an express text. From the modern prevalence of any usage, there arises a presumption of a correspondent injunction by a holy personage who remembered a revelation to the same effect. Thus usage presumes a recollection, which again presupposes revelation. Authors, however, have omitted particulars, sanctioning good customs in general terms: but any usage which is inconsistent with a recorded recollection is not to be practised, so long as no express text of scripture is found to support it.

In like manner, rituals which teach the proper mode of celebrating religious rites, and are entitled Calpa-sutra or Grihya-grant'ha, derive their authority, like the Dharma-sastra, from a presumption that their authors, being persons conversant with the Veda, collected and abridged rules which they there found. The Calpa-sutras neither are a part of the Veda, nor possess equal nor independent authority. It would be a laborious enterprise to prove a superhuman origin of them; nor can it be accomplished, since contemporaries were aware of the authors being occupied with the composition of them. [GURU on Mim. 1. 3. 7.] Whenever a sutra (whether of the culpa or grihya) is opposed to an extant passage of the Veda, or is inconsistent with valid reason, it is not to be followed; nor is an alternative admissible in regard to its observance in such case, unless a corroborative text of the Veda can be shown. [C'handa-Deva.]

Neither are usages restricted to particular provinces, though certain customs are more generally prevalent in some places than in others: as the Holaca (vulg. Huli) or festival of spring in the east; the worship of local tutelary deities hereditarily, by families, in the south; the racing of oxen on the full moon of Jyesht'ha, in the north; and the adoration of tribes of deities (matri-gana), in the west. Nor are rituals and law institutes confined to particular classes: though some are followed by certain persons preferably to others; as Vasisht'ha, by the Bahvrich sac'ha of the Rigveda: Gautama, by the Gobhiliya of the Samaveda; Sanc'ha and Lic'hita, by the Vajasaneyi; and Apastamba and Baudhayana, by the Taittiriya of the Yajurveda. There is no presumption of a restrictive revelation, but of one of general import. The institutes of law, and rituals of ceremonies, were composed by authors appertaining to particular sac'has, and by them taught to their fellows belonging to the same, and have continued current among the descendants of those to whom they were so taught.

A very curious disquisition occurs in this part of the Mimansa, [1. 3. 5.] on the acceptation of words in correct language and barbaric dialects, and on the use of terms taken from either. Instances alleged are yava, signifying in Sanscrit, barley, but in the barbaric tongue, the plant named priyangu: varaha, in the one a hog, and in the other a cow; pitu, a certain tree, [The name is in vocabularies assigned to many different trees.] but among barbarians an elephant; vetusa, a rattan cane and a citron. The Mimansa concludes, that in such instances of words having two acceptations, that in which it is received by the civilized (aryas), or which is countenanced by use in sacred books, is to be preferred to the practice of barbarians (Mlech'ha), who are apt to confound words or their meanings.

Concerning these instances, Cumarila remarks that the words have no such acceptation, in any country, as is by the scholiast alleged. He. is wrong in regard to one, at least, for pitu is evidently the Persian fit or pit. Modern vocabularies [JATADHARA, &c.] exhibit the word as a Sanscrit one in the same sense; erroneously, as appears from this disquisition.

Then follows, in Cumarila's Vartica, much upon the subject of provincial and barbaric dialects; which, adverting to the age in which he flourished, is interesting, and merits the attention of philologists. He brings examples from the Andhra and Dravida dialects, and specifies as barbaric tongues the Parasica, Yavana, Raumaca, and Barbara, but confesses his imperfect acquaintance with these.

Jaimini gives an instance of a barbaric term used in the Veda, viz., pica, a black cuckow (cuculus indicus); to which his scholiasts add nema, half, tamarasa, a lotus, and sata a wooden colander; but without adducing examples of the actual use of them in any of the Vedas. Such terms must be taken in their ordinary acceptation, though barbarous; and the passage quoted from the Veda where the word pica occurs, must be interpreted "sacrifice a black cuckow at night." It will here be remarked, that pica corresponds to the Latin picus, and that nem answers to the Persic nim.

On the other hand, a barbaric word, or a provincial corruption, is not to be employed instead of the proper Sanscrit term. Thus go (gauh), and not gawi, is the right term for a cow. [Vart. 1. 3. 4.] Orthography, likewise, is to be carefully attended to; else by writing or reading aswa for aswa in the directions for the sacrifice of a horse, the injunction would seem to be for the sacrifice of a pauper (a-swa, destitute of property).

Generally, words are to be applied in strict conformity with correct grammar. The Sacyas, and other heretics, as Cumarila in this place remarks, [Vart. 1. 3. 7.] do not use Sanscrit (they employ Pracrit). But Brahmanas should not speak as barbarians. Grammar, which is primeval, has been handed down by tradition. Language is the same in the Vedas and in ordinary discourse, notwithstanding a few deviations: the import of words is generic, though the application of them is specific.

The peculiarities of the dialect of the Veda are not to be taken for inaccuracies. Thus, tman stands for atman, self or soul; and Brahmanasah for Brahmanah, priests; with many other anomalies of the sacred dialect. [Mim. 1. 3. 10.]

When the ordinary acceptation of a term is different from that which it bears in an explanatory passage, this latter import prevails in the text likewise, else the precept and its supplement would disagree. Thus trivrit, triplet, is specially applied to a hymn comprising three triplets or nine stanzas, which is the peculiar sense it bears in the Vedas.

Again, charu, which in ordinary discourse signifies boiler or cauldron, is in the Vedas an oblation of boiled food, as rice, &c. So aswabala, which literally means horse-hair, is a designation of a species of grass (saccharum spontaneum) into which it is said the tail of a consecrated horse was once transformed; and of that grass a cushion is made for certain religions rites.

It will be observed, as has been intimated in speaking of the members of an adhicarana in the Mimansa, that a case is proposed, either specified in Jaimini's text or supplied by his scholiasts. Upon this a doubt or question is raised, and a solution of it is suggested, which is refuted, and a right conclusion established in its stead. The disquisitions of the Mimansa bear, therefore, a certain resemblance to juridical questions; and, in fact, the Hindu law being blended with the religion of the people, the same modes of reasoning are applicable, and are applied to the one as to the other. The logic of the Mimansa is the logic of the law; the rule of interpretation of civil and religious ordinances. Each case is examined and determined upon general principles; and from the cases decided the principles may be collected. A well-ordered arrangement of them would constitute the philosophy of the law: and this is, in truth, what has been attempted in the Mimansa. Jaimini's arrangement, however, is not philosophical; and I am not acquainted with any elementary work of this school in which a better distribution has been achieved. I shall not here attempt to supply the defect, but confine the sequel of this essay to a few specimens from divers chapters of Jaimini, after some more remarks on the general scope and manner of the work.

Instances of the application of reasoning, as taught in the Mimansa, to the discussion and determination of juridical questions, may be seen in two treatises on the Law of Inheritance, translated by myself, and as many on Adoption, by a member of this Society, Mr. J. C. C. Sutherland (See Mitacshara on Inheritance, 1. 1. 10, and 1. 9. 11, and 2. 1. 34; Jimuta Vahana, 11, 5. 16 -19. Datt. Mim. on Adoption, 1. 1. 35-41, and 4. 4. 65-66 and 6. 6. 27-31. Datt. Chand. 1. 1. 24 and 2. 2. 4).

The subject which most engages attention throughout the Mimansa, recurring at every turn, is the invisible or spiritual operation of an act of merit. The action ceases, yet the consequence does not immediately ensue. A virtue meantime subsists, unseen, but efficacious to connect the consequence with its past and remote cause, and to bring about at a distant period, or in another world, the relative effect.

That unseen virtue is termed apurva, being a relation superinduced, not before possessed.

Sacrifice (yaga), which, among meritorious works, is the act of religion most inculcated by the Vedas, and consequently most discussed  in the prior Mimansa, consists in parting with a thing that it may belong to a deity, whom it is intended to propitiate. [Mim. 4. 4.12.] Being cast into the fire for that purpose, it is a burnt offering (homa). Four sorts are distinguished; a simple oblation (ish'ti), the immolation of a victim (pasu), the presenting of expressed juice of the soma plant (asclepias acida), and the burnt-offering above-mentioned. [lb. 4. 4. 1.] The object of certain rites is some definite temporal advantage; of others, benefit in another world. Three ceremonies, in particular, are types of all the rest: the consecration of a sacrificial fire, the presenting of an oblation, and the preparation of the soma. The oblation which serves as a model for the rest, is that which is offered twice in each month, viz. at the full and change of the moon. It is accompanied, more especially at the new moon, with an oblation of whey from new milk. Accordingly, the Yajurveda begins with this rite. It comprehends the sending of selected cows to pasture after separating their calves, touching them with a leafy branch of palasa (butea frondosa) cut for the purpose, and subsequently stuck in the ground in front of the apartment containing the sacrificial fire, for a protection of the herd from robbers and beasts of prey: the cows are milked in the evening and again in the morning; and, from the new milk, whey is then prepared for an oblation.

Concerning this ceremony, with all its details, numerous questions arise, which are resolved in the Mimansa: for instance, the milking of the cows is pronounced to be not a primary or main act, but a subordinate one; and the parting of the calves from their dams is subsidiary to that subordinate act. [lb. 4. 3. 10.] The whey, which in fact is milk modified, is the main object of the whole preparation; not the curd, which is but incidentally produced, not being sought nor wanted. [Mim. 4. 1. 9.]

In the fourth chapter of the first book, the author discriminates terms that modify the precept from such as are specific denominations. Several of the instances are not a little curious. Thus it is a question, whether the hawk-sacrifice (syena-yaga), which is attended with imprecations on a hated foe, be performed by the actual immolation of a bird of that kind. The case is determined by a maxim, that "a term intimating resemblance is denominative." Hawk, then, is the name of that incantation: "it pounces on the foe as a falcon on his prey." [Ib. 1. 4. 5. and 3. 7. 23.] So tongs is a name for a similar incantation, "which seizes the enemy from afar as with a pair of tongs;" and cow, for a sacrifice to avert such imprecations.

It is fit to remark in this place, that incantations for destruction of hated foes, though frequent in the Vedas (and modes of performing them, with greater or less solemnity, are there taught), cannot be deemed laudable acts of religion; on the contrary, they are pronounced to be at least mediately criminal; and pains in hell, as for homicide, await the malevolent man who thus practices against the life of his enemy.

Another instance, discussed in the same chapter, is chitra, applied to a sacrifice performed for acquisition of cattle. It is questioned whether the feminine termination, joined to the ordinary signification of the word, indicates a female victim of a varied colour. It intends, however, an offering termed various, as consisting of no less than six different articles: honey, milk, curds, boiled butter, rice in the husk as well as clean, and water. [1b. 1. 4. 3.]

In like manner, udbhid is the name of a sacrifice directed to be performed for the like purpose: that is, by a person desirous of possessing cattle. The sense approaches to the etymology of the term: it is a ceremony "by which possession of cattle is, as it were, dug up." It does not imply that some tool for delving, as a spade or hoe for digging up the earth, is to be actually employed in the ceremony.

A question of considerable interest, as involving the important one concerning property in the soil in India, is discussed in the sixth lecture. [lb. 6. 7. 2.] At certain sacrifices, such as that which is called viswajit, the votary, for whose benefit the ceremony is performed, is enjoined to bestow all his property on the officiating priests. It is asked whether a paramount sovereign shall give all the land, including pasture-ground, highways, and the site of lakes and ponds; an universal monarch, the whole earth; and a subordinate prince, the entire province over which he rules? To that question the answer is: the monarch has not property in the earth, nor the subordinate prince in the land. By conquest kingly power is obtained, and property in house and field which belonged to the enemy. The maxim of the law, that "the king is lord of all excepting sacerdotal wealth," concerns his authority for correction of the wicked and protection of the good. His kingly power is for government of the realm and extirpation of wrong; and for that purpose he receives taxes from husbandmen, and levies fines from offenders. But right of property is not thereby vested in him; else he would have property in house and land appertaining to the subjects abiding  in his dominions. The earth is not the king's, but is common to all beings enjoying the fruit of their own labour. It belongs, says JAIMINI, to all alike: therefore, although a gift of a piece of ground to an individual does take place, the whole land cannot be given by a monarch, nor a province by a subordinate prince 5 but house and field, acquired by purchase and similar means, are liable to gift." [SAB. MADH. and C'HANDA, ad locum.]

The case which will be here next cited, will bring to recollection the instance of the Indian Calanus, [Calyana.] who accompanied Alexander's army, and burnt himself at Babylon after the manner of his country.

This particular mode of religious suicide by cremation is now obsolete; as that of widows is in some provinces of India, and it may be hoped will become so in the rest, if no injudicious interference by direct prohibition arouse opposition and prevent the growing disuse. Other modes of religious suicide not unfrequently occur; such as drowning, burying alive, falling from a precipice or under the wheels of an idol's car, &c. But they are not founded on the Vedas, as that by burning is.

Self-immolation, in that ancient form of it, is a solemn sacrifice, performed according to rites which the Vedas direct, by a man desirous of passing immediately to heaven without enduring disease. He engages priests, as at other sacrifices, for the various functions requisite to the performance of the rites, being himself the votary for whose benefit the ceremony is undertaken. At a certain stage of it, after wrapping a cloth round a branch of udumbara (ficus glomerata), which represents a sacrificial stake, and having appointed the priests to complete the ceremony, he chants a solemn hymn, and casts himself on a burning pile wherein his body is consumed. Afterwards, whatever concerns the rite as a sacrificial ceremony, is to be completed by the attendant priests: Omitting, however, those matters which specially appertain to the votary, and which, after his death, there is no one competent to perform. [Mim. 10, 2. 23.]

In like manner, if the principal die by a natural death, after engaging Brahmanas to co-operate with him in the celebration of certain rites requiring the aid of several priests, his body is to be burnt, and his ashes kept to represent him; and the ceremony is completed for his benefit, according to one opinion, but for theirs according to another. The ashes, it is argued, do not perform the ceremony, but the priests do. Being inanimate, the bones cannot fulfil the prescribed duties peculiar to the principal: as utterance of certain prayers, shaving of hair and beard, measure of his stature with a branch of udumbara, &c. These and similar functions are not practicable by an inanimate skeleton, and therefore are unavoidably omitted. [Mim. 10. 2. 17-20.]

The full complement of persons officiating at a great solemnity is seventeen. This number, as is shown, includes the votary or principal, who is assisted by sixteen priests engaged by him for different offices, which he need not personally discharge. His essential function is the payment of their hire or sacrificial fee. [lb 3. 7. 8-17.]

They rank in different gradations, and are remunerated proportionably. Four, whose duties are most important, receive the full perquisite; four others are recompensed with a half; the four next with a third; and the four last with a quarter.

On occasions of less solemnity four priests only are engaged, making with the principal five officiating persons. A question is raised, whether the immolator of a victim at the sacrifice of an animal (usually a goat) be a distinct officiating person: the answer is in the negative. No one is specially engaged for immolator independently of other functions; but some one of the party, who has other duties to discharge, slays the victim in the prescribed manner, and is accordingly termed immolator. [Ib. 3. 7. 13.]

The victims at some sacrifices are numerous: as many as seventeen at the vajapeya, made fast to the same number of stakes; and at an aswamed'ha not fewer than six hundred and nine of all descriptions, tame and wild, terrestrial and aquatic, walking, flying, swimming, and creeping things, distributed among twenty-one stakes and in the intervals between them; the tame made fast to the stakes, and the wild secured in cages, nets, baskets, jars, and hollow canes, and by various other devices. The wild are not to be slain, but at a certain stage of the ceremony let loose. The tame ones, or most of them (chiefly goats), are to be actually immolated.

The various rites are successively performed for each victim; not completed for one before they are commenced for another. But the consecration of the sacrificial stakes is perfected for each in succession, because the votary is required to retain hold of the stake until the consecration of it is done. [Ib. 5. 2. 1-5.]

The foregoing instances may suffice to give some idea of the nature of the subjects treated in the Mimansa, and of the way in which they are handled. They have been selected as in themselves curious,  rather than as instructive specimens of the manner in which very numerous and varied cases are examined and questions concerning them resolved. The arguments would be tedious, and the reasons of the solution would need much elucidation, and after all would, in general, be uninteresting.

A few examples of the topics investigated, and still fewer of the reasoning applied to them, have therefore been considered as better conveying in a small compass a notion of the multifarious subjects of the Mimansa.
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

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Part 1 of 2

IX. On the Philosophy of the Hindus.

PART IV.
[Read at a public meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, April 7, 1827.]

[From the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. p. 1-39.]

INTRODUCTION.

A PRECEDING essay on Indian philosophy contained a succinct account of the Carma-mimansa. The present one will be devoted to the Brahma mimansa; which, as the complement of the former, is termed uttara, later, contrasted with purva, prior, being the investigation of proof, deducible from the Vedas in regard to theology, as the other is in regard to works and their merit. The two together, then, comprise the complete system of interpretation of the precepts and doctrine of the Vedas, both practical and theological. They are parts of one whole. The later Mimansa is supplementary to the prior, and is expressly affirmed to be so: but, differing on many important points, though agreeing on others, they are essentially distinct in a religious as in a philosophical view.

The ordinary designation of the Uttara-mimansa is Vedanta, a term likewise of more comprehensive import. It literally signifies "conclusion of the Veda,'' and bears reference to the Upanishads, which are, for the most part, terminating sections of the Vedas to which they belong. It implies, however, the doctrine derived from them, and extends to books of sacred authority, in which that doctrine |is thence deduced; and in this large acceptation, it is "the end and scope of the Vedas."

The followers of the Vedanta have separated in several sects, as 'ancient' and 'modern' Vedantins, and bearing other designations. The points on which they disagree, and the difference of their opinions, will not be a subject of the present essay, but may be noticed in a future one.

Among numerous Upanishads, those which are principally relied upon for the Vedanta, and which accordingly are most frequently cited, are the Ch'handogya, Caushitaci, Vrihad aranyaca, Aitareyaca, Taittiriyaca, Cat'haca, Cat'havalli, Mundaca, Prasna, Swetaswatara; to which may be added the Isa-vasya, Cena, and one or two more.

Certain religious exercises, consisting chiefly in profound meditation, with particular sitting postures rigorously continued, are inculcated as preparing the student for the attainment of divine knowledge, and promoting his acquisition of it. Directions concerning such devout exercises are to be found in several of the Upanishads, especially in the Swetaswatara; and likewise in other portions of the Vedas, as a part of the general ritual. These are accordingly cited by the commentators of the Vedanta, and must be considered to be comprehended under that general term; [For instance, the Agni rahasya brahmana of the Canwas and of the Vajins (or Vajasaneyins); the Rashasya brahmana of the Tandins and of the Paingins.] and others from different sac'has of the Vedas, as further exemplified in a note below. [The Udgit'ha brahmana of the Vajasaneyins, the Panchagni-vidya pracarana of the same, the C'hila grant'ha of the Ranayainyas, the Prana-samvada or Prana-vidya. Dahara-vidya, Harda vidya, Paramatma vidya Satya-vidya, Vaiswanara-vidya, Sandilya vidya, Vamadevya vidya, Upacosala vidya, Paryanca-vidya, Madhu-vidya, Shodasacala-vidya, Samvarga-vidya, &c.]

Besides the portion of the Vedas understood to be intended by the designation of Vedanta, the grand authority for its doctrine is the collection of sutras, or aphorisms, entitled Brahme-sutra or Sariraca-mimansa, and sometimes Sarira-sutra or Vedanta-sutra. Sarira, it should be observed, signifies embodied or incarnate (soul).

Other authorities are the ancient scholia of that text, which is the standard work of the science; and didactic poems comprehended under the designation of smriti, a name implying a certain degree of veneration due to the authors. Such are the Bhagavad gita and Yoga-vasisht'ha, reputed to be inspired writings.

Writers on the Vedanta.

The Sariraca-mimansa or Brahme sutra, above-mentioned, is a collection of succinct aphorisms attributed to Badarayana, who is the same with Vyasa or Veda-vyasa; also called Dwaipayana or Crishna-dwaipayana. According to mythology, he had in a former state, being then a brahmana bearing the name of Apantara-ta-mas. [SANC. &c. on Br. Sutr. 3. 3. 32.] acquired a perfect knowledge of revelation and of the divinity, and was consequently qualified for eternal beatitude. Nevertheless, by special command of the deity, he resumed a corporeal frame and the human shape, at the period intervening between the third and fourth ages of the present world, and was compiler of the Vedas, as his title of Vyasa implies.

In the Puranas, and by Parasara, he is said to be an incarnation (avatara) of Vishnu. This, however, is not altogether at variance with the foregoing legend; since Apantara-Tamas, having attained perfection, was identified with the deity; and his resumption of the human form was a descent of the God, in mythological notions.

Apart from mythology, it is not to be deemed unlikely, that the person (whoever he really was) who compiled and arranged the Vedas, was led to compose a treatise on their scope and essential doctrine. But Vyasa is also reputed author of the Mahabharata, and most of the principal puranas; and that is for the contrary reason improbable, since the doctrine of the puranas, and even of the Bhagavad gita and the rest of the Mahabharata, are not quite consonant to that of the Vedas, as expounded in the Brahme-sutras. The same person would not have deduced from the same premises such different conclusions.

The name of Badarayana frequently recurs in the sutras ascribed to him, as does that of Jaimini, the reputed author of the Purvamimansa, in his. I have already remarked, in the preceding essay, [See p. 189, of this volume.] on the mention of an author by his name, and in the third person, in his own work. It is nothing unusual in literature or science of other nations: but a Hindu commentator will account for it, by presuming the actual composition to be that of a disciple recording the words of his teacher.

Besides Badarayana himself, and his great predecessor Jaimini, several other distinguished names likewise occur, though less frequently: some which are also noticed in the Purva-mimansa, as Atrieyi and Badari; and some which are not there found, as Asmarat'hya, Audulomi, Carshnajini, and Casacritsna; and the Yoga of Patanjali, which consequently is an anterior work; as indeed it must be, if its scholiast, as generally acknowledged, be the same Vyasa who is the author of the aphorisms of the Uttara-mimansa.

The Sariraca is also posterior to the atheistical Sanc'hya of Capila, to whom, or at least to his doctrine, there are many marked allusions in the text.

The atomic system of Canade (or, as the scholiast of the Sariraca, in more than one place, contumeliously designates him, Cana-Bhuj or Canabhacsha) is frequently adverted to for the purpose of confutation; as are the most noted heretical systems, viz. the several sects of Jainas, the Bauddhas, the Pasupalas with other classes of Maheswaras, the Pancharatras or Bhagavatas, and divers other schismatics.

From this, which is also supported by other reasons, there seems to be good ground for considering the Sariraca to be the latest of the six grand systems of doctrine (darsana) in Indian philosophy: later, likewise, than the heresies which sprung up among the Hindus of the military and mercantile tribes (cshatriya and vaisya) and which, disclaiming the Vedas, set up a Jina or a Buddha for an object of worship; and later even than some, which, acknowledging the Vedas, have deviated into heterodoxy in their interpretation of the text.

In a separate essay, [See p. 243, of this volume.] I have endeavoured to give some account of the heretical and heterodox sects which the Sariraca confutes: and of which the tenets are explained, for the elucidation of that confutation, in its numerous commentaries. I allude particularly to the Jainas, Bauddhas, Charvacas, Pasupatas, and Pancharatras.

The sutras of Badarayana are arranged in four books or lectures (adhyaya), each subdivided into four chapters or quarters (pada). Like the aphorisms of the prior Mimansa, they are distributed very unequally into sections, arguments, cases, or topics (adhicarana). The entire number of sutras is 555; of adhicaranas 191. But in this there is a little uncertainty, for it appears from Sancara, that earlier commentaries subdivided some adhicaranas, where he writes the aphorisms in one section.

An adhicarana in the later, as in the prior Mimansa, consists of five members or parts: 1st, the subject and matter to be explained; 2d, the doubt or question concerning it; 3d, the plausible solution or prima facie argument; 4th, the answer, or demonstrated conclusion and true solution; 5th, the pertinence or relevancy and connexion.

But in Badarayana's aphorisms, as in those of Jaimini, no adhicarana is fully set forth. Very frequently the solution only is given by a single sutra, which obscurely hints the question, and makes no allusion to any different plausible solution, nor to arguments in favour of it. More rarely the opposed solution is examined at some length, and arguments in support of it are discussed through a string of brief sentences.

Being a sequel of the prior Mimansa, the latter adopts the same distinctions of six sources of knowledge or modes of proof [Vedanta paribhasha.] which are taught by Jaimini, supplied where he is deficient by the old scholiast. There is, indeed, no direct mention of them in the Brahme-sutras, beyond a frequent reference to oral proof, meaning revelation, which is sixth among those modes. But the commentators make ample use of a logic which employs the same terms with that of the Purva-mimansa, being founded on it, though not without amendments on some points. Among the rest, the Vedantins have taken the syllogism (nyaya) of the dialectic philosophy, with the obvious improvement of reducing its five members to three. [Vedanta paribhasha.] "It consists," as expressly declared, "of three, not of five parts; for as the requisites of the inference are exhibited by three members, two more are superfluous. They are either the proposition, the reason, and the example; or the instance, the application, and the conclusion."

In this state it is a perfectly regular syllogism, as I had occasion to remark in a former essay: [See p. 185, of this volume.] and it naturally becomes a question, whether the emendation was borrowed from the Greeks, or being sufficiently obvious, may be deemed purely Indian, fallen upon without hint or assistance from another quarter. The improvement does not appear to be of ancient date, a circumstance which favours the supposition of its having been borrowed. The earliest works in which I have found it mentioned are of no antiquity. [Sanc. 3. 3. 53.]

The logic of the two Mimansas merits a more full examination than the limits of the present essay allow, and it has been reserved for a separate consideration at a future opportunity, because it has been refined and brought into a regular form by the followers, rather than by founders of either school.

The Sariraca-sutras are in the highest degree obscure, and could never have been intelligible without an ample interpretation. Hinting the question or its solution, rather than proposing the one or briefly delivering the other, they but allude to the subject. Like the aphorisms of other Indian sciences, they must from the first have been accompanied by the author's exposition of the meaning, whether orally taught by him or communicated in writing.

Among ancient scholiasts of the Brahme-sutras the name of BAUDHAYANA occurs: an appellation to which reverence, as to that of a saint or rishi, attaches. He is likewise the reputed author of a treatise on law. An early gloss, under the designation of vritti, is quoted without its author's name, and is understood to be adverted to in the remarks of later writers, in several instances, where no particular reference is however expressed. It is apparently Baudhayana's. An ancient writer on both mimansas (prior and later) is cited, under the name of upavarsha, with the epithet of venerable (bhagavat), [In the Vedanta paribhasha and Padart'ha dipica.] implying that he was a holy personage. He is noticed in the supplement to the Amera-cosha [Tricanda sesha.] as a saint (muni), with the titles or additions of Hala-bhriti, Crita-coti, and Ayachita. It does not appear that any of his works are now forthcoming.

The most distinguished scholiast of these sutras, in modern estimation, is the celebrated Sancara Acharya, the founder of a sect among Hindus which is yet one of the most prevalent. I have had a former occasion of discussing the antiquity of this eminent person; and the subject has been since examined by Rama Mohen Raya and by Mr. Wilson. [Sanscrit Dict., first edit,, pref. p. xvi.] I continue of opinion, that the period when he flourished may be taken to have been the close of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century of the Christian era; and I am confirmed in it by the concurring opinions of those very learned persons.

How much earlier the older scholia were, or the text itself, there is no evidence to determine. If the reputed author be the true one, it would be necessary to go back nearly two thousand years, to the era of the arrangement of the Vedas by Vyasa.

Sancara's gloss or perpetual commentary of the sutras bears the title of Sariraca-mimansa-bhashya. It has been annotated and interpreted by a herd of commentators; and among others, and most noted, by Vachespati Misra, in the Bhamati or Sariraca-bhashya-vibhaga.

This is the same Vachespati, whose commentaries on the Sanc'hya-carica of Iswara Chandra, and on the text and gloss of Patanjali's Yoga and Gotama's Nyaya, were noticed in former essays. [See pp. 147, 148, 166, of this volume.] He is the author of other treatises on dialectics (Nyaya), and of one entitled Tatwa-vindu on the Purva-mimansa, as it is expounded by BHATTA. All his works, in every department, are held in high and deserved estimation.

Vachespati's exposition of Sancara's gloss, again, has been amply annotated and explained in the Vedanta-calpataru of ANALANANDA, sumamed Vyasasrama; whose notes, in their turn, become the text for other scholia: especially a voluminous collection under the title of Parimala, or Vedanta-calpataru-parimala, by Apyayadicshita (author of several other works); and an abridged one, under that of Vedanta calpataru-manjari, by Vidyanat'ha Bhatta.

Other commentaries on Sancara's gloss are numerous and esteemed, though not burdened with so long a chain of scholia upon scholia: for instance, the Brahma-vidya-bharana by Adwaitananda, [It is by Mr. Ward named Vedanta sutra vyac'hya by Brahma-vidyabha-rana, mistaking the title of the work for the appellation of the author. Yet it is expressly affirmed in the rubric and colophon to be the work of Adwaitananda, who abridged it from an ampler commentary by Ramananda Tirt'ha. The mistake is the more remarkable, as the same Adwaitananda was preceptor of SADANANDA, whose work, the Vedanta-sara, Mr. Ward attempted to translate; and the only part of Sadananda's preface, which is preserved in the version, is that preceptor's name. Mr. Ward's catalogue of treatises extant belonging to this school of philosophy exhibits other like errors. He puts Madhava for Madhusudana, the name of an author; converts a commentary (the Muctavali) into an abridgment; and turns the text (mula) of the Vedanta-sara into its essence. Ward's Hindus, vol., iv. pp. 172, 173.] and the Bhashya-ratnaprabha by Govindananda; both works of acknowledged merit.

These multiplied expositions of the text and of the gloss furnish an inexhaustible fund of controversial disquisition, suited to the disputatious schoolmen of India. On many occasions, however, they are usefully consulted, in succession, for annotations supplying a right interpretation of obscure passages in Sancara's scholia or in Vyasa's text.

Another perpetual commentary on the sutras of the Sariraca by a distinguished author, is the work of the celebrated Ramanuja, the founder of a sect which has sprung as a schism out of the Vedantin. The points of doctrine, on which these great authorities differ, will be inquired into in another place. It may be readily supposed that they are not unfrequently at variance in the interpretation of the text, and I shall, therefore, make little use of the scholia of Ramanuja for the present essay. For the same reason, I make no reference to the commentaries of Ballabha Acharya, Bhatta Bhascara, ANANTA Tirt'ha surnamed Madhu, and Nilacant'ha, whose interpretations differ essentially on some points from Sancara's.

Commentaries on the Sariraca-sutras by authors of less note are extremely numerous. I shall content myself with naming such only as are immediately under view, viz. the Vedanta-sutra-muctavati by Brahmananda-Saraswati; [Mr. Ward calls this an abridgment of the Vedanta-sutras. It is no abridgment, but a commentary in ordinary form.] the Brahma-sutra-bhashya or Mimansa- bhashya, by Bhascaracharya; the Vedanta-sutra-vyac'hya-chandrica, by BHAVADEVA Misra; the Vyasa-sutra-vritti, by RANGANAT'HA; the Subodhini or Sarira-sutra-sarart'ha-chandrica, by Gangadhara; and the Brahmamritra-vershini, by Ramananda.

This list might with ease be greatly enlarged. Two of the commentaries, which have been consulted in progress of preparing the present essay, are without the authors name, either in preface or colophon, in the only copies which I have seen; and occasions have occurred for noticing authors of commentaries on other branches of philosophy, as well as on the Brahma-mimansa (for instance Vijnyana Bhicshu, author of the Sanc'hya-sara and Yoga-vartica). [See p. 146, 148, of this volume.]

To these many and various commentaries in prose, on the text and on the scholia, must be added more than one in verse. For instance, the Sancshepa-sariraca, which is a metrical paraphrase of text and gloss, by Sarvajnyatmagiri a sannyasi: it is expounded by a commentary entitled Anwayart'ha-pracasica, by Rama Tirt'ha, disciple of Crishna Tirt'ha, and author of several other works; in particular, a commentary on the Upadesa-sahasri, and one on the Vedanta-sara.

Besides his great work, the interpretation of the sutras, Sancara wrote commentaries on all the principal or important Upanishads. His preceptor, Govinda, and the preceptor's teacher, Gaudapada, had already written commentaries on many of them.

Sancara is author, likewise, of several distinct treatises; the most noted of which is the Upadesa-sahasri, a metrical summary of the doctrine deduced by him from the Upanishads and Brahma-sutras, in his commentaries on those original works. The text of the Upadesa-sahasri has been expounded by more than one commentator; and among others by Rama Tirt'ha, already noticed for his comment  on the Sancshepa-sariraca. His gloss of the Upadesa-sahasri is entitled Pada-yojanica.

Elementary treatises on the Vedanta are very abundant. It may suffice to notice a few which are popular and in general use, and which have been consulted in the preparation of the present essay.

The Vedanta-paribhasha of Dharma-raja Dicshita explains, as its title indicates, the technical terms of the Vedanta; and, in course of doing so, opens most of the principal points of its doctrine. A commentary on this work by the author's son, Rama-Crishha Dicshita, bears the title of Vedanta-sic'hamani. Taken together, they form an useful introduction to the study of this branch of Indian philosophy.

The Vedanta-sara is a popular compendium of the entire doctrine of the Vedanta. [Mr. Ward has given, in the fourth volume of his View of the History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindus (third edition) a translation of the Vedanta-sara. I wish to speak as gently as I can of Mr. Ward's performance; but having collated this, I am bound to say it is no version of the original text, and seems to have been made from an oral exposition through the medium of a different language, probably the Bengalese. This will be evident to the oriental scholar on the slightest comparison: for example, the introduction, which does not correspond with the original in so much as a single word, the name of the author's preceptor alone excepted; nor is there a word of the translated introduction countenanced by any of the commentaries. At the commencement of the treatise, too, where the requisite qualifications of a student are enumerated, Mr. Ward makes his author say, that a person possessing those qualifications is heir to the Veda (p. 176). There is no term in the text, nor in the commentaries, which could suggest the notion of heir; unless Mr. Ward has so translated adhicari (a competent or qualified person), which in Bengalese signifies proprietor, or, with the epithet uttara (uttaradhicari) heir or successor. It would be needless to pursue the comparison further. The meaning of the original is certainly not to be gathered from such translations of this and (as Mr. Ward terms them) of other principal works of the Hindus, which he has presented to the public. I was not aware, when preparing the former essays on the Philosophy of the Hindus which have been inserted in the first volume of the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, that Mr. Ward had treated the same topics: but I think it now unnecessary to revert to the subject, for the purpose of offering any remarks on his explanation of other branches of Indian philosophy.] It is the work of Sadananda, disciple of Adwayananda or ADWAITANANDA before-mentioned, and has become the text for several commentaries; and, among the rest, the Vidwanmano-ranjini, by RAMA-TIRT'HA, who has been already twice noticed for other works; and the Subodhini, by Nrisinha Saraswati, disciple of Crishnananda.

A few other treatises may be here briefly noticed.

The Sastra-siddhanta-lesa-sangraha, by Apyaya or (Apyai) or CSHITA, son of Ranganat'ha or RANGARAJA DICSHITA, and author of the Parimala on the Siddhanta calpataru, before-mentioned, as well as of other works, has the benefit of a commentary, entitled Crishnalancara, by Achyuta Crishnananda Tirt'ha, disciple of SWAYAMPRACASANANDA SARASWATi. The Vedanta-siddhanta-vindu, by MADHUSUDANA, disciple of VISWEWA-RANANDA SARASWATI, and author of the Vedanta-calpalatica, and of other works, is in like manner commented on by BRAHMANANDA, disciple of Narayana Tirt'ha.

Analysis.

[In this analysis of the sutras, a portion of the scholia or explanations of commentators is blended with the text, for a brief abstract and intelligible summary of the doctrine.]

The Uttara-mimansa opens precisely as the Purva, announcing the purport in the same terms, except a single, but most important word, brahme instead of dharma. 'Next, therefore, the inquiry is concerning God.' [Br. Sutr. 1. 1. § 1.] It proceeds thus: '[He is that] whence are the birth and [continuance, and dissolution] of [this world]: [He is] the source of [revelation or] holy ordinance.' [1b. § 2 and 3.] That is, as the commentators infer from these aphorisms so expounded, 'He is the omnipotent creator of the world and the omniscient author of revelation.' It goes on to say, 'This appears from the import and right construction of holy writ.' [1b. § 4.]

The author of the sutras next [1b. § 5. (sutr. 5. 11.)] enters upon a confutation of the Sanc'hyas, who insist that nature, termed prad'hana, which is the material cause of the universe, as they affirm, is the same with the omniscient and omnipotent cause of the world recognised by the Vedas. It is not so; for 'wish' (consequently volition) is attributed to that cause, which moreover is termed (atman) soul: 'He wished to be many and prolific, and became manifold.' And again, 'He desired to be many, &c.' [Ch'handogya, 6.] Therefore he is a sentient rational being; not insensible, as the pracriti (nature) or pradhana (matter) of Capila is affirmed to be.

In the sequel of the first chapter [§ § 6 to § 11.] questions are raised upon divers passages of the Vedas, alluded to in the text, and quoted in the scholia, where minor attributes are seemingly assigned to the world's cause; or in which subordinate designations occur, such as might be supposed to indicate an inferior being, but are shown to intend the supreme one.

The cases (adhicaranas) or questions arising on them are examined and resolved concisely and obscurely in the sutras, fully and perspicuously  in the scholia.

'The omnipotent, omniscient, sentient cause of the universe, is (anandamaya) essentially happy. [Taittiriya.] He is the brilliant, golden person, seen within (antar) the solar orb and the human eye. [Ch'handogya, 1.] He is the etherial element (acasa), from which all things proceed and to which all return. [Ch'handogya, I.] He is the breath (prana) in which all beings merge, into which they all rise. [Udgit'ha.] He is the light (Jyotish) which shines in heaven, and in all places high and low, everywhere throughout the world, and within the human person. He is the breath (prana) and intelligent self, immortal, undecaying, and happy, with which Indra, in a dialogue with Pratardana, identifies himself.' [Caushitaci.]

The term prana, which is the subject of two of the sections just quoted (§ 9 and 11), properly and primarily signifies respiration, as well as certain other vital actions (inspiration, energy, expiration, digestion, or circulation of nourishment); and secondarily, the senses and organs. [Br. Sutr. 2. 4. § 1, 6. (S. 1, 13.)] But, in the passages here referred to, it is employed for a different signification, intending the supreme Brahme; as also in divers other texts of the Vedas: and, among the rest, in one where the senses are said to be absorbed into it during profound sleep; [SANC. &c. on Br. Sutr. 1. 1. § 9.] for 'while a man sleeps without dreaming, his soul is with Brahme. '

Further cases of the like nature, but in which the indications of the true meaning appear less evident, are discussed at length in the second and third chapters of the first book. Those in which the distinctive attributes of the supreme being are more positively indicated by the passage whereon a question arises, had been considered in the foregoing chapter: they are not so clearly denoted in the passages now examined, such as concern God as the object of devout meditation and worship, are for the most part collected in the second chapter; those which relate to God as the object of knowledge, are reserved for the third. Throughout these cases, completed where requisite by the scholiast, divers interpretations of a particular term or phrase are first proposed, as obvious and plausible, and reasons favourable to the proposed explanation set forth; but are set aside by stronger arguments, for a different and opposite construction. The reasoning is here omitted, as it would need much elucidation; and the purpose of this analysis is to exhibit the topics treated, and but summarily the manner of handling them.

It is not the embodied (sarira) and individual soul, but the supreme Brahme himself, [Brahman is, in this acceptation, a neuter noun (nom. Brahme or Brahma); and the same term in the masculine (nom. Brahma) is one of the three Gods who constitute one person. But it is more conformable with our idiom to employ the masculine exclusively, and many Sanscrit terms of the same import are masculine; as Paramatman(-tma), Paramesnara &c.] on whom devout meditation is to be fixed, as enjoined in a passage which declares: 'this universe is indeed Brahme; [Ch'handogya, 3. 'Sanditya-vidya. Br. Sutr. 1. 2. § 1, (S. 1, 8.)] for it springs from him, merges in him, breathes in him: therefore, serene, worship him. Verily, a devout man, as are his thoughts or deeds in this world, such does he become departing hence [in another birth]. Frame then the devout meditation, "a living body endued with mind ..."' [Cat'havalli, 2. Br. Sutr. 1. 2. § 2. (8. 9, 10).]

It is neither fire nor the individual soul, but the supreme being, who is the 'devourer' (attri) described in the dialogue between YAMA and Nachicetas: [Cat'havalli. 3. Br. S. 1. 2. § 3. (S. 11, 12.)] ' who, then, knows where abides that being, whose food is the priest and the soldier (and all which is fixt or moveable), and death is his sauce?'

In the following passage, the supreme spirit, and not the intellectual faculty, is associated with the individual living soul, as "two occupying the cavity or ventricle of the heart" (guham pravish'tau atmanau). 'Theologists, as well as worshippers maintaining sacred fires, term light and shade the contrasted two, who abide in the most excellent abode, worthy of the supreme, occupying the cavity (of the heart), dwelling together in the worldly body, and tasting the certain fruit of good (or of evil) works.' [Ch'handogya 4. Upacosala-vidya. Br. Sutr. 1. 2. § 4. (S. 13, 17.)]

In the following extract from a dialogue, [Vrihad aranyaca, 5. Br. Sutr. 1 . 2. § 5. (S 18, 20.)] in which Satyacama instructs Upacosala, the supreme being is meant; not the reflected image in the eye, nor the informing deity of that organ, nor the regent of the sun, nor the individual intelligent soul. 'This being, who is seen in the eye, is the self (atman): He is immortal, fearless Brahme. Though liquid grease, or water, be dropped therein, it passes to the corners (leaving the eye-ball undefiled).'

So, in a dialogue, in which Yajnyawalcya instructs Uddalaca, [Mundaca, an Upanishad of the At'harvana. Br. Sutr. 1. 2. § 6. (S. 21, 23.)] "the internal check" (antaryamin) is the supreme being; and not the individual soul, nor the material cause of the world, nor a subordinate deity, the conscious informing regent of the earth, nor a saint possessing transcendent power: where premising, 'he who eternally restrains (or governs) this and the other world, and all beings therein,' the instructor goes on to say: 'who standing in the earth is other than [the earth, whom the earth knows not, whose body the earth is, who interiorly restrains (and governs) the earth: the same is thy soul (and mine), the "internal check" (antaryamin), immortal, &c,'

Again, in another dialogue, Angiras, in answer to Mahasala, who with SAUNACA visited him for instruction, declares 'there are two sciences, one termed inferior, the other superior. The inferior comprises the four Vedas, with their appendages, grammar, &c.' (all of which he enumerates): 'but the superior (or best and most beneficial) is that by which the unalterable (being) is comprehended, who is invisible (imperceptible by organs of sense), ungrasped (not prehensible by organs of action), come of no race, belonging to no tribe, devoid of eye, ear (or other sensitive organ), destitute of hand, foot (or other instrument of action), everlasting lord, present every where, yet most minute. Him, invariable, the wise contemplate as the source (or cause) of beings. As the spider puts forth and draws in his thread, as plants spring from the earth (and return to it), as hair of the head and body grows from the living man, so does the universe come of the unalterable... ' Here it is the supreme being, not nature or a material cause, nor an embodied individual soul, who is the invisible (adresya) ungrasped source of (all) beings (bhuta-yoni).

In a dialogue between several interlocutors, Prachinasala, UDDALACA, and ASWAPATi, king of the Caiceyis, (of which a version at length was inserted in an essay on the Vedas, [ See p. 50, of this volume.] the terms vaiswanara and atman occur (there translated universal soul). The ordinary acceptation of vaiswanara is tire: and it is therefore questioned, whether the element of fire be not here meant, or the regent of tire, that is, the conscious, informing deity of it, or a particular deity described as having an igneous body, or animal heat designated as alvine fire; and whether likewise atman intends the living, individual soul, or the supreme being. The answer is, that the junction of both general terms limits the sense, and restricts the purport of the passage to the single object to which both terms are applicable: it relates, then, to the supreme being. [Ch'handogya, 5. Br. Sutr. 1. 2. § 7. (S. 24, 32.)]

Under this section the author twice cites Jaimini: [1b. S. 28 and 31.] once for obviating any difficulty or apparent contradiction in this place, by taking the term in its literal and etymological sense (universal guide of men), instead of the particular acceptation of fire; and again, as justifying, by a parallel passage in another Veda, [Vajasaneyi brahmana.] an epithet intimating the minute size of the being in question (pradesa-matra), a span long. [By an oversight, the expression relative to diminutive dimension was omitted in the translated passage.] On this last point other ancient authors are likewise cited: one, Asmarat'hya, who explains it as the result of shrinking or condensation; the other, Badari, as a fruit of imagination or mental conception. [Br Sutr. I. 2. 29. 30.] Reference is also made to another sac'ha of the Veda, [Jabala.] where the infinite, supreme soul is said to occupy the spot between the eye-brows and nose.

'That on which heaven and earth and the intermediate transpicuous region are fixt, mind, with the vital airs (or sensitive organs), know to be the one soul (atman): reject other doctrines. This alone is the bridge of immortality.' [Mundaca. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 1. (S. 1, 7.)] In this passage of an Upanishad of the At'harvana, Brahme is intended, and not any other supposed site (ayatana) of heaven, earth, &c.

In a dialogue between Nareda and Sanatcumara, the (bhuman) 'great' one, proposed as an object of inquiry for him who desires unlimited happiness, since there is no bliss in that which is finite and small, is briefly defined. 'He is great, in whom nought else is seen, heard, or known, but that wherein ought else is seen, heard, or known, is small.' [Ch'handogya. 7. Bhumavidya. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 2. (S. 8, 9.)] Here the supreme being is meant; not breath (prana), which had been previously mentioned as greatest, in a climax of enumerated objects.

So, in a dialogue between Yajnyawalcya and his wife Gargi, [Vrihad arany. 5. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 3. (S. 10, 12.)] being asked by her, 'the heaven above, and the earth beneath, and the transpicuous region between, and all which has been, is, and will be, whereon are they woven and sewn?' answers, the ether (acasa); and being further asked, what it is on which ether is woven or sewn? replies, 'the unvaried being, whom Brahmanas affirm to be neither coarse nor subtile, neither short nor long ...' It is the supreme being who is here meant.

The mystic syllable om, composed of three elements of articulation, is a subject of devout meditation; and the efficacy of that meditation depends on the limited or extended sense in which it is contemplated. The question concerning this mode of worship is discussed in a dialogue between Pippalada and Satyacama. [Prasna, an Upanishad of the At'harvana. Br, Sutr. 1. 3. § 4. (S. 13.)]

If the devotion be restricted to the sense indicated by one element, the effect passes not beyond this world; if to that indicated by two of the elements, it extends to the lunar orb, whence however the soul returns to a new birth; if it be more comprehensive, embracing the import of the three elements of the word, the ascent is to the solar orb, whence, stripped of sin, and liberated as a snake which has cast its slough, the soul proceeds to the abode of Brahme, and to the contemplation of (purusha) him who resides in a corporeal frame: that is, soul reposing in body (purisaya).

That mystic name, then, is applied either to the supreme Brahme, uniform, with no quality or distinction of parts; or to Brahme, not supreme, but an effect (carya) diversified, qualified; who is the same with the Viraj and Hiranya-Garbha of mythology, born in the mundane egg.

It appears from the latter part of the text, that it is the supreme Brahme to whom meditation is to be directed, and on whom the thoughts are to be fixed, for that great result of liberation from sin and worldly trammels.

In a passage descriptive of the lesser ventricle of the heart, it is said: 'within this body (Brahme-pura) Brahme's abode, is a (dahara) little lotus, a dwelling within which is a (dahara) small vacuity occupied by ether (acasa). What that is which is within (the heart's ventricle) is to be inquired, and should be known.' [Ch'handogya, 8. Dahara-vidya. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 5. (S. 14, 21.)] A question is here raised, whether that 'ether' (acasa) within the ventricle of the heart be the etherial element, or the individual sensitive soul, or the supreme one; and it is pronounced from the context, that the supreme being is here meant.

'The sun shines not therein, nor the moon, nor stars: much less this fire. All shines after his effulgence (reflecting his light), by whose splendour this whole (world) is illumined.' [Mundaca, Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 6. (S. 22, 23.)] In this passage it is no particular luminary or mine of light, but the (prajnya) intelligent soul (supreme Brahme) which shines with no borrowed light.

In the dialogue between Yama and Nachicetas, before cited, are the following passages. [Cat'ha. 4. Br. Sutr. 1 . 3. § 7. (S. 24, 25.)] 'A person (purusha) no bigger than the thumb abides in the midst of self;' and again, 'the person no bigger than the thumb is clear as a smokeless flame, lord of the past (present) and future; he is to-day and will be to-morrow: such is he ( concerning whom you inquire ).' This is evidently said of the supreme ruler, not of the individual living soul.

Another passage of the same Upanishad [Cat'ha. 6. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 10. (S. 39.)] declares: 'this whole universe, issuing from breath (prana), moves as it impels: great, terrible, as a clap of thunder. They, who know it, become immortal.' Brahme, not the thunderbolt nor wind, is here meant.

'The living soul (samprasada) rising from this corporeal frame, attains the supreme light, and comes forth with his identical form.' [Ch'handogya 8. Prajapati-vidya, Br. Sutr. I. 3. § 11. (S. 40.)] 'It is neither the light of the sun, nor the visual organ, but Brahme, that is here meant.

'Ether (acasa) is the bearer (cause of bearing) of name and form. That in the midst of which they both are, is Brahme: it is immortality; it is soul.' [Ch'handogya 8 ad finem. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 12. (S. 41.)] Acasa here intends the supreme being, not the element so named.

In a dialogue between Yajnyawalcya and Janaca, [Vrihad aranyaca, 6. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 13. (S. 42. 43.)] in answer to an inquiry 'which is the soul?' the intelligent internal light within the heart is declared to be so. This likewise is shown to relate to the supreme one, unaffected by worldly course.

It had been intimated in an early aphorism of the first chapter, that the Vedas, being rightly interpreted, do concur in the same import, as there expressed concerning the omnipotent and omniscient creator of the universe. [Br. S. 1. 1. § 4.] An objection to this conclusion is raised, upon the ground of discrepancy remarked in various texts of the Vedas, [Ch'handogya. Taittiriya. and Aitareya.] which coincide, indeed, in ascribing the creation to Brahme, but differ in the order and particulars of the world's development. The apparent contradiction is reconciled, as they agree on the essential points of the creator's attributes; omnipotent and omniscient providence, lord of all, soul of all, and without a second, &c.: and it was not the object of the discrepant passages to declare the precise succession and exact course of the world's formation.

Two more sections are devoted to expound passages which define Brahme as creator, and which are shown to comport no other construction. In one, [Caushitaci brahmana. Br. S. 1. 4. §5. (S. 16-18.)] cited from a dialogue between Ajatasatru and Balaci, surnamed Gargya, the object of meditation and worship is pronounced to be, 'he who was the maker of those persons just before mentioned (regents of the sun, moon, &c.), and whose work this universe is.'

In the other, cited from a dialogue between Yajnyawalcya and MAITREYI, [Vrihad aranyaca, Maitreyi brahmana. Br. Sutr. 1. 4. § 6. (S. 19-22.)] soul, and all else which is desirable, are contrasted as mutual objects of affection: 'it is for soul (atman) that opulence, kindred, and all else which is dear, are so; and thereunto soul reciprocally is so; and such is the object which should be meditated, inquired, and known, and by knowledge of whom all becomes known.' This, it is shown, is said of the supreme, not of the individual soul, nor of the breath of life.

Under this last head several authorities are quoted by the author, for different modes of interpretation and reasoning, viz. Asmarat'hya, Audulomi and Casacritsna, as Jaimini under the next preceding (§ 5).

The succeeding section [Br. Sutr. 1.4. § 7. (S. 23-27.)] affirms the important tenet of the Vedanta, that the supreme being is the material, as well as the efficient, cause of the universe; it is a proposition directly resulting from the tenour of passages of the Vedas, and illustrations and examples adduced.

The first lecture is terminated by an aphorism, [Br. Sutr. 1. 4. § 8. (S. 28.)] intimating that, in the like manner as the opinion of a plastic nature and material cause (termed by the Sanc'hyas, pradhana) has been shown to be unsupported by the text of the Veda, and inconsistent with its undoubted doctrine, so, by the like reasoning, the notion of atoms (anu or paramanu) and that of an universal void (sunya), and other as unfounded systems, are set aside in favour of the only consistent position just now affirmed. (Br. Sutr. 1. 1. § 5 and 1. 4. § 7.)

Not to interrupt the connexion of the subjects, I have purposely passed by a digression, or rather several, comprised in two sections of this chapter, [Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 8, 9. (S. 26-38.)] wherein it is inquired whether any besides a regenerate man (or Hindu of the three first tribes) is qualified for theological studies and theognostic attainments; and the solution of the doubt is, that a sudra, or man of an inferior tribe, is incompetent; [Br. Sutr. 1. 3. (S. 28-29.)] and that beings superior to man (the Gods of mythology) are qualified.

In the course of this disquisition the noted question of the eternity of sound, of articulate sound in particular, is mooted and examined. It is a favourite topic in both Mimansas, being intimately connected with that of the eternity of the Veda, or revelation acknowledged by them.
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

Postby admin » Mon Dec 21, 2020 12:21 am

Part 2 of 2

I shall not, however, enter into the matter further, in this place, though much remain to be added to the little which was said on it in a former essay. [See p. 195, of this volume.]

In the fourth chapter of the first lecture, the author returns to the task of confuting the Sanc'hya doctrine; and some passages of the Vedas, apparently favouring that doctrine, are differently interpreted by him: 'the indistinct one (avyacta) is superior to the great one (mahat), and embodied soul (purusha) is superior to the indistinct.' [Cat'ha, 3, Br. Sutr. 1.4. § 1. (S. 1-7.)] Here the very same terms, which the Sanc'hyas employ for 'intelligence,  nature, and soul,' are contrasted, with allusion seemingly to the technical acceptations of them. This passage is, however, explained away; and the terms are taken by the Vedantins in a different sense.

The next instance is less striking and may be briefly dismissed, as may that following it: one relative to aja, alleged to signify in the passage in question [Swetaswatara. B. S. 1. 4. § 2. (S. 8-10.)] the unborn sempiternal nature (pracriti), but explained to intend a luminous nature (pracriti) noticed in the Ch'handogya; (there is in the text itself an evident allusion to the ordinary acceptation of the word, a she-goat): the other concerning the meaning of the words pancha-panchajanah, in a passage of the Vrihad aranyaca, [Vrihad aran. 6. Br. Sutr. 1. 4. § 3. (S. 11-13.)] which a follower of the Sanc'hya would construe as bearing reference to five times five (twenty-five) principles; but which clearly relates to five objects specified in the context, and figuratively termed persons (pancha-jana).

It is because the Sanc'hya doctrine is, in the apprehension of the Vedantins themselves, to a certain degree plausible, and seemingly countenanced by the text of the Vedas, that its refutation occupies so much of the attention of the author and his scholiasts. More than one among the sages of the law (Devala in particular is named) have sanctioned the principles of the Sanc'hyu; and they are not uncountenanced by Menu. [Menu's Institutes, ch. xii., v. 50.] Capila himself is spoken of with the reverence due to a saint (Maha-rishi) and inspired sage; and his most eminent disciples, as Panchasic'ha, &c. are mentioned with like veneration; and their works are dignified with the appellations of tantra and smriti as holy writings, by the Vedantins, at the same time that these oppose and refute the doctrine taught by him.

Capila, indeed, is named in the Veda itself as possessing transcendent knowledge: but here it is remarked, that the name has been borne by more than one sage; and in particular by Vasudeva, who slew the sons of Sagara. [SANC. on Br. Sutr. 2. 1. § 1. (S. 1-2.)] This mythological personage, it is contended, is the Capila named in the Veda.

The second lecture continues the refutation of Capila's Sanc'hya, which, it is observed, is at variance with the smritis, as with the Vedas: and here the name of Menu is placed at the head of them, although the institutes, which bear his name, will be found, as just now hinted, and as subsequently admitted in another section, to afford seeming countenance to Sanc'hya doctrines. Such passages are, however, explained away by the Vedantins, who rely in this instance, as they do in that of the Veda itself, on other texts, which are not reconcileable to the Sanc'hya.

The same argument is in the following section, [Br. Sutr. 2. 1. § 2. (S. 3.)] applied to the setting aside of the Yoga-smriti of Patanjali (Hairanya-garbha), so far as that is inconsistent with the orthodox tenets deduced from the Vedas: and, by parity of reasoning, to Canade's atomical scheme; and to other systems which admit two distinct causes (a material and an efficient one) of the universe.

The doctrine derived from the tenour of the Vedas is to be supported, likewise, by reasoning independently of authority. 'The objection, that the cause and effect are dissimilar, is not a valid one: instances of such dissimilarity are frequent. Hair and nails, which are insensible, grow from a sensible animal body; and sentient vermin (scorpions, &c.) spring from inanimate sources (cow-dung, &c.) The argument, too, might be retorted; for, according to the adverse position, sentient beings are produced from an insensible plastic nature. [Br. Sutr. 2. 1. § 3. (S. 4. 11.)] On these and other arguments the orthodox doctrine is maintainable by reasoning: and by like arguments opinions concerning atoms and an universal void, which are not received by the best persons, may be confuted.' [ Ibid. § 4. (S. 12.)]

'The distinction relative to fruition, discriminating one who enjoys and that which is enjoyed, does not invalidate the singleness and identity of Brahme as cause and effect. [Ibid. 2. 1. § 5. (S. 13.)] The sea is one and not other than its waters; yet waves, foam, spray, drops, froth, and other modifications of it, differ from each other. '

'An effect is not other than its cause. Brahme is single without a second. He is not separate from the embodied self. He is soul; and the soul is he. [Ibid. §6. (S. 14-20.) and §7. (S. 21-23.)] Yet he does not do that only which is agreeable and beneficial to self. The same earth exhibits diamonds, rock crystals, red orpiment, &c.; the same soil produces a diversity of plants; the same food is converted into various excrescences, hair, nails, &c.

'As milk changes to curd, and water to ice, so is Brahme variously transformed and diversified, without aid of tools or exterior means of any sort. [Ibid. § 8. (S. 24-25.)] In like manner, the spider spins his web out of his own substance; spirits assume various shapes; cranes (valaca) propagate without the male; and the lotus proceeds from pond to pond without organs of motion. That Brahme is entire without parts, is no objection: he is not wholly transformed into worldly appearances. Various changes are presented to the same dreaming soul. Differs illusory shapes and disguises are assumed by the same spirit.' [Ibid. § 9. (S. 26-29.)]

'Brahme is omnipotent, able for every act, without organ or instrument. [Ibid. § 10. (S. 30-31.)] No motive or special purpose need be assigned for his creation of the universe, besides his will.' [Ibid. § 11. (S. 32-33.)]

'Unfairness and uncompassionateness are not to be imputed to him, because some (the Gods) are happy, others (beasts and inferior beings) are miserable, and others again (men) partake of happiness and unhappiness. Every one has his lot, in the renovated world, according to his merits, his previous virtue or vice in a former stage of an universe, which is sempiternal and had no beginning in time. So the rain-cloud distributes rain impartially; yet the sprout varies according to the seed.' [Br. Sutr. 2. 1. §. 12. (S. 34-36.)]

'Every attribute of a first cause (omniscience, omnipotence, &c.) exists in Brahme, who is devoid of qualities. ' [Ibid. § 13. (S. 37.)]

The second chapter of the second lecture is controversial. The doctrine of the Sanc'hyas is confuted in the first section; that of the Vaiseshicas in two more; of the Bauddhas in as many; of the Jainas in one; of the Pasupatas and Pancharatras, likewise, in one each. These controversial disquisitions are here omitted; as a brief abstract would hardly be intelligible, and a full explanation would lead to too great length. They have been partly noticed in a separate treatise on the Philosophy of Indian Sects. [See p. 243, of this volume.] It is remarkable, that the Nyaya of Gotama is entirely unnoticed in the text and commentaries of the Vedanta-sutras.

In the third chapter of the second lecture, the task of reconciling seeming contradictions of passages in the Vedas is resumed.

'The origin of air and the etherial element (acasa), unnoticed in the text of the Veda (Ch'handogya), where the creation of the three other elements is described, has been affirmed in another (Taittiriyaca). [Ibid. 2. 3. §. 1 and 2. (S. 1-7 and 8.)] The omission of the one is supplied by the notice in the other; there is no contradiction, as the deficient passage is not restrictive, nor professes a complete enumeration. Ether and air are by Brahme created. But he himself has no origin, no procreator nor maker, for he is eternal, without beginning as without end. [Br. Sutr. 2. 3 § 3. (S. 9.)] So fire, and water, and earth, proceed mediately from him, being evolved successively, the one from the other, as fire from air, and this from ether, [Ibid. § 4-6. (S. 10-12.)] The element of earth is meant in divers passages where food (that is, esculent vegetable) is said to proceed from water: for rain fertilizes the earth. It is by his will, not by their own act, that they are so evolved; and conversely, they merge one into the other, in the reversed order, and are re- absorbed at the general dissolution of worlds, previous to renovation of all things.' [Ibid § 7-8. (S. 13-14.)]

'Intellect, mind, and organs of sense and action, being composed of the primary elements, are evolved and re-absorbed in no different order or succession, but in that of the elements of which they consist.' [Ibid. § 9. (S. 15.)]

'The same course, evolution and re-absorption, or material birth and death, cannot be affirmed of the soul. Birth and death are predicated of an individual, referring merely to his association with body, which is matter fixed or moveable. Individual souls are, in the Veda, compared to sparks issuing from a blazing fire; but the soul is likewise declared expressly to be eternal and unborn. Its emanation is no birth, nor original production. [Br. Sutr. § 10-11 (S. 16-17.)] It is perpetually intelligent and constantly sensible, as the Sanc'hyas too maintain; not adventitiously so, merely by association with mind and intellect, as the disciples of Canade insist. It is for want of sensible objects, not for want of sensibility or faculty of perception, that the soul feels not during profound sleep, fainting, or trance.

'The soul is not of finite dimensions, as its transmigrations seemingly indicate; nor minutely small abiding within the heart, and no bigger than the hundredth part of a hundredth of a hair's point, as in some passages described; but, on the contrary, being identified with supreme Brahme, it participates in his infinity.' [Ibid. 2. 3. § 13. (S. 19-32.)]

'The soul is active; not as the Sanc'hyas maintain, merely passive. [Ibid. § 14. (S. 33-39.)]  Its activity, however, is not essential, but adventitious. As the carpenter, having his tools in hand, toils and suffers, and laying them aside, rests and is easy, so the soul in conjunction with its instruments (the senses and organs) is active, and quitting them, reposes. [Ibid. § 15. (S. 40.)]

'Blind in the darkness of ignorance, the soul is guided in its actions and fruition, in its attainment of knowledge, and consequent liberation and bliss, by the supreme ruler of the universe, [Ibid. § 16. (S. 41-42.)] who causes it to act conformably with its previous resolves: now, according to its former purposes, as then consonantly to its yet earlier predispositions, accruing from preceding forms with no retrospective limit; for the world had no beginning. The supreme soul makes the individuals act relatively to their virtuous or vicious propensities, as the same fertilizing rain-cloud causes various seeds to sprout multifariously, producing diversity of plants according to their kind.

'The soul is a portion of the supreme ruler, [Ibid. § 17. (S. 43—53.)] as a spark is of fire. The relation is not as that of master and servant, ruler and ruled, but as that of whole and part. In more than one hymn and prayer of the Vedas [Rigveda, 8. 4. 17. Yajurveda (Vajasaneyi) 31. 3.] it is said, "All beings constitute one quarter of him; three quarters are imperishable in heaven:" and in the Iswara-gita [SANCARA cites by this name the Bhagavad gita.] and other smritis, the soul, that animates body, is expressly affirmed to be a portion of him. He does not, however, partake of the pain and suffering of which the individual soul is conscious, through sympathy, during its association with body; so solar or lunar light appears as that which it illumines, though distinct therefrom.

'As the sun's image reflected in water is tremulous, quaking with the undulations of the pool, without however affecting other watery images nor the solar orb itself; so the sufferings of one individual affect not another, nor the supreme ruler. But, according to the doctrine of the Sanc'hyas, who maintain that souls are numerous, each of them infinite, and all affected by one plastic principle, nature (pradhana or pracriti), the pain or pleasure, which is experienced by one, must be felt by all. The like consequence is objected to the doctrine of Canade, who taught that souls, numerous and infinite, are of themselves insensible; and mind, the soul's instrument, is minute as an atom, and by itself likewise unsentient. The union of one soul with a mind would not exclude its association with other souls, equally infinite and ubiquitary; and all, therefore, would partake of the same feeling of pain or pleasure. '

The fourth chapter of the second book proceeds in the task of reconciling apparent contradictions of passages in the Vedas. [Br. Sutr. 2. 4. § 1. (S. 1-4.)]

'The corporeal organs of sense and of action, designated by the term prana in a secondary acceptation (it is noticed in its proper signification further on, § 4), have, like the elements and other objects treated of in the foregoing chapter, a similar origin, as modifications of Brahme; although unnoticed in some passages concerning the creation, and mentioned in others as pre-existent, but expressly affirmed in others to be successively evolved. [Ibid. 2. 4. § 1. (S. 1-4.)] The deficiency or omission of one text does not invalidate the explicit tenor of another.

'In various passages, the number of corporeal organs is differently stated, from seven to thirteen. The precise number is, however, eleven: [Ibid. § 2. (S. 5-6.)] the five senses, sight, &c.; five active organs, the hand, &c.; and lastly, the internal faculty, mind, comprehending intelligence, consciousness, and sensation. Where a greater number is specified, the term is employed in its most comprehensive sense; where fewer are mentioned, it is used in a more restricted acceptation:  thus seven sensitive organs are spoken of, relatively to the eyes, ears, and nostrils (in pairs), and the tongue.

'They are finite and small: not, however, minute as atoms, nor yet gross, as the coarser elements. [Ibid. § 3. (S. 7.)]

'In its primary or principal signification, prana is vital action, and chiefly respiration. This, too, is a modification of Brahme. It is not wind (vayu) or the air which is breathed, though so described in numerous passages of the Vedas and other authorities; nor is it an operation of a corporeal organ; but it is a particular vital act, and comprehends five such: 1st, respiration, or an act operating upwards; 2d, inspiration, one operating downwards; 3d, a vigorous action, which is a mean between the foregoing two; 4th, expiration, or passage upwards, as in metempsychosis; 5th, digestion, or circulation  of nutriment throughout the corporeal frame.' [Br. Sutr. 2. 4. § 4. (S. 8.) § 5. (S. 9-12.) § 6. (S. 13.)]

'Here, too, it must be understood of a limited, not vast or infinite act, nor minutely small. The vital act is not so minute as not to pervade the entire frame, as in the instance of circulation of nourishment; yet is small enough to he imperceptible to a bystander, in the instance of life's passage in transmigration.

'Respiration and the rest of the vital acts do not take effect of themselves by an intrinsic faculty, but as influenced and directed by a presiding deity and ruling power, yet relatively to a particular body, to whose animating spirit, and not to the presiding deity, fruition accrues. [Ibid. § 7. (S. 14-16.)]

'The senses and organs, eleven in number, as above mentioned, are not modifications of the principal vital act, respiration, but distinct principles. [Ibid. § 8. (S. 17-19.)]

'It is the supreme ruler, not the individual soul, who is described in passages of the Vedas as transforming himself into divers combinations, assuming various names and shapes, deemed terrene, aqueous, or igneous, according to the predominancy of the one or the other element. When nourishment is received into the corporeal frame, it undergoes a threefold distribution, according to its fineness or coarseness: corn and other terrene food becomes flesh; but the coarser portion is ejected, and the finer nourishes the mental organ. Water is converted into blood; the coarser particles are rejected as urine; the finer supports the breath. Oil or other combustible substance, deemed igneous, becomes marrow; the coarser part is deposited as bone, and the finer supplies the faculty of speech.' [Ibid. § 9. (S. 20-22.)]

The third lecture treats on the means whereby knowledge is attainable, through which liberation and perpetual bliss may be achieved: and, as preliminary thereto, on the passage of the soul furnished with organs into the versatile world and its various conditions; and on the nature and attributes of the supreme being.

'The soul is subject to transmigration. It passes from one state to another, invested with a subtile frame consisting of elementary particles, the seed or rudiment of a grosser body. Departing from that which it occupied, it ascends to the moon; where, clothed with an aqueous form, it experiences the recompense of its works; and whence it returns to occupy a new body with resulting influence of its former deeds. But evil-doers suffer for their misdeeds in the seven appointed regions of retribution. [Ibid. 3. 1. § 1-3. (S. 1-7 and 8-11 and 12-21.)]

'The returning soul quits its watery frame in the lunar orb, and passes successively and rapidly through ether, air, vapour, mist, and cloud, into rain; and thus finds its way into a vegetating plant, and thence, through the medium of nourishment, into an animal embryo.' [Br. Sutr. 3. 1. §4-6. (S. 22-23 and 24-27.)]

In the second chapter of this lecture the states or conditions of the embodied soul are treated of. They are chiefly three; waking, dreaming, and profound sleep: to which may be added for a fourth, that of death; and for a fifth, that of trance, swoon, or stupor, which is intermediate between profound sleep and death (as it were half-dead), as dreaming is between waking and profound sleep. In that middle state of dreaming there is a fanciful course of events, and illusory creation, which however testifies the existence of a conscious soul. In profound sleep the soul has retired to the supreme one by the route of the arteries of the pericardium. [Ibid. 3. 2. § 1-4. (S. 1-6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.)]

The remainder of this chapter is devoted to the consideration of the nature and attributes of the supreme being. 'He is described in many passages of the Veda, as diversified and endued with every quality and particular character; but in other and very numerous texts, as without form or quality. The latter only is truly applicable, not the former, nor yet both. He is impassible, unaffected by worldly modifications; as the clear crystal, seemingly coloured by the red blossom of a hibiscus, is not the less really pellucid. He does not vary with every disguising form or designation, for all diversity is expressly denied by explicit texts; and the notion of variableness relative to him is distinctly condemned in some sac'has of the Veda. [Ibid. 3.2. § 5. (S. 11-13.)]

'He is neither coarse nor subtile, neither long nor short, neither audible nor tangible; amorphous, invariable. '

'This luminous immortal being, who is in this earth, is the same with the luminous, immortal, embodied spirit, which informs the corporeal self, and is the same with the [supreme] soul.' 'He is to be apprehended by mind alone, there is not here any multiplicity. Whosoever views him as manifold dies death after death. [Passages of the Veda cited among others by the scholiasts commenting on the above.]

'He is amorphous, for so he is explicitly declared to be; but seemingly assuming form, as sunshine or moonlight, impinging on an object, appears straight or crooked.' [Br. Sutr. 3. 2. (S. 14.)]

'He is pronounced to be sheer sense, mere intellect and thought: as a lump of salt is wholly of an uniform taste within and without, so is the soul an entire mass of intelligence.' This is affirmed both in the Vedas and in the smritis: and, as such, he is compared to the reflected images of sun and moon, which fluctuate with the rise and fall of the waters that reflect them. [Ibid. 3. 2. (S. 15-20.)] 'The luminous sun, though single, yet reflected in water, becomes various; and so does the unborn divine soul by disguise in divers modes.'

The Veda so describes him, as entering into and pervading the corporeal shapes by himself wrought. [Br. Sutr. 3. 2. S. 21.] 'He framed bodies, biped and quadruped; and becoming a bird, he passed into those bodies, filling them as their informing spirit. '

In the Vrihad aranyaca, after premising two modes of Brahme, morphous and amorphous; one composed of the three coarser elements, earth, water, and fire; the other consisting of the two more subtile, air and ether; it is said, 'next then his name is propounded,' "neither so nor so; for there is none other but he, and he is the supreme. " Here the finite forms premised are denied; for his existence as the supreme being is repeatedly affirmed in this and in other passages. [Ibid. § 6. (S. 22.)]

'He is imperceptible; yet during devout meditation is, as it were, apprehended by perception and inference, through revelation and authentic recollections. [Ibid. S. 23-24.]

'Like the sun and other luminaries, seemingly multiplied by reflection though really single, and like ether (space) apparently subdivided in vessels containing it within limits, the (supreme) light is without difference or distinction of particulars, for he is repeatedly declared so to be. [Ibid. S. 25.] Therefore is one, who knows the truth, identified with the infinite being; for so revelation indicates. But since both are affirmed, the relation is as that of the coiled serpent fancied to be a hoop; or as that of light and the luminary from which it proceeds, for both are luminous. [Ibid. (S. 26-30.)]

'There is none other but he, notwithstanding the apparent import of divers texts, which seem to imply differences, various relations, and aliquot parts. He is ubiquitary and eternal; for he is pronounced to be greater than etherial space, which is infinite. [Ibid. § 7.]

'The fruit or recompense of works is from him, for that is congruous; and so it is expressly affirmed in the Vedas. Jaimini alleges virtue or moral merit; but the author of the sutras (Badarayana Vyasa) maintains the former, because the supreme being is in the Vedas termed the cause of virtue and of vice, as of every thing else.' [ Ibid. § 8.]

The two last chapters of the third lecture relate chiefly to devout exercises and pious meditation, the practice of which is inculcated as proper and requisite to prepare the soul and mind for the reception of divine knowledge, and to promote its attainment. I pass rapidly over this copious part [The third chapter contains thirty-six sections, comprising sixty-six aphorisms; the fourth includes eighteen, comprehending fifty-two sutras; and the subject is pursued in the eight first sections of the fourth lecture.] of the text, for the same reason for which I restricted myself to a very brief notice of the Yoga or theistical Sanc'hya of Patanjali; because religious observances are more concerned than philosophy with the topics there treated, and the ritual of the Yoga according to both systems, Sanc'hya and Vedanta, would be a fitter subject of a separate treatise, rather than to be incidentally touched on while investigating the philosophical doctrines of both schools.

Various questions arise on the modes, forms, and object of meditation taught in the Upanishads and in other portions of the Vedas, as well as on exterior observances either immediately or mediately connected therewith, and likewise on the direct efficacy of knowledge, which are all considered and solved at much length. In general, but not always, the same divine knowledge, the same worship, and like meditations, are intended by the same designations in different Vedas, the omissions and obscurities of one being supplied and explained by another, and even under various designations. By the acquisition of such knowledge, attainable as it is in the present or in a future birth, in lifetime, or to take effect after death, the influence of works is annulled, and consequent deliverance is single, not varying in degree and inducing different gradations of bliss, but complete and final happiness.

The fourth lecture relates chiefly to the fruit and effect of pious meditation properly conducted, and the consequent attainment of divine knowledge. The beginning of the first chapter is, however, supplemental to the foregoing lecture, treating of devout exercises, and the posture (a sitting one) in which devotion and contemplation should be practised, with constant repetition of those observances, and persisting therein during life. [Br. Sutr. 4. 1. § 1-8. (S. 1-12.)]

So soon as that knowledge is attained, past sin is annulled and future offence precluded. [Ibid. § 9. (S. 13.)] "As water wets not the leaf of the lotus, so sin touches not him who knows God: as the floss on the carding comb cast into the fire is consumed, so are his sins burnt away." [Ch'handogya, Brahme-vidya.]

'In like manner, the effect of the converse (that is, of merit and virtue) is by acquisition of knowledge annulled and precluded. It is at death that, these consequences take place. [Br. S. 4. 1. § 10. (S. 14.)] "He traverses both (merit and demerit) thereby." [Vrihad aranyaca.] "The heart's knot is broken, all doubts are split, and his works perish, when he has seen the supreme being." [Mundaca.] "All sins depart from him:" [Ch'handogya.] meaning good works as well as misdeeds; for the confinement of fetters is the same, whether the chain be of gold or iron.' [Anon. com.]

'But only such antecedent sin and virtue are annulled, as had not begun to have effect: for their influence lasts until his deliverance, and then does he merge in the supreme Brahme. [Br. Sutr. 4. 1. § 11. (S. 15.) Ch'handogya.] Those which were in operation are not annulled, as the arrow, which has been shot completes its flight, nor falls till its speed is spent; and the potter's wheel, once set in motion, whirls till the velocity which has been communicated to it is exhausted.'

'However, the maintenance of a perpetual fire, and certain other religious observances enjoined as conducive to the same end, are not rendered inefficacious: [Br. Sutr. 4. 1. § 12. (S. 16-17).] for it is declared that ''Brahmanas seek divine knowledge by holy study, sacrifice, liberality, and devotion:" [Vrihad aranyaca.] and according to some sac'has [Satyayana.] of the Veda, other merits remain likewise effectual; for sons succeed to the inheritance of their father's works; the affectionate share his good deeds; and the malignant participate of his ill actions. These sacrificial observances may be such as are conjoined with devout exercises, faith, and pious meditation; or unattended by those holy practices for attainment of divine knowledge, since they are pronounced most efficacious when so conjoined, which implies that they are not wholly inoperative by themselves.' [Br. Sutr. 4. 1. § 13. (S. 18.) Ch'handogya.]

'Having annulled by fruition other works which had begun to have effect; having enjoyed the recompense and suffered the pains of good and bad actions, the possessor of divine knowledge, on demise of the body, proceeds to a reunion with Brahme. [Br. Sutr. § 14. (S. 19.) Ch'handogya and Vrihad aranyaca.]

The fruit of divine knowledge having been shown in the first chapter, the second chapter of this lecture treats of the particular effect of devout exercises joined with appropriate meditation. It chiefly concerns the ascent of the soul, or mode in which it passes from the body.

'Of a dying person the speech, followed by the rest of the ten exterior faculties (not the corporeal organs themselves), is absorbed into the mind, for the action of the outer organ ceases before the mind's. This in like manner retires into the breath, [Ch'handogya. Br. Sutr. 4. 2. § 1-3.] attended likewise by all the other vital functions, for they are life's companions; and the same retreat of the mind is observable, also, in profound sleep and in a swoon. Breath, attended likewise by all other vital faculties, is withdrawn into the living soul which governs the corporeal organs, as the attendants of a king assemble around him when he is setting out upon a journey; for all vital functions gather about the soul at the last moment when it is expiring. [Vrihad aranyaca.] The living soul, attended with all its faculties, retires within a rudiment of body, composed of light with the rest of the five elements, in a subtile  state. "Breath," is, therefore, said to withdraw into "light;" not meaning that element (or fire) exclusively; nor intending direct transition, for a traveller has gone from one city to another, though he passed through an intermediate town.'

'This retirement from the body is common to ordinary uninformed people as to the devout contemplative worshipper, until they proceed further on their respective paths: and immortality (without immediate reunion with the supreme Brahme) is the fruit of pious meditation, though impediments may not be wholly consumed and removed. [Br. Sutr. 4. 2. § 4. (S. 7.)]

'In that condition the soul of the contemplative worshipper remains united to a subtile elementary frame, conjoined with the vital faculties, until the dissolution of worlds, when it merges in the supreme deity. That elementary frame is minute in its dimensions as subtile in its texture, and is accordingly imperceptible to bystanders when departing from the body: nor is it oppressed by cremation or other treatment which that body undergoes. It is by its warmth sensible so long as it abides with that coarser frame, which becomes cold in death when it has departed, [Ibid. § 5. (S. 8-11.) Cat'havalli, &c.] and was warm during life while it remained.

'But he who has attained the true knowledge of God does not pass through the same stages of retreat, proceeding directly to reunion with the supreme being, with which he is identified, as a river, at its confluence with the sea, merges therein altogether. His vital faculties and the elements of which his body consists, all the sixteen component parts which constitute the human frame, are absorbed absolutely and completely: both name and form cease; and he becomes immortal, without parts or members.' [Ibid. § 6-8. (S. 12-10.) Canwa, Madhyandina, Prasna, &c.]

In course of expounding the text, some of the commentators compare the ultimate absorption of the vital faculties to the disappearance of water sprinkled on a hot stone. [Ranganat'ha on Br. Sutr. 4. 2. § 6. (S. 12).] They seem to be unaware of its evaporation, and consider it to have sunk into the stone.

'The soul, together with the vital faculties absorbed in it, having retired within its proper abode, the heart, the summit of that viscus flashes, and lightens the passage by which the soul is to depart: the crown of the head in the case of the wise; and any other part of the body, in the instance of the ignorant. A hundred and one arteries issue from the heart, one of which passes to the crown of the head: it is named sushumna. By that passage, in virtue of acquired knowledge, and of recollection of the meditated way, the soul of the wise, graced by the favour of Brahme, whose dwelling is in the heart, issues and meets a solar ray; and by that route proceeds, whether it be night or day, winter or summer. [Br. Sutr. 4. 2. § 9-11. (S. 17-21.) Vrihad aran. Ch'handogya, &c.] The contact of a sunbeam with the vein is constant, as long as the body endures: rays of light reach from the sun to the vein, and conversely extend from this to the sun. The preferableness of summer, as exemplified in the case of bhishma, who awaited the return of that auspicious season to die, does not concern the devout worshipper, who has practised religious exercises in contemplation of Brahme, as inculcated by the Vedas, and has consequently acquired knowledge. But it does concern those who have followed the observances taught by the Sanc'hya Yoga; according to which, the time of day and season of the year are not indifferent.'

The further progress of the soul, from the termination of the coronal artery communicating with a solar ray to its final destination, the abode of Brahme, is variously described in divers texts of the Veda; some specifying intermediate stations which are omitted by others, or mentioned in a different order. [Ch'handogya, Caushitaci, Vrihad aranyaca, &c.] The seeming discrepancies of those passages are reconciled, and all are shown to relate to one uniform route, deduced from the text, for the divine journey (deva-yana) which the liberated soul travels. A question arises, whether the intermediate stations, which are mentioned, be stages of the journey, or scenes of fruition to be visited in succession, or landmarks designated for the course and direction of the route. [BHAVADEVA instances Pataliputra and the Sona river, as indicated for the direction of the route from Tirahhucti (Tirhut) to Varanasi (Benares). It is clear that he understands Pataliputra (the ancient Palibothra) to be Patna.] On this point the settled conclusion is, [Br. Sutr. 4. 3. § 1-4. (S. 1-6.)] that the presiding deities or regents of the places or regions indicated are guides to the soul, who forward it on its way in its helpless condition, destitute of exerted organs, all its faculties being absorbed and withdrawn; as a blind man is led, or a faint person is conducted, by a guide.

The route deduced from the tenour of texts compared, and from divers considerations set forth, [Br. Sutr. 4. 3. § 1-4. (S. 1-6.)] is by a solar ray to the realm of fire; thence to the regents of day, of the semilunation, of the summer six months, of the year; and thence to the abode of Gods; to air or wind, the regent of which forwards the journeying soul from his precincts, by a narrow passage compared to the nave of a chariot wheel, towards the sun: thence the transition is to the moon, whence to the region of lightning, above which is the realm of Varuna, the regent of water; for lightning and thunder are beneath the raincloud and aqueous region: the rest of the way is by the realm of INDRA, to the abode of Prajapati or Brahne.

A question arises, which is here discussed, whether Brahme, to whose dwelling and court the soul is conducted, be the supreme being, according to the ordinary and chief acceptation of the term, or be that effect of his creative will which is distinguished as carya brahme, identified with the mythological personage entitled HIRANYAGARBHA, as having been included within the golden mundane egg. JAIMINI affirms the supreme one to be meant: but Badari maintains the other opinion: which is that which the commentators of the sutras understand the author of them to adopt. [Br. Sutr. 4. 3. § 5. (S. 7-14.)]

The souls of those holy persons only, whose devout meditation was addressed to the pure Brahme himself, take the route described; [Ibid. § 6. (S. 15-16.)] not those whose contemplation was partial and restrictive: they have their special reward. Those, too, whose knowledge of God was more perfect, pass immediately, or by any route, to a reunion with the divinity, with whom they are identified.

The soul of him who has arrived at the perfection of divine knowledge, and is consequently liberated, "quitting its corporeal frame, ascends to the supreme light which is Brahme, and comes forth identified with him, conform and undivided;" [Ibid. § 1-2. (S. 1-4.)] as pure water, dropped into the limpid lake, is such as that is.

Concerning the condition of the liberated man, a difference of doctrine is noticed, [Ibid. § 3. (S. 5-7.)] Jaimini maintained, that he is endued with divine attributes, omniscience, ubiquitary power, and other transcendent faculties, Audulomi insisted, that he becomes sheer thought, sentient intelligence. The author of the sutras (Badarayana) accedes to the last-mentioned opinion; admitting, however, the practical or apparent possession of divine faculties by one who has attained perfection of knowledge.

By certain devout exercises and meditation [Harda-vidya or Dahara-vidya in the Ch'handogya.] a less perfect knowledge is acquired, which, as before mentioned, qualifies the possessor of it for reception at Brahme' s abode, though not for immediate re-union and identity with his being. In that condition transcendent power is enjoyed. The pitris, or shades of progenitors, may be called up by a simple act of the will; and other superhuman faculties may be similarly exerted. The possessor of these is independent, subject to no other's control. He may, at his option, be invested with one or more bodies, furnished with senses and organs, or be unincumbered with a corporeal frame. On this point, however, a difference of doctrine subsists, Jaimini maintained the indispensable presence of body; Badari, its absence; and the author (Badarayana) admits the option. In one case, the condition is that of a person dreaming; in the other case, as of one awake. [Br. Sutr. 4. 4. §. 4. 5. (S. 9—14.)]

'Master of several bodies, by a simple act of his will, the Yogi does not occupy one only, leaving the rest inanimate, like so many wooden machines. He may animate more than one, in like manner as a single lamp may be made to supply more than one wick.' [Ibid. § 6. (S. 15-16.)]

Liberation (mucti), besides its proper and strict sense, which is that of final deliverance through a perfect knowledge of Brahme, and consequent identification with the divinity and absorption into his essence, is likewise employed in a secondary acceptation for that which takes effect in life time (jivan-mucti)] or which conducts the soul after death to dwell with Brahme; not, however, divested of a subtile corporeal frame. The more complete deliverance is incorporeal (videha mucti). [BHAVADEVA on Br. Sutr. 4. 4. S. 22.] The less perfect liberation appertains to a Yogi, similar, in respect of the faculties and powers possessed by him, to one who has accomplished the like by the observances taught in the Sanc'hya or Yoga of Patanjali.

Such a Yogi, uncontrolled and independent as he has been pronounced to be, can exert every faculty and superior power analogous to that of the divinity's which may be conducive to enjoyment; but he has not a creative power. His faculties are transcendent for enjoyment, not for action. [Br. Sutr. 4. 4. § 7. (S. 17-22.)]

The more perfect liberation is absolute and final: there is no return of the soul from its absorption in the divine essence, to undergo further transmigrations as before. [Ibid. S. 22.] But incomplete knowledge, which conducts to Brahme' s abode without qualifying the soul for such absorption into the divinity, exempts it from return during the subsisting calpa; but not at a future renovation of worlds, [On this point the commentators do not appear to agree.] unless by special favour of the deity.

Recapitulation.

In the foregoing summary of the Vedanta from the sutras of Vyasa, the interpretation by Sancara has been relied upon; and his gloss, with notes of his annotators and the commentaries of scholiasts who follow him, have been exclusively employed, lest the doctrine of separate schools and different branches of the Vedanta should be blended and confounded. Those commentaries are numerous, and explanations and elucidations of the text have been taken from one or from another indiscriminately, as they have been found pertinent and illustrative, without particular preference or selection. This should be borne in mind in comparing that summary with its authorities, as it has not been judged necessary, nor generally practicable, to cite the particular commentary that is especially used in each instance.

Some remarks will be now added, in which other authorities are likewise employed, and chiefly the elementary works [Vedanta sara, Vedanta paribhasha, &c.] mentioned in the introduction of this essay.

The principal and essential tenets of the Vedanta are, that God is the omniscient and omnipotent cause of the existence, continuance, and dissolution of the universe. Creation is an act of his will. He is both efficient and material cause of the world: creator and nature, framer and frame, doer and deed. At the consummation of all things, all are resolved into him: as the spider spins his thread from his own substance and gathers it in again; as vegetables sprout from the soil and return to it, earth to earth; as hair and nails grow from a living body and continue with it. The supreme being is one, sole-existent, secondless, entire, without parts, sempiternal, infinite, ineffable, invariable ruler of all, universal soul, truth, wisdom, intelligence, happiness.

Individual souls, emanating from the supreme one, are likened to innumerable sparks issuing from a blazing fire. From him they proceed, and to him they return, being of the same essence. The soul which governs the body together with its organs, neither is born; nor does it die. It is a portion of the divine substance; and, as such, infinite, immortal, intelligent, sentient, true.

It is governed by the supreme. Its activity is not of its essence, but inductive through its organs: as an artisan, taking his tools, labours and undergoes toil and pain, but laying them aside reposes; so is the soul active, and a sufferer by means of its organs; but, divested of them, and returning to the supreme one, is at rest and is happy. It is not a free and independent agent, but made to act by the supreme one, who causes it to do in one state as it had purposed in a former condition. According to its predisposition for good, or evil, for enjoined or forbidden deeds, it is made to do good or ill, and thus it has retribution for previous works. Yet God is' not author of evil; for so it has been from eternity: the series of preceding forms and of dispositions manifested in them has been infinite.

The soul is incased in body as in a sheath, or rather in a succession of sheaths. The first or inner case is the intellectual one (vijnyanamaya): it is composed of the sheer (tan-matra), or simple elements uncombined, and consists of the intellect (buddhi) joined with the five senses.

The next is the mental (manomaya) sheath, in which mind is joined with the preceding. A third [sheath or case comprises the organs of action and the vital faculties, and is termed the organic or vital case. These three sheaths (cosa) constitute the subtile frame (sucshma-sarira or linga-sarira) which attends the soul in its transmigrations. The interior rudiment confined to the inner case is the causal frame (carana-sarira).

The gross body (st'hula-sarira) which it animates from birth to death in any step of its transmigrations, is composed of the coarse elements, formed by combinations of the simple elements, in proportions of four-eighths of the predominant and characteristic one with an eighth of each of the other four: that is, the particles of the several elements, being divisible, are, in the first place, split into moieties; whereof one is subdivided into quarters; and the remaining moiety combines with one part (a quarter of a moiety) from each of the four others, thus constituting coarse or mixed elements. [Ved. Sara. 136.] The exterior case, composed of elements so combined, is the nutrimentitious (annamaya) sheath; and being the scene of coarse fruition is therefore termed the gross body.

The organic frame assimilates the combined elements received in food, and secretes the finer particles and rejects the coarsest: earth becomes flesh; water, blood; and inflammable substances (oil or grease), marrow. The coarser particles of the two first are excreted as feces and urine; those of the third are deposited in the bones. The finer particles of the one nourish the mind; of the other, supply respiration; of the third, support speech.

Organized bodies are arranged by the Vedantins in either four or three classes: for both which arrangements the authority of passages of the Veda is cited. Their four classes are the same with those of other writers; but the threefold division appears to be peculiar to this school. It is, 1st, viviparous (jivaja), as man and quadrupeds; 2d, oviparous (andaja), as birds and insects; 3d, germiniparous (udbhijja). [Sanc., &c. on Br. Sutr. 3. 1. § 3. (S. 21.)] The latter, however, comprehends the two terminating classes of the fourfold distribution, vermin and vegetable; differing but as one sprouts from the earth, the other pullulates from water: the one fixed, the other locomotive. To both, equivocal and spontaneous generation, or propagation without union of parents, is assigned.

The order in which the five elements are enumerated is that of their development: 1st, the etherial element (acasa), which is deemed a most subtile fluid, occupying all space and confounded with vacancy; sound is Its particular quality. 2d. Wind (vayu), or air in motion: for mobility is its characteristic; sound and feel are sensible in it. 3d. Fire or light (tejas), of which heat is the characteristic; and by which sound, feel, and colour (or form) are made manifest. 4th. Water (ap), of which fluidity is characteristic; and in which sound, feel, colour, and taste occur. 5th. Earth (prit'hivi or anna), of which hardness is characteristic; and in which sound, feel, colour, taste, and smell are discernible.

The notion of ether and wind as distinct elements, an opinion which this has in common with most of the other schools of Indian philosophy, seems to originate in the assumption of mobility for the essential character of the one. Hence air in motion has been distinguished from the aerial fluid at rest, which is acasa, supposed to penetrate and pervade all worldly space; and, by an easy transition, vayu (wind) and motion, come to be identified, as acasa (ether) and space likewise are confounded.

An organized body, in its most subtile state of tenuity, comprises sixteen members (avayava) or corporeal parts, viz. five organs of sense, as many instruments of action, and the same number of vital faculties; to which are added mind (including intelligence, consciousness, and sensation); or, distinguishing mind and intellect (buddhi) as separate parts, the number is seventeen.

The vital faculties, termed vayu, are not properly air or wind, but vital functions or actions. Considered, however, with a reference to the proper meaning of that term, they are by some explained to be, 1st, respiration, which is ascending and of which the seat is the nostril; 2d, inspiration (or otherwise explained, flatus), which is descending, and which issues from the lower extremity of the intestine; 3d, flatuousness, which is diffused through the body, passing by all the veins and arteries; 4th, expiration, ascending from the throat; 5th, digestion, or abdominal air, of which the seat is the middle of the body.

According to a different explanation, the first is respiration; the second, inspiration; the third, a mean between the two, pulsation, palpitation, and other vital movements; the fourth is expiration; and the fifth is digestion.

Three states of the soul in respect of the body are recognized; to which must be added a fourth, and even a fifth, viz. waking, dreaming, profoundly sleeping, half-dead, and dead. While awake, the soul, associated with body, is active under the guidance of providence, and has to do with a real (paramart'hici) and practical (vyavaharici) creation. In a dream there Is an illusory (mayamayi) and unreal creation: nevertheless, dreams prognosticate events. Dreaming is the mean (sandhya) between sleeping and waking. In profound sleep the soul is absent, having retired by the channel of the arteries, and being as it were enfolded in the supreme deity. It is not, however, blended with the divine essence, as a drop of water fallen into a lake, where it becomes undistinguishable; but, on the contrary, the soul continues discriminate, and returns unchanged to the body which it animates while awake. Swoon, or stupor, is intermediate between sleep and death. During insensibility produced by accident or disease, there is, as in profound sleep and lethargy, a temporary absence of the soul. In death it has absolutely quitted its gross corporeal frame.

Subject to future transmigration, it visits other worlds, to receive there the recompense of works or suffer the penalty of misdeeds. Sinners fall to various regions of punishment, administered by CHITRAGUPTA and other mythological persons in the realm of Yama. The virtuous rise to the moon, where they enjoy the fruit of their good actions; and whence they return to this world to animate new bodies, and act in them, under providence, conformably with their propensities and predispositions, the trace of which remains.

The wise, liberated from worldly trammels, ascend yet higher, to the abode and court of Brahme: or, if their attainment of wisdom be complete, they at once pass into a re-union with the divine essence.

Three degrees of liberation or deliverance (mucti) are distinguished: one incorporeal, which is that last-mentioned, and is complete; another imperfect, which is that before-mentioned, taking effect upon demise, when the soul passes to the highest heaven, the abode of Brahme. The third is effectual in life-time (jivan-mucti), and enables the possessor of it to perform supernatural actions; as evocation of shades of progenitors, translation of himself into other bodies called into existence by the mere force of his will, instantaneous removal to any place at his pleasure, and other wondrous performances.

These several degrees of deliverance are achieved by means of certain sacrifices, as that of a horse (aswamedha), or by religious exercises in various prescribed modes, together with pious meditation on the being and attributes of God: but the highest degree of it is attainable only by perfect knowledge of the divine nature, and of the identity of God with that which emanated from him, or was created of his substance and partakes of his essence.

Questions most recondite, which are agitated by theologians, have engaged the attention of the Vedantins likewise, and have been by them discussed at much length; such as free-will (swatantrya), divine grace (iswara-prasada), efficacy of works (carman) or of faith (sraddha), and many other abstruse points.

On the last-mentioned topic, that of faith, nothing will be found in the text of Badarayana, and little in the gloss of Sancara. Its paramount efficacy is a tenet of another branch of the Vedanta school, which follows the authority of the Bhagavad-gita. In that work, as in many of the Puranas, passages relative to this topic recur at every turn.

The fruit of works is the grand subject of the first Mimansa, which treats of religious duties, sacrifices, and other observances.

The latter Mimansa more particularly maintains the doctrine of divine grace. It treats of free-will, which it in effect denies; but endeavours to reconcile the existence of moral evil under the government of an all-wise, all-powerful, and benevolent providence, with the absence of free-will, by assuming the past eternity of the universe, and the infinite renewals of worlds, into which every individual being has brought the predispositions contracted by him in earlier states, and so retrospectively without beginning or limit.

The notion, that the versatile world is an illusion (maya), that all which passes to the apprehension of the waking individual is but a phantasy presented to his imagination, and every seeming thing is unreal and all is visionary, does not appear to be the doctrine of the text of the Vedanta. I have remarked nothing which countenances it in the sutras of Vyasa nor in the gloss of Sancara, but much concerning it in the minor commentaries and in elementary treatises. I take it to be no tenet of the original Vedantin philosophy, but of another branch, from which later writers have borrowed it, and have intermixed and confounded the two systems. The doctrine of the early Vedanta is complete and consistent, without this graft of a later growth.
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

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Part 1 of 2

X. On the Philosophy of the Hindus.

PART V. [Read at a public meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, Febr. 3, 1827.]

ON INDIAN SECTARIES.


[From the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i. p. 549 -579.] In the present essay, it is ray intention to treat of the heretical systems of Jina and Buddha, as proposed in the first essay of this series on the Philosophy of the Hindus; and to notice certain other Indian sects, which, like them, exhibit some analogy to the Sanc'hyas, or followers of Capila or of Patanjali.

The theological or metaphysical opinions of those sectaries, apart from and exclusive of mythology and ritual ceremonies, may be not inaptly considered as a branch of philosophy, though constituting the essense of their religion, comprehending not only their belief as to the divinity and a future state, but also certain observances to be practised in furtherance of the prescribed means for attaining perpetual bliss: which here, as with most other sects of Indian origin, is the meed proposed for true and perfect knowledge of first principles.

The Jainas and Bauddhas I consider to have been originally Hindus; [As. Res., vol. ix. p. 288.] and the first-mentioned to be so still, because they recognised, as they yet do, the distinction of the four castes. It is true, that in Hindust'han, if not in the peninsula of India likewise, the Jainas are all of one caste: but this is accounted for by the admission of their adversaries (Cumarila Bhatta, &c.), who affirm that they are misguided cshatriyas (Hindus of the second or military tribe): they call themselves vaisyas. On renouncing the heresies of the Jaina sect, they take their place among orthodox Hindus, as belonging to a particular caste (cshatriya or vaisya). The representative of the great family of Jagat Set'h, who with many of his kindred was converted some years ago from the Jaina to the orthodox faith, is a conspicuous instance. Such would not be the case of a convert, who has not already caste as a Hindu.

Both religions of Jina and Buddha are, in the view of the Hindu, who reveres the Veda as a divine revelation, completely heterodox; and that more on account of their heresy in denying its divine origin, than for their deviation from its doctrine. Other sects, as the Sanc'hyas and Vaiseshicas, though not orthodox, do not openly disclaim the authority of the Veda. They endeavour to reconcile their doctrine to the text of the Indian scripture, and refer to passages which they interpret as countenancing their opinions. The Mimansa, which professedly follows the Veda implicitly, is therefore applied, in its controversy with these half-heretics, to the confutation of such misinterpretations. It refutes an erroneous construction, rather than a mistaken train of reasoning. But the Jainas and Bauddhas, disavowing the Veda, are out of the pale of the Hindu church in its most comprehensive range; and the Mimansa (practical as well as theological) in controversy with these infidels, for so it deems them, argues upon general grounds of reasoning independent of authority, to which it would be vain to appeal.

The Uttara mimansa devotes two sections (adhicaranas) to the confutation of the Bauddhas, and one to that of the Jainas. They are the 4th, 5th, and 6th sections in the 2d chapter of the 2d lecture; and it proceeds in the same controversial chapter to confute the Pasupatas and other branches of the Maheswara sect; and the Pancharatra, a branch of the Vaishnava. The Charvacas are alluded to incidentally in a very important section concerning the distinction of body and soul, in the 3d chapter of the 3d lecture (§ 30). In the Purva mmansa, controversy is more scattered; recurring in various places, under divers heads: but especially in the 3d chapter of the first book (§ 4).

The Sanc'hya of Capila devotes a whole chapter to controversy; and notices the sect of Buddha, under the designation of Nasticas; and in one place animadverts on the Pasupatas; and in another, on the Charvacas.

It is from these and similar controversial disquisitions, more than from direct sources, that I derive the information, upon which the following account of the philosophy of Jainas and Bauddhas, as well as of the Charvacas, Pasupatas and Pancharatras, is grounded. A good collection of original works by writers of their own persuasion, whether in the Sanscrit language or in Pracrit or Pali, the language of the Jainas and that of the Bauddhas, is not at hand to be consulted. But, although the information be furnished by their adversaries and even inveterate enemies, it appears, so far as I have any opportunity of comparing it with their own representations, essentially correct.

SECT OF JINA.

The Jainas or Arhatas, followers of Jina or Arhat (terms of like import), are also denominated Vivasanas, Muctavasanas, Muctambaras or Digambaras, with reference to the nakedness of the rigid order of ascetics in this sect, who go "bare of clothing," "disrobed," or "clad by the regions of space." The less strict order of Swetambaras [Transact, of the Roy. Asiat. Soc, vol. i. p. 416.] "clad in white," is of more modern date and of inferior note. Among nicknames by which they are known, that of Lunchita-cesa occurs. It alludes to the practice of abruptly eradicating hair of the head or body by way of mortification, Parswanat'ha is described as tearing five handfuls of hair from his head on becoming a devotee. [Ibid. p. 433.]

According to the Digambara Jainas, the universe consists of two classes, "animate" and "inanimate" (jiva and ajiva), without a creator or ruling providence (iswara). [RAMANUJA on Br. Sutr.] They assign for the cause (carana) of the world, atoms, which they do not, as the Vaiseshicas, distinguish into so many sorts as there are elements, but consider these, viz. earth, water, fire, and air, the four elements by them admitted, as modified compounds of homogeneous atoms.

These gymnosophists distinguish, as already intimated, two chief categories: 1st, Jiva, intelligent and sentient soul (chaitana atma or bodhatma) endued with body and consequently composed of parts; eternal: 2d, Ajiva, all that is not a living soul; that is, the whole of (Jada) inanimate and unsentient substance. The one is the object of fruition, being that which is to be enjoyed (bhogya) by the soul; the other is the enjoyer (bhocta) or agent in fruition; soul itself.

This second comprehensive predicament admits a six-fold subdivision; and the entire number of categories (padart'ha), as distinguished with reference to the ultimate great object of the soul's deliverance, is consequently seven. [Sancara and other commentators on Br. Sutr., and annotators on their gloss.]

I. Jiva or soul, as before-mentioned, comprising three descriptions: 1st, nitya-siddha, ever perfect, or yoga-siddha, perfect by profound abstraction; for instance, Arhats or Jinas, the deified saints of the sect: 2d, mucti or muctatma, a soul which is free or liberated; its deliverance having been accomplished through the strict observance of the precepts of the Jinas: 3d, baddha or baddhatma, a soul which is bound, being in any stage antecedent to deliverance; remaining yet fettered by deeds or works (carma).

II. Ajiva taken in a restricted sense. It comprehends the four elements, earth, water, fire, and air; and all which is fixed (st'havara) as mountains, or moveable (jangama) as rivers, &c. In a different arrangement, to be hereafter noticed, this category is termed Pudgala matter.

III — VII. The five remaining categories are distributed into two classes, that which is to be effected (sadhya) and the means thereof (sadhana): one comprising two, and the other three divisions. What may be effected (sadhya) is either liberation or confinement: both of which will be noticed further on. The three efficient means (sadhana) are as follow:

III. Asrava is that which directs the embodied spirit (asravayati purusham) towards external objects. It is the occupation or employment (vritti or pravritti) of the senses or organs on sensible objects. Through the means of the senses it affects the embodied spirit with the sentiment of taction, colour, smell, and taste.

Or it is the association or connexion of body with right and wrong deeds. It comprises all the carmas: for they (asravayanti) pervade, influence, and attend the doer, following him or attaching to him.

It is a misdirection (mit'ya-pravritti) of the organs: for it is vain, as cause of disappointment, rendering the organs of sense and sensible objects subservient to fruition.

IV. Samvara is that which stops (samvrinoti) the course of the foregoing; or closes up the door or passage of it: and consists in self-command, or restraint of organs internal and external: embracing all means of self-control, and subjection of the senses, calming and subduing them.

It is the right direction (samyac pravritti) of the organs.

V. Nirjara is that which utterly and entirely (nir) wears and antiquates (Jarayati) all sin previously incurred, and the whole effect of works or deeds (carma). It consists chiefly in mortification (tapas): such as fasts, rigorous silence, standing upon heated stones, plucking out the hair by the roots, &c.

This is discriminated from the two preceding, as neither misdirection nor right direction, but non-direction (apravritti) of the organs towards sensible objects.

VI. Baddha is that which binds (badhnati) the embodied spirit. It is confinement and connexion, or association, of the soul with deeds. It consists in a succession of births and deaths as the result of works (carman).

VII. Mocsha is liberation; or deliverance of the soul from the fetters of works. It is the state of a soul in which knowledge and other requisites are developed.

Relieved from the bondage of deeds through means taught by holy ordinances, it takes effect on the soul by the grace of the ever-perfect ARHAT or JINA.

Or liberation is continual ascent. The soul has a buoyancy or natural tendency upwards, but is kept down by corporeal trammels. When freed from them, it rises to the region of the liberated.

Long immersed in corporeal restraint, but released from it; as a bird let loose from a cage, plunging into water to wash off the dirt with which it was stained, and drying its pinions in the sunshine, soars aloft; so does the soul, released from long confinement, soar high, never to return.

Liberation then is the condition of a soul clear of all impediments.

It is attained by right knowledge, doctrine and observances: and is a result of the unrestrained operation of the soul's natural tendency, when passions and every other obstacle are removed.

Works or deeds (for so the term carman signifies, though several among those enumerated be neither acts nor the effect of action) are reckoned eight; and are distributed into two classes, comprising four each: the first, ghatin, mischievous, and asadhu, impure, as marring deliverance: the second aghatin, harmless, or sadhu, pure, as opposing no obstacle to liberation.

I. In the first set is:

1st. Jnyana varaniya, the erroneous notion that knowledge is ineffectual; that liberation does not result from a perfect acquaintance with true principles; and that such science does not produce final deliverance.

2d. Darsana varaniya, the error of believing that deliverance is not attainable by study of the doctrine of the Arhats or Jinas.

3d. Mohaniya, doubt and hesitation as to particular selection among the many irresistible and infallible ways taught by the Tirt'hancaras or Jinas.

4th. Antaraya, interference, or obstruction offered to those engaged in seeking deliverance, and consequent prevention of their accomplishment of it.

II. The second contains: —

1st. Vedaniya, individual consciousness: reflection that "I am capable of attaining deliverance."

2d. Namica, individual consciousness of an appellation: reflection that "I bear this name."

3d. Gotrica, consciousness of race or lineage; reflection that "I am descendant of a certain disciple of Jina, native of a certain province."

4th. Ayushca, association or connexion with the body or person: that, (as the etymology of the term denotes), which proclaims (cayate) age (ayush), or duration of life.

Otherwise interpreted, the four carmas of this second set, taken in the inverse order, that is, beginning with ayushca, import procreation, and subsequent progress in the formation of the person or body wherein deliverance is attainable by the soul which animates it: for it is by connexion with white or immaculate matter that final liberation can be accomplished. I shall not dwell on the particular explanation respectively of these four carmas, taken in this sense.

Another arrangement, which likewise has special reference to final deliverance, is taught in a five-fold distribution of the predicaments or categories (asticaya). The word here referred to, is explained as signifying a substance commonly occurring; or a term of general import; or (conformably with its etymology), that of which it is said (cayate) that "it is" (asti): in other words, that of which existence is predicated.

I. The first is jivasticaya: the predicament, life or soul. It is, as before noticed, either bound, liberated, or ever-perfect.

II. Pudgalasticaya: the predicament, matter: comprehending all bodies composed of atoms. It is sixfold, comprising the four elements, and all sensible objects, fixed or moveable. It is the same with the ajiva or second of the seven categories enumerated in an arrangement before-noticed.

III. Dharmasticaya: the predicament, virtue; inferrible from a right direction of the organs. Dharma is explained as a substance or thing (dravya) from which may be concluded, as its effect, the soul's ascent to the region above.

IV. Adharmasticaya: the predicament, vice: or the reverse of the foregoing. Adharma is that which causes the soul to continue embarrassed with body, notwithstanding its capacity for ascent and natural tendency to soar.

V. Acasasticaya: the predicament acasa, of which there are two, Locacasa and Alocacasa.

1. Locacasa is the abode of the bound: a worldly region, consisting of divers tiers, one above the other, wherein dwell successive orders of beings unliberated.

2. Alocacasa is the abode of the liberated, above all worlds (locas) or mundane beings. Here acasa implies that, whence there is no return.

The Jaina gymnosophists are also cited [RAMANUJA on the Br. Sutr.] for an arrangement which enumerates six substances (dravya) as constituting the world: viz. —

1. Jiva, the soul.

2. Dharma, virtue; a particular substance pervading the world, and causing the soul's ascent.

3. Adharma, vice; pervading the world, and causing the soul's continuance with body.

4. Pudgala, matter; substance having colour, odour, savour, and tactility; as wind, fire, water, and earth: either atoms, or aggregates of atoms; individual body, collective worlds, &c.

5. Cala, time: a particular substance, which is practically treated, as past, present, and future.

6. Acasa, a region, one, and infinite.

To reconcile the concurrence of opposite qualities in the same subject at different times, and in different substances at the same times, the Jainas assume seven cases deemed by them apposite for obviating the difficulty (bhanga-naya): 1st. May be, it is; [somehow, in some measure, it so is]: 2d. May be, it is not: 3d. May be, it is, and it is not [successively]: 4th. May be, it is not predicable; [opposite qualities co-existing]: 5th. The first and fourth of these taken together: may be it is, and yet not predicable: 6th. The second and fourth combined: may be it is not, and not predicable; 7th. The third (or the first and second) and the fourth, united: may be it is and it is not, and not predicable.

This notion is selected for confutation by the Vedantins, to show the futility of the Jaina doctrine. 'It is,' they observe, 'doubt or surmise, not certainty nor knowledge. Opposite qualities cannot co-exist in the same subject. Predicaments are not unpredictable: they are not to be affirmed if not affirmable: but they either do exist or do not; and if they do, they are to be affirmed: to say that a thing is and is not, is as incoherent as a madman's talk or an idiot's babble.' [Sanc. on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. § 6. (S. 33.)]

Another point, selected by the Vedantins for animadversion, is the position, that the soul and body agree in dimensions. [lb. S. 34-36.] 'In a different stage of growth of body or of transmigration of soul, they would not be conformable: passing from the human condition to that of an ant or of an elephant, the soul would be too big or too little for the new body animated by it. If it be augmented or diminished by accession or secession of parts, to suit either the change of person or corporeal growth between infancy and puberty, then it .is variable, and, of course, is not perpetual. If its dimensions be such as it ultimately retains, when released from body, then it has been uniformly such in its original and intermediate associations with corporeal frames. If it yet be of a finite magnitude, it is not ubiquitary and eternal.'

The doctrine of atoms, which the Jainas have in common with the Bauddhas and the Vaiseshicas (followers of Canade) is controverted by the Vedantins. [ Ibid. 2. 2. § 2. and § 3. (S. 11-17.)] The train of reasoning is to the following effect: 'Inherent qualities of the cause,' the Vaiseshicas and the rest argue, 'give origin to the like qualities in the effect, as white yarn makes white cloth: were a thinking being the world's cause, it would be endued with thought.' The answer is, that according to CANADE himself, substances great and long result from atoms minute and short: like qualities then are not always found in the cause and in the effect.

'The whole world, with its mountains, seas, &c., consists of substances composed of parts disposed to union: as cloth is wove of a multitude of threads. The utmost sub-division of compound substances, pursued to the last degree, arrives at the atom, which is eternal, being simple: and such atoms, which are the elements, earth, water, fire, and air, become the world's cause, according to CANADE: for there can be no effect without a cause. When they are actually and universally separated, dissolution of the world has taken place. At its renovation, atoms concur by an unseen virtue, which occasions action: and they form double atoms, and so on, to constitute air; then fire; next water; and afterwards earth; subsequently body with its organs; and ultimately this whole world. The concurrence of atoms arises from action (whether of one or both) which must have a cause: that cause, alleged to be an unseen virtue, cannot be insensible; for an insensible cause cannot incite action: nor can it be design, for a being capable of design is not yet existent, coming later in the progress of creation. Either way, then, no action can be; consequently no union or disunion of atoms; and these, therefore, are not the cause of the world's formation or dissolution.

'Eternal atoms and transitory double atoms differ utterly; and union of discordant principles cannot take place. If aggregation be assumed as a reason of their union, still the aggregate and its integrants are utterly different; and an intimate relation is further to be sought, as a reason for the aggregation. Even this assumption therefore fails.

'Atoms must be essentially active or inactive: were they essentially active, creation would be perpetual; if essentially inactive, dissolution would be constant.'

'Eternity of causeless atoms is incompatible with properties ascribed to them; colour, taste, smell, and tactility: for things possessing such qualities are seen to be coarse and transient. Earth, endued with those four properties, is gross; water, possessing three, is less so; fire, having two, is still less; and air, with one, is fine. Whether the same be admitted or denied in respect of atoms, the argument is either way confuted: earthy particles, coarser than aerial, would not be minute in the utmost degree; or atoms possessing but a single property, would not be like their effects possessing several.

'The doctrine of atoms is to be utterly rejected, having been by no venerable persons received, as the Sanc'hya doctrine of matter, a plastic principle, has been, in part, by Menu and other sages.' [Sanc, &c. on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. § 3. (S. 17.)]

Points, on which the sectaries differ from the orthodox, rather than those on which they conform, are the subjects of the present treatise. On one point of conformity, however, it may be right to offer a brief remark, as it is one on which the Jainas appear to lay particular stress. It concerns the transmigration of the soul, whose destiny is especially governed by the dying thoughts, or fancies entertaining at the moment of dissolution. [See Transact, of the Roy. Asiat. Soc, vol. i. p. 437.] The Vedas, [Br. Sutr. 1. 2. 1.] in like manner, teach that the thoughts, inclinations, and resolves of man, and such peculiarly as predominate in his dying moments, determine the future character, and regulate the subsequent place, in transmigration. As was his thought in one body, such he becomes in another, into which he accordingly passes.

SECT OP BUDDHA.

The Bauddhas or Sangatas, followers of Buddha or Sugata (terms of the same import, and corresponding to Jina or Arhat) are also called Mucta-cachha, alluding to a peculiarity of dress, apparently a habit of wearing the hem of the lower garment untucked. They are not unfrequently cited by their adversaries as (Nasticas) atheists, or rather, disowners of another world.

BUDDHA MUNI, so he is reverently named by the opponents of his religious system, is the reputed author of sutras, [Quotations from them in the Sanscrit language occur in commentaries on the Vedanta: (the Bhamati on Br. Sutr. 2, 2. 19.)] constituting a body of doctrine termed agama or sastra, words which convey a notion of authority and holiness. The Buddha here intended, is no doubt the last, who is distinguished by the names of Gautama and Sacya, among other appellations.

Either from diversity of instruction delivered by him to his disciples at various times, or rather from different constructions of the same text, more or less literal, and varying with the degree of sagacity of the disciple, have arisen no less than four sects among the followers of Buddha. Commentators of the Vedanta, giving an account of this schism of the Bauddhas, do not agree in applying the scale of intellect to these divisions of the entire sect, some attributing to acuteness or superior intelligence, that which others ascribe to simplicity or inferior understanding.

Without regarding, therefore, that scale, the distinguishing tenets of each branch of the sect may be thus stated. Some maintain that all is void, (sarva sunya) following, as it seems, a literal interpretation of Buddha's sutras. To these the designation of Madhyamica is assigned by several of the commentators of the Vedanta: and in the marginal notes of one commentary, they are identified with the Charvacas: but that is an error.

Other disciples of Buddha except internal sensation or intelligence (vijnyana) and acknowledge all else to be void. They maintain the eternal existence of conscious sense alone. These are called Yogacharas.

Others, again, affirm the actual existence of external objects, no less than of internal sensations: considering external as perceived by senses; and internal as inferred by reasoning.

Some of them recognise the immediate perception of exterior objects. Others contend for a mediate apprehension of them, through images, or resembling forms, presented to the intellect: objects they insist are inferred, but not actually perceived. Hence two branches of the sect of Buddha: one denominated Sautrantica: the other Vaibhashica.

As these, however, have many tenets in common, they may be conveniently considered together; and are so treated of by the scholiasts of Vyasa's Brahme-sutras: understanding one adhicarana (the 4th of the 2d chapter in the 2d lecture) to be directed against these two sects of Buddhists: and the next the following one (2. 2. 5.) to be addressed to the Yogacharas; serving, however, likewise for the confutation of the advocates of an universal void. [This schism among the Bauddhas, splitting into four sects, is anterior to the age of Sancara Acharya, who expressly notices all the four. It had commenced before the composition of the Brahme-sutras, and consequently before the days of Sabara Swami and Cumarila Bhatta; since two, at the least, of those sects, are separately confuted. All of them appear to have been indiscriminately persecuted, when the Bauddhas of every denomination were expelled from Hindust'han and the peninsula. Whether the same sects yet subsist among the Bauddhas of Ceylon, Thibet, and the trans-gangetic India, and in China, deserves inquiry.]

The Sautrantica and Vaibhashica sects, admitting then external (bahya) and internal (abhyantara) objects, distinguish, under the first head, elements (bhuta) and that which appertains thereto (bhahtica), namely, organs and sensible qualities; and under the second head, intelligence (chitta), and that which unto it belongs (chaitta).

The elements (bhuta or mahabhuta) which they reckon four, not acknowledging a fifth, consist of atoms. The Bauddhas do not, with the followers of Canade, affirm double atoms, triple, quadruple, &c. as the early gradations of composition; but maintain indefinite atomic aggregation, deeming compound substances to be conjoint primary atoms.

Earth, they say, has the nature or peculiar character of hardness; water, that of fluidity; fire, that of heat; and air, that of mobility. Terrene atoms are hard; aqueous, liquid; igneous, hot; aerial, mobile. Aggregates of these atoms partake of those distinct characters. One authority, however, states, that they attribute to terrene atoms the characters of colour, savour, odour, and tactility; to aqueous, colour, savour, and tactility; to igneous, both colour and tactilit; to aerial, tactility only. [BAHANUJA on Br. Sutr.]

The Bauddhas do not recognise a fifth element, acasa, nor any substance so designated; nor soul (Jiva or atman) distinct from intelligence (chitta); nor any thing irreducible to the four categories above-mentioned.

Bodies, which are objects of sense, are aggregates of atoms, being composed of earth and other elements. Intelligence, dwelling within body, and possessing individual consciousness, apprehends objects, and subsists as self; and, in that view only, is (atman) self or soul.

Things appertaining to the elements, (bhautica,) the second of the predicaments, are organs of sense, together with their objects, as rivers, mountains, &c. They are composed of atoms. This world, every thing which is therein, all which consists of component parts, must be atomical aggregations. They are external; and are perceived by means of organs, the eye, the ear, &c., which likewise are atomical conjuncts.

Images or representations of exterior objects are produced; and by perception of such images or representations, objects are apprehended. Such is the doctrine of the Sautranticas upon this point. But the Vaibhashicas acknowledge the direct perception of exterior objects. Both think, that objects cease to exist when no longer perceived: they have but a brief duration, like a flash of lightning, lasting no longer than the perception of them. Their identity, then, is but momentary; the atoms or component parts are scattered; and the aggregation or concourse was but instantaneous.

Hence these Buddhists are by their adversaries, the orthodox Hindus, designated as Purna — or Sarva-vainasicas, 'arguing total perishableness; ' while the followers of Canade, who acknowledge some of their categories to be eternal and invariable, and reckon only others transitory and changeable; and who insist that identity ceases with any variation in the composition of a body, and that a corporeal frame, receiving nutriment and discharging excretions, undergoes continual change, and consequent early loss of identity, are for that particular opinion, called Ardha-vainasicas, 'arguing half-perishableness.'
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

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Part 2 of 2

The second head of the arrangement before-mentioned, comprising internal objects, viz. intelligence., and that which to it appertains, is again distributed into five scandhas, as follow: —

1st. Rupa-scandha; comprehending organs of sense and their objects considered in relation to the person, or the sensitive and intelligent faculty which is occupied with them. Colours and other sensible qualities and things are external; and, as such, are classed under the second division of the first head (bhautica), appurtenance of elements: but, as objects of sensation and knowledge, they are deemed internal, and therefore recur under the present head.

2d. Vijnyana-scandha consists in intelligence (chitta), which is the same with self (atman) and (vijnyana) knowledge. It is consciousness of sensation, or continuous course and flow of cognition and sentiment. There is not any other agent, nor being which acts and enjoys; nor is there an eternal soul: but merely succession of thought, attended with individual consciousness abiding within body.

3d. Vedana-scandha comprises pleasure, pain, or the absence of either, and other sentiments excited in the mind by pleasing or displeasing objects.

4th. Sanjnya-scandha intends the knowledge or belief arising from names or words: as ox, horse, &c.; or from indications or signs, as a house denoted by a flag; and a man by his staff.

5th. Sanscara-scandha includes passions; as desire, hatred, fear, joy, sorrow, &c., together with illusion, virtue, vice, and every other modification of the fancy or imagination. All sentiments are momentary.

The second of these five scandhas is the same with the first division of the second general head, chitta, or intelligence. The rest are comprehended under the second head, chaittica, appurtenance of intellect; and under the larger designation of adhyatmica, belonging to (atman) self. The latter term, in its most extensive sense, includes all the five scandhas, or branches, moral and personal.

The seeming but unreal course of events, or worldly succession, external and mental, or physical and moral, is described as a concatenation of causes and effects in a continual round.

Concerning the relation of cause and effect, it is to be premised that proximate cause (hctu) and concurrent occasion (pratyaya) are distinguished: and the distinction is thus illustrated in respect of both classes, external and personal.

From seed comes a germ; from this a branch; then a culm or stem; whence a leafy gem; out of which a bud; from which a blossom; and thence, finally, fruit. Where one is, the other ensues. Yet the seed is not conscious of producing the germ; nor is this aware of coming from seed; and hence is inferred production without a thinking cause, and without a ruling providence.

Again, earth furnishes solidity to the seed, and coherence to the germ; water moistens the grain; fire warms and matures it; air or wind supplies impulse to vegetation; ether expands the seed; [So the commentaries on Sancara (the Bhamati, Abharana, and Prabha). But the fifth element is not acknowledged by the Bauddhas.] and season transmutes it. By concurrence of all these, seed vegetates, and a sprout grows. Yet earth and the vest of these concurrent occasions are unconscious; and so are the seed, germ, and the rest of the effects.

Likewise, in the moral world, where ignorance or error is, there is passion: where error is not, neither is passion there. But they are unconscious of mutual relation.

Again, earth furnishes solidity to the bodily frame; water affords to it moisture; fire supplies heat; wind causes inspiration; ether occasions cavities; [See the preceding note.] sentiment gives corporeal impulse and mental incitement. Then follows error, passion, &c.

Ignorance (avidya) or error, is the mistake of supposing that to be durable, which is but momentary. Thence comes passion (sanscara), comprising desire, aversion, delusion, &c. From these, concurring in the embryo with paternal seed and uterine blood, arises sentiment (vijnyana) or incipient consciousness. From concurrence of this with parental seed and blood, comes the rudiment of body; its flesh and blood; its name (naman) and shape (rupa). Thence the (shad-ayatana), sites of six organs, or seats of the senses, consisting of sentiment, elements, (earth, &c.), name and shape (or body), in relation to him whose organs they are. From coincidence and conjunction of organs with name and shape (that is, with body) there is feeling (sparsa) or experience of heat or cold, &c. felt by the embryo or embodied being. Thence is sensation (vedana) of pain, pleasure, &c. Follows thirst (trishna) or longing for renewal of pleasurable feeling and desire to shun that which is painful. Hence is (upadana) effort, or exertion of body or speech. From this is (bhava) condition of (dharma) merit, or (adharma) demerit. Thence comes birth (jati) or aggregation of the five branches (scandhas). [One commentary of the Vedanta (viz. the Abharana), explains bhava as corporeal birth; and Jati genus, kind. Other differences among the Vedantin writers, on various minor points of the Buddhist doctrine, are passed over to avoid tediousness.] The maturity of those five branches is (jara) decay. Their dissolution is (marana) death. Regret of a dying person is (soca) grief. Wailing is (paridevana) lamentation. Experience of that which is disagreeable is (duhc'ha) pain or bodily suffrance. But mental pain is (daurmanasya) discomposure of mind. Upon death ensues departure to another world. That is followed by return to this world. And the course of error, with its train of consequences, recommences. [SANC., VACH., &c. on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. (S. 19.)]

Besides these matters, which have a real existence but momentary duration, the Bauddhas distinguish under the category and name of (nirupa) unreal, false, or nonexistent, three topics: 1st, wilful and observable destruction (pratisanc'hya-nirodha) of an existing thing, as the breaking of a jar by a stroke of a mallet; "2d, unobserved nullity or annihilation (apratisanc'hya-nirodha); and 3d, vacancy or space (acasa) unencompassed and unshielded, or the imaginary ethereal element.

The whole of this doctrine is formally refuted by the Vedantins. 'The entire aggregate, referred to two sources, external and internal, cannot be; nor the world's course dependent thereon: for the members of it are insensible; and its very existence is made to depend on the flash of thought; yet no other thinking permanent being is acknowledged, accumulating that aggregate, directing it, or enjoying; nor is there an inducement to activity without a purpose, and merely momentary.

'Nor is the alleged concatenation of events admissible: for there is no reason of it. Their existence depends on that of the aggregate of which they are alleged to be severally causes. The objections to the notion of eternal atoms with beings to enjoy, are yet more forcible against momentary atoms with none to enjoy. The various matters enumerated as successive causes, do not account for the sum of sensible objects. Nor can they, being but momentary, be the causes of effects: for the moment of the one's duration has ceased, before that of the other's existence commences. Being then a non-entity, it can be no cause. Nor does one last till the other begins, for then they would be contemporaneous.

'The ethereal element (acasa) is not a non-entity: for its existence is inferrible from sound.

'Nor is self or soul momentary: memory and recollection prove it: and there is no doubt nor error herein; for the individual is conscious that he is the same who to-day remembers what he yesterday saw.

'Nor can entity be an effect of non-entity. If the one might come of the other, then might an effect accrue to a stranger without effort on his part: a husbandman would have a crop of corn without tilling and sowing; a potter would have a jar without moulding the clay; a weaver would have cloth without weaving the yarn: nor would any one strive for heavenly bliss or eternal deliverance.' [Sanc. and other Com. on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. § 4. (S. 18-27.)]

To confute another branch of the sect of Buddha, the Vedantins argue, that 'the untruth or non-existence of external objects is an untenable position; for there is perception or apprehension of them: for instance, a stock, a wall, ajar, a cloth; and that, which actually is apprehended, cannot be unexistent. Nor does the existence of objects cease when the apprehension does so. Nor is it like a dream, a juggle, or an illusion; for the condition of dreaming and waking is quite different. When awake a person is aware of the illusory nature of the dream which he recollects.

'Nor have thoughts or fancies an independent existence: for they are founded on external and sensible objects, the which, if unapprehended, imply that thoughts must be so too. These are momentary: and the same objections apply to a world consisting of momentary thoughts, as to one of instantaneous objects.

'The whole doctrine, when tried and sifted, crumbles like a well sunk in loose sand. The opinions advanced in it are contradictory and incompatible: they are severally untenable and incongruous. By teaching them to his disciples, Buddha has manifested either his own absurdity and incoherence, or his rooted enmity to mankind, whom he sought to delude.' [Com. on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. § 5. (S. 28-32.)]

A few observations on the analogy of the doctrine, above explained, to the Grecian philosophy, may not be here out of place.

It has been already remarked, in former essays, that the Bauddhas, like the Vaiseshicas, admit but two sources of knowledge (p. 194 of this volume). Such likewise appears to have been the opinion of the more ancient Greek philosophers; especially the Pythagoreans: and accordingly Ocellus, in the beginning of his treatise on the universe, declares that he has written such things, concerning the nature of the universe, as he learned from nature itself by manifest signs, and conjectured as probable, by thought through reasoning: thereby intimating, as is remarked by his annotator, that the means of knowledge are two. [Opusc. mytholog. phys. et eth. p. 505.]

Concerning the atomic doctrine, maintained not only by the Vaiseshicas, or followers of Canade, surnamed Casyapa, [A remark may be here made, which was omitted in its proper place (Part 2 of this essay), that the followers of the atomic sect are sometimes contumeliously designated by their orthodox opponents, as Canabhuj (a) or Canabhacsha, in allusion to the founder's name. Cana signifies a crow; and the import of Cana-bhuj, synonymous with Canad, is crow-eater (cana ad). The original name, however, is derivable from cana little, (with ad to eat, or ada to receive) implying abstemiousness or disinterestedness of the person bearing the name. Conformably with the first of those derivations, Canade himself is sometimes called Canabhacsha or Canabhuj. (a) SANC, on Br. Sutr. 2. 3. § 12. (S. 18.)] but by the sect of BUDDHA, and likewise by several others as well heterodox as orthodox, no person needs to be told, that a similar doctrine was maintained by many among the ancient Greek philosophers; and in particular by Leucippus (if not previously by Moschus), and after him by Democritus; and likewise by Empedocles, who was of the Pythagorean school. They disagreed, as the Indian philosophers likewise do, respecting the number of elements or different kinds of atoms. Empedocles admitted five, developed in the following order: ether, fire, earth, water, and air. Here we have the five elements (bhuta) of the Hindus, including acasa. The great multitude of philosophers, however, restricted the number of elements to four; in which respect they agree with the Jainas, Bauddhas, Charvacas and some other sectaries, who reject the fifth element affirmed by the Hindus in general, and especially by the orthodox.

In published accounts of the religious opinions of Bauddhas and Jainas, derived principally from oral information, doubts have been expressed as to the sense attached by them to the term which they use to signify the happy state at which the perfect saints arrive. It has been questioned whether annihilation, or what other condition short of such absolute extinction, is meant to be described.

Both these sects, like most others of Indian origin, propose, for the grand object to which mail should aspire, the attainment of a final happy state, from which there is no return.

All concur in assigning to its attainment the same term, mucti or mocsha, with some shades of difference in the interpretation of the word: as emancipation, deliverance from evil, liberation from worldly bonds, relief from further transmigration, &c.

Many other terms are in use, as synonymous with it; and so employed by all or nearly all of these sects; to express a state of final release from the world: such as amrita, immortality; apavarga, conclusion, completion, or abandonment; sreyas, excellence; nihsreyasa, assured excellence, perfection; caiwalya, singleness; nihsarana, exit, departure. But the term which the Bauddhas, as well as Jainas, more particularly affect, and which however is also used by the rest, is nirvana, profound calm. In its ordinary acceptation, as an adjective, it signifies extinct, as a fire which is gone out; set, as a luminary which has gone down; defunct, as a saint who has passed away: its etymology is from va, to blow as wind, with the preposition nir used in a negative sense: it means calm and unruffled. The notion which is attached to the word, in the acceptation now under consideration, is that of perfect apathy. It is a condition of unmixed tranquil happiness or ecstacy (ananda). Other terms (as suc'ha, moha, &c.) distinguish different gradations of pleasure, joy, and delight. But a happy state of imperturbable apathy is the ultimate bliss (ananda) to which the Indian aspires: in this the Jaina, as well as the Bauddha, concurs with the orthodox Vedantin.

Perpetual uninterrupted apathy can hardly be said to differ from eternal sleep. The notion of it as of a happy condition seems to be derived from the experience of ecstacies, or from that of profound sleep, from which a person awakes refreshed. The pleasant feeling is referred back to the period of actual repose. Accordingly, as I had occasion to show in a preceding essay, the Vedanta considers the individual soul to be temporarily, during the period of profound sleep, in the like condition of re-union with the Supreme, which it permanently arrives at on its final emancipation from body.

This doctrine is not that of the Jainas nor Bauddhas. But neither do they consider the endless repose allotted to their perfect saints as attended with a discontinuance of individuality. It is not annihilation, but unceasing apathy, which they understand to be the extinction (nirvana) of their saints; and which they esteem to be supreme felicity, worthy to be sought by practice of mortification, as well as by acquisition of knowledge.

Charvacas and Locayaticas.

In my first essay on the Philosophy of the Hindus (p. 143, of this volume), it was stated upon the authority of a scholiast of the Sanc'hya, that Charvaca, whose name is familiar as designating a heretical sect called after him, has exhibited the doctrine of the Jainas. In a marginal note to a scholiast of the Brahma-sutras, one of the four branches of the sect of Buddha (the Madhyamica) is identified with the Charvacas. This I take to be clearly erroneous; and upon comparison of the tenets of the Jainas and Charvacas, as alleged by the commentators of the Vedanta in course of controversy, the other position likewise appears to be not correct.

For want of an opportunity of consulting an original treatise on this branch of philosophy, or any connected summary furnished even by an adversary of opinions professed by the Charvacas, no sufficient account can be yet given of their peculiar doctrine, further than that it is undisguised materialism. A few of their leading opinions, however, are to be collected from the incidental notice of them by opponents.

A notorious tenet of the sect, restricting to perception only the means of proof and sources of knowledge, has been more than once adverted to (p. 152 and 194, of this volume). Further research enables me to enlarge the catalogue of means of knowledge admitted by others, with the addition of probability (sambhavi) and tradition (aitihya) separately reckoned by mythologists (Pauranicas) among those means. [Padart'ha dipica.] The latter is however comprehended under the head of (sabda) oral communication. In regard to probability or possibility (for the term may be taken in this lower meaning) as a ground or source of notions, it must be confessed, that in the text of the mythologists (their Puranas) a very ample use is made of the latitude; and what by supposition might have been and may be, is put in the place of what has been and is to be.

The Charvacas recognise four (not five) elements, viz. earth, water, fire, and wind (or air); and acknowledge no other principles (tatwa). [Varhaspatya sutra, cited by Bhascara.]

The most important and characteristic tenet of this sect concerns the soul, which they deny to be other than body. [SANCARA on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. 2. and 3. 3. 53.] This doctrine is cited for refutation in Vyasa's sutras, as the opinion of "some;" and his scholiasts, Bhavadeva Misra and Ranganat'ha, understand the Charvacas to be intended, Sancara, Bhascara, and other commentators, name the Locayaticas: and these appear to be a branch of the sect of Charvaca, Sadananda, in the Vedanta sara, calls up for refutation no less than four followers of Charvaca, asserting that doctrine under various modifications; one maintaining, that the gross corporeal frame is identical with the soul; another, that the corporeal organs constitute the soul; a third affirming, that the vital functions do so; and the fourth insisting, that the mind and the soul are the same. In the second of these instances, Sadananda's scholiast, Rama Tirt'ha, names the Locayatanas, a branch of the Charvaca, as particularly intended. No doubt they are the same with the Locayaticas of Sancara and the rest.

'Seeing no soul but body, they maintain the non-existence of soul other than body; and arguing that intelligence or sensibility, though not seen in earth, water, fire, and air, whether simple or congregate, may nevertheless subsist in the same elements modified in a corporeal frame, they affirm that an organic body (caya) endued with sensibility and thought, though formed of those elements, is the human person (purusha). [Sancara, &c.]

'The faculty of thought results from a modification of the aggregate elements, in like manner as sugar with a ferment and other ingredients becomes an inebriating liquor; and as betel, areca, lime, and extract of catechu, chewed together, have an exhilarating property, not found in those substances severally, nor in any one of them singly.

'So far there is a difference between animate body and inanimate substance. Thought, knowledge, recollection, &c., perceptible only where organic body is, are properties of an organised frame, not appertaining to exterior substances, or earth and other elements simple or aggregate, unless formed into such a frame.

'While there is body, there is thought, and sense of pleasure and pain; none when body is not; and hence, as well as from self-consciousness, it is concluded that self and body are identical.'

BHASCARA Acharya [On Br. Sutr. 3. 3. 53.] quotes the Varhaspatya-sutras (Vrihaspati's aphorisms), apparently as the text work or standard authority of this sect or school; and the quotation, expressing that "the elements are earth, water, fire and air; and from the aggregation of them in bodily organs, there results sensibility and thought, as the inebriating property is deduced from a ferment and other ingredients. "

To the foregoing arguments of the Locayaticas or Charvacas, the answer of the Vedantins is, that thought, sensation, and other properties of soul or consciousness, cease at the moment of death, while the body yet remains; and cannot therefore be properties of the corporeal frame, for they have ceased before the frame is dissolved. The qualities of body, as colour, &c. are apprehended by others: not so those of soul, viz. thought, memory, &c. Their existence, while body endures, is ascertained: not their cessation when it ceases. They may pass to other bodies. Elements, or sensible objects, are not sentient, or capable of feeling, themselves; fire, though hot, burns not itself; a tumbler, however agile, mounts not upon his own shoulders. Apprehension of an object must be distinct from the thing apprehended. By means of a lamp, or other light, objects are visible: if a lamp be present, the thing is seen; not so, if there be no light. Yet apprehension is no property of the lamp; nor is it a property of body, though observed only where a corporeal frame is. Body is but instrumental to apprehension.'

Among the Greeks, Dicsaearchus of Messene held the same tenet, which has been here ascribed to the Locayaticas, and other followers of Charvaca, that there is no such thing as soul in man; that the principle, by which he perceives and acts, is diffused through the body, is inseparable from it, and terminates with it.

Maheswaras and Pasupatas.

The devoted worshippers of Siva or maheswara, take their designation from this last-mentioned title of the deity whom they adore, and whose revelation they profess to follow. They are called Maheswaras, and (as it seems) 'Siva-bhagavatas.

The ascetics of the sect wear their hair braided, and rolled up round the head like a turban; hence they are denominated (and the sect after them) Ja'tdahari, 'wearing a braid.'

The Maheswara are said to have borrowed much of their doctrine from the Sanc'hya philosophy; following Capila on many points; and the theistical system of Patanjali on more.

They have branched into four divisions: one, to which the appellation of Saivas, or worshippers of Siva, especially appertains: a second, to which the denomination of Pasupatas belongs, as followers of Pasupati, another title of Maheswara: the third bears the name of Carunica-siddhantins: but Ramanuja [Com. on Br. Sutr, 2. 2. 37.] assigns to this third branch the appellation of Calamuc'has: the fourth is by all termed Capalas or Capalicas.

They appeal for the text of their doctrine to a book, which they esteem holy, considering it to have been revealed by Maheswara, SIVA, or PASUPATI: all names of the same deity. The work, most, usually bearing the latter title, Pasupati-sastra (Maheswara-siddhanta, or Sivagama), is divided into five lectures adhyaya), treating of as many categories (padart'has). The enumeration of them will afford occasion for noticing the principal and distinguishing tenets of the sect.

I. Carana, or cause. The Pasupatas hold, that Iswara, the Supreme Being, is the efficient cause of the world, its creator (carta) and superintending (adhist'hata) or ruling providence; and not its material cause likewise. They, however, identify the one supreme God, with SIVA, or Pasupati, and give him the title of Maheswara.

II. Carya or effect: which is nature (pracriti), or plastic matter (pradhana), as the universal material principle is by the Pasupatas denominated, conformably with the terminology of the Sanc'hyas; and likewise mahat, the great one, or intelligence, together with the further development of nature, viz. mind, consciousness, the elements, &c.

III. Yoga, abstraction; as perseverance in meditation on the syllable om, the mystic name of the deity; profound contemplation of the divine excellence, &c.

IV. Vidhi, enjoined rites; consisting in acts, by performance of which merit is gained; as bath, and ablutions, or the use of ashes in their stead; and divers acts of enthusiasm, as of a person overjoyed and beside himself.

V. Duhc'hanta, termination of ill, or final liberation (mocsha).

The purpose, for which these categories are taught and explained, is the accomplishment of deliverance from the bondage (bandha) or fetters (pasa), viz. illusion (maya), &c., in which the living soul (jiva or atma), by this sect termed pasu, is entangled and confined. For it is here maintained, that pasus (living souls) are individual sentient beings, capable of deliverance from evil, through the knowledge of GOD and the practice of prescribed rites, together with perseverance in profound abstraction.

The Pasupatas argue, that as a potter is the efficient, not the material, cause of the jar made by him; so the sentient being, who presides over the world, is the efficient, not the material, cause of it: for the superintendent, and that which is by him superintended, cannot be one and the same.  

In a more full exposition of their opinions [Vidhyabharana on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. 37.] they are stated as enumerating under the heads of effects and causes, those which are secondary; and as subdividing likewise the heads of prescribed rites and termination of ill.

I. They distinguish ten effects (carya): namely, five principles (tatwa), which are the five elements; earth, water, fire, air, and ether; and five qualities (guna) colour, &c.

II. They reckon thirteen causes or instruments (carana); viz. five organs of sense, and as many organs of action; and three internal organs, intelligence, mind, and consciousness. These thirteen causes or means are the same with the thirteen instruments of knowledge enumerated by Capila and his followers, the Sanc'hyas.

III. Yoga, abstraction, does not appear to admit any subdivision.

IV. Enjoined rules (vidhi) are distributed under two heads: 1st. vrata, 2d. dwara.

To the first head (vrata or vow) appertains the use of ashes in place of water for bath or ablutions: that is, first, in lieu of bathing thrice a day; at morning, noon, and evening: secondly, instead of ablutions for special causes, as purification from uncleanness after evacuation of urine, feces, &c.

To the same head belongs likewise the sleeping upon ashes: for which particular purpose they are solicited from householders, in like manner as food and other alms are begged.

This head, comprises also exultation (upahara), which comprehends laughter, dance, song, bellowing as a bull, bowing, recital of prayer, &c.

The second head (dwara) consists of, 1st, pretending sleep, though really awake; 2d, quaking, or tremulous motion of members, as if afflicted with rheumatism or paralytic affection; 3d, halting, as if lame; 4th, joy, as of a lover at sight of his beloved mistress; 5th, affectation of madness, though quite sane; 6th, incoherent discourse.

V. Termination of pain (duhc'hanta) or deliverance from evil, is twofold: one is absolute extinction of all ills; the other is acquisition of transcendent power, and exercise of uncontrolled and irresistible will. The last comprises energy of sense and energy of action.

The energy of sense (dric-sacti) varies according to the sense engaged, and is of five sorts: 1st, vision (darsana), or distinct and perfect perception of minute, remote, confused and undefined objects; 2d, (sravana) perfect hearing of sound; 3d, (manana) intuitive knowledge, or science without need of study; 4th, (vijnyana) certain and undoubted knowledge, by book or fact; 5th, (sarvajnyatwa) omniscience.

Energy of action (criya-sacti) is properly single of its kind. It admits nevertheless of a threefold subdivision; which, however, is not well explained, in the only work in which I have found it noticed. [Abharana (§ 39) 2. 2. 27. The only copy of it seen by me is in this part apparently imperfect.]

The opinions of the Pasupatas and other Maheswaras, are heretical, in the estimation of the Vedantins, because they do not admit pantheism, or creation of the universe by the deity out of his own essence.

The notion of a plastic material cause, termed pradhana, [That by which the world is accomplished (pradhiyate), and in which it is deposited at its dissolution, is first (pradhana) matter.] borrowed from the Sanc'hyas, and that of a ruling providence, taken from PATANJALI, are controverted, the one in part, the other in the whole, by the orthodox followers of the Vedanta.

'An argument drawn from the prevalence of pain, pleasure, and illusion in the universe, that the cause must have the like qualities and be brute matter, is incongruous,' say the Vedantins, 'for it could not frame the diversities, exterior and interior, which occur: these argue thought and intention, in like manner as edifices and gardens, which assuredly are not constructed without design. Nor could there be operation without an operator; clay is wrought by the potter who makes the jar; a chariot is drawn by horses yoked to it; but brute matter stirs not without impulse. Milk nourishes the calf, and water flows in a stream, but not spontaneously; for the cow, urged by affection, suckles her calf, which, incited by hunger, sucks the teat; a river flows agreeably to the inclination of the ground, as by providence directed. But there is not, according to the Sanc'hyas and Pasupatas, any thing besides matter itself to stir or to stop it, nor any motive: for soul is a stranger in the world. Yet conversions are not spontaneous: grass is not necessarily changed to milk; for particular conditions must co-exist: swallowed by a cow, not by an ox, the fodder is so converted. Or, granting that activity is natural to matter, still there would be no purpose. The halt, borne by the blind, directs the progress: a magnet attracts contiguous iron. But direction and contiguity are wanting to the activity of plastic matter. The three qualities of goodness, foulness, and darkness, which characterize matter, would not vary to become primary and secondary in the derivative principles of intelligence and the rest, without some external instigator whomsoever. Apart from the energy of a thinking being, those qualities cannot be argued to have a natural tendency to the production of such effects as are produced.' [SANC., &c. on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. § I. (S. 1-10.)]

'The Pasupatas' notion of Supreme God being the world's cause, as governing both (pradhana) matter and (purusha) embodied spirit, is incongruous,' say again the Vedantins, 'for he would be chargeable with passion and injustice, distributing good and evil with partiality. Nor can this imputation be obviated by reference to the influence of works: for instigation and instigator would be reciprocally dependent. Nor can the objection be avoided by the assumption of an infinite succession (without a beginning) of works and their fruits.

'Neither is there any assignable connexion by which his guidance of matter and spirit could be exercised: it is not conjunction, nor aggregation, nor relation of cause and effect. Nor can the material principle, devoid of all sensible qualities, be guided and administered. Nor can matter be wrought without organs. But, if the Supreme Being have organs, he is furnished with a corporeal frame, and is not God, and he suffers pain, and experiences pleasure, as a finite being. The infinity of matter and of embodied spirit, and God's omniscience, are incompatible; if he restrict them in magnitude and number, they are finite; if he cannot define and limit them, he is not omniscient (and omnipotent).' [SANC., &c. on Br. Sutr. 2. 2. § 7.]

A further objection to the Sanc'hya doctrine, and consequently to the Pasupata grounded on it, is 'its alleged inconsistencies and contradictions: [lb. 2. 2. § 1. (S. 2. and 10.)] one while eleven organs are enumerated, at another seven only, the five senses being reduced to one cuticular organ, the sense of feeling. The elements are in one place derived immediately from the great or intelligent principle; in another, from consciousness. Three internal faculties are reckoned in some instances, and but one in others.'

The grounds of this imputation, however, do not appear. Such inconsistencies are not in the text of Capila, nor in that of the Carted: and the Vedanta itself seems more open to the same reproach: for there is much discrepancy in the passages of the Veda, on which it relies.

The point on which the Pasupatas most essentially differ from the orthodox, the distinct and separate existence of the efficient and material causes of the universe, is common to them with the ancient Greek philosophers before Aristotle. Most of these similarly affirmed two, and only two, natural causes, the efficient and the material; the first active, moving: the second, passive, moved; one effective, the other yielding itself to be acted on by it. Ocellus terms the latter [x] generation, or rather production; the former its cause, [x]. [Ocellus de Universo, c. 2., in Opusc. Mythol. p. 505. Cicero, Academ.] Empedocles, in like manner, affirmed two principles of nature; the active, which is unity, or God; the passive, which is matter. [Sext. Empir. adv. Math. ix. 4.]

Here we have precisely the pracriti and carana of the Indian philosophers: their upadana and nimitta-carana, material and efficient causes. The similarity is too strong to have been accidental. Which of the two borrowed from the other I do not pretend to determine: yet, adverting to what has come to us of the history of Pythagoras, I shall not hesitate to acknowledge an inclination to consider the Grecian to have been on this, as on many other points, indebted to Indian instructors.

It should be observed, that some among the Greek philosophers, like the Sanc'hyas, who follow Capila, admitted only one material principle and no efficient cause. This appears to have been the doctrine of Heraclitus in particular. His psegmata correspond with the sheer (tanmatra) particles of Capila's Sanc'hya; his intelligent and rational principle, which is the cause of production and dissolution, is Capila's buddhi ox mahat; as his material principle is pradhana or pracriti: the development of corporeal existences, and their return to the first principle at their dissolution, [See p. 161 of this volume.] correspond with the upward and downward way, [x] and [x], of Heraclitus. [Diog. Laert. ix. 8 and 9.]

I shall not pursue the parallel further. It would not hold for all particulars, not was it to be expected that it should.

Pancharatras or Bhagavatas.

Among the Vaishnavas or special worshippers of Vishnu, is a sect distinguished by the appellation of Pancharatras, and also called Vishnu Bhagavatas, or simply Bhagavatas. The latter name might, from its similarity, lead to the confounding of these with the followers of the Bhagavad-gita, or of the 'Sri Bhagavata purana. The appropriate and distinctive appellation then is that of Pancharatra, derived from the title of the original work which contains the doctrine of the sect. It is noticed in the Bharata, with the Sanc'hya, Yoga and Pasupata, as a system deviating from the Vedas: and a passage quoted by Sancara-Acharya seems to intimate that its promulgator was Sandilya, who was dissatisfied with the Vedas, not finding in them a prompt and sufficient way of supreme excellence (para-sreyas) and final beatitude; and therefore he had recourse to this sastra. It is, however, by most ascribed to Narayana or VASUDEVA himself; and the orthodox account for its heresy, as they do for that of Buddha's doctrines, by presuming delusion wilfully practised on mankind by the holy or divine personage, who revealed the tantra, or agama, that is, the sacred book in question, though heterodox.

Some of its partisans nevertheless pretend, that it conforms with one of the sac'has of the Veda, denominated the Ecayana. This does not, however, appear to be the case; nor is it clear, that any such sac'ha is forthcoming, or has ever existed.

Many of this sect practise the (sanscaras) initiatory ceremonies of regeneration and admission to holy orders, according to the forms directed by the Vajasaneji-sac'ha of the Yajurveda. Others, abiding rigidly by their own rules, perform the initiatory rites, in a different, and even contrary mode, founded, as is pretended, on the supposed Ecayana-sac'ha. But their sacerdotal initiation is questioned, and their rank as Brahmanas contested, on the ground of the insufficiency of their modes unsanctioned by either of the three genuine and authoritative Vedas.

The religious doctrine of the sect is, by admission of Sancara and other commentators of the Vedanta, reconcileable on many points with the Veda; but in some essential respects it is at direct variance with that authority, and consequently deemed heretical; and its confutation is the object of the 8th or last adhicarana in the controversial chapter of the Brahme-sutras (2. 2. 8.)

Yet Ramanuja, in his commentary on those sutras, defends the superhuman origin and correct scope of the Pancharatra; the authority of which he strenuously maintains, and earnestly justifies its doctrine on the controverted points; and even endeavours to put a favourable construction on Badarayana's text, as upholding rather than condemning its positions.

Vasudeva, who is Vishnu, is by this sect identified with Bhagavat, the Supreme Being; the one, omniscient, first principle, which is both the efficient and the material cause of the universe: and is likewise its superintending and ruling providence. That being, dividing himself, became four persons, by successive production. From him immediately sprung Sancarshana, from whom came Pradyumna; and from the latter issued Aniruddha. Sancarshana is identified with the living soul (jiva); Pradyumna, with mind (manas); and Aniruddha, with (ahancara) egotism, or consciousness.

In the mythology of the more orthodox Vaishnavas, Vasudeva is Crishna; Sancarshana is his brother Balarama; Pradyumna is his son CAMA (Cupid); and Aniruddha is son of Cama.

Vasudeva, or Bhagavat, being supreme nature, and sole cause of all, the rest are effects. He has six especial attributes, being endued with the six pre-eminent qualities of

1st. Knowledge (jnyana), or acquaintance with everything animate or inanimate constituting the universe.

2d. Power (sacti), which is the plastic condition of the world's nature.

3d. Strength (bala), which creates without effort, and maintains its own creation without labour.

4th. Irresistible will (aiswarya), power not to be opposed or obstructed.

5th. Vigour (virya), which counteracts change, as that of milk into curds, and obviates alteration in nature.

6th. Energy (tejas), or independence of aid or adjunct in the world's creation, and capacity of subjugating others.

From the diffusion and co-operation of knowledge with strength, Sancarshana sprung; from vigour and irresistible will, Pradyumna; and from power and energy, Aniruddha. Or they may all be considered as partaking of all the six attributes.

Deliverance consisting in the scission of worldly shackles, is attainable by worship of the deity, knowledge of him, and profound contemplation; that is, 1st, by resorting to the holy temples, with body, thought, and speech subdued, and muttering the morning prayer, together with hymns and praise of (Bhagavat) the deity, and with reverential bowing and other ceremonies; 2dly. By gathering and providing blossoms, and other requisites of worship; 3dly. By actual performance of divine worship; 4thly. By study of the sacred text (Bhagavat-sastra) and reading, hearing, and reflecting on that and other holy books (puranas and agamas), which are conformable to it; 5thly. By profound meditation and absorbed contemplation after evening worship, and intensely fixing the thoughts exclusively on (Bhagavat) the deity.

By such devotion, both active and contemplative (criya-yoga and Jnyana-yoga), performed at five different times of each day, and persisted in for a hundred years, Vasudeva is attained; and by reaching his divine presence, the votary accomplishes final deliverance, with everlasting beatitude.

Against this system, which is but partially heretical, the objection upon which the chief stress is laid by Vyasa, as interpreted by Sancara [Br. Sutr. 2. 2, 8. (42-45.) Sanc., &c.] and the rest of the scholiasts, is, that 'the soul would not be eternal, if it were a production, and consequently had a beginning. Springing from the deity, and finally returning to him, it would merge in its cause and be re-absorbed; there would be neither reward nor punishment; neither a heaven, nor a hell: and this doctrine virtually would amount to (nasticya) denial of another world. Nor can the soul, becoming active, produce mind; nor again this, becoming active, produce consciousness. An agent does not generate an instrument, though he may construct one by means of tools; a carpenter does not create, but fabricate, an axe. Nor can four distinct persons be admitted, as so many forms of the same self- divided being, not springing one from the other, but all of thein alike endued with divine attributes, and consequently all four of them Gods. There is but one God, one Supreme Being. It is vain to assume more; and the Pancharatra itself affirms the unity of God.'

A few scattered observations have been thrown out on the similarity of the Greek and Indian philosophy, in this and preceding portions of the present essay. It may be here remarked by the way, that the Pythagoreans, and Ocellus in particular, distinguish as parts of the world, the heaven, the earth, and the interval between them, which they term lofty and aerial, [x] [Ocell. c. 3., in Opusc. Myth. p. 528.]

Here we have precisely the (swar, bhh, and antaricsha) heaven, earth, and (transpicuous) intermediate region of the Hindus.

Pythagoras, as after him Ocellus, peoples the middle or aerial region with demons, as heaven with Gods, and the earth with men. Here again they agree precisely with the Hindus, who place the Gods above, man beneath, and spiritual creatures, flitting unseen, in the intermediate region. The Vedas throughout teem with prayers and incantations to avert and repel the molestation of aerial spirits, mischievous imps, who crowd about the sacrifice and impede the religious rite.

Nobody needs to be reminded, that Pythagoras and his successors held the doctrine of metempsychosis, as the Hindus universally do the same tenet of transmigration of souls.

They agree likewise generally in distinguishing the sensitive, material organ (manas), from the rational and conscious living soul (Jivdatman): [Empedocles. See Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil. 1117.] [x] and [x] of Pythagoras; one perishing with the body, the other immortal.

Like the Hindus, Pythagoras, with other Greek philosophers, assigned a subtle ethereal clothing to the soul apart from the corporeal part, and a grosser clothing to it when united with body; the sucshma (or linga) sarira and st'hula sarira of the Sanc'hyas and the rest. [See page 155 of this volume.]

They concur even in the limit assigned to mutation and change; deeming all which is sublunary, mutable, and that which is above the moon subject to no change in itself. [Ocellus. Opusc. Mythol. 527.] Accordingly, the manes doomed to a succession of births, rise, as the Vedas teach, no further than the moon: while those only pass that bourne who are never to return. But this subject rather belongs to the Vedanta: and I will therefore terminate this treatise; purposing to pursue the subject in a future essay, in which I expect to show that a greater degree of similarity exists between the Indian doctrine and that of the earlier than of the later Greeks; and, as it is scarcely probable that the communication should have taken place, and the knowledge been imparted, at the precise interval of time which intervened between the earlier and later schools of Greek philosophy, and especially between the Pythagoreans and Platonists, I should be disposed to conclude that the Indians were in this instance teachers rather than learners.
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

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XI. ENUMERATION OF INDIAN CLASSES.

[From the Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 53-67. Calcutta 1798. 4to.]

The permanent separation of classes, with hereditary professions assigned to each, is among the most remarkable institutions of India; and, though now less rigidly maintained than heretofore, must still engage attention. On the subject of the mixed classes, Sanscrit authorities, in some instances, disagree: classes mentioned by one, are omitted by another; and texts differ on the professions assigned to some tribes. A comparison of several authorities, with a few observations on the subdivisions of classes, may tend to elucidate this subject, in which there is some intricacy.

One of the authorities I shall use, is the Jatimala, or Garland of Classes; an extract from, the Rudra yamala tantra, which in some instances corresponds better with usage, and received opinions, than the ordinances of menu, and the great Dharma purana. [The texts are cited in the Vivadarnava setu, from the Vrihad dharma purdana. This name I therefore retain; although I cannot learn that such a purana exists, or to what treatise the quotation refers under that name [See p. 63 of the present work.]] On more important points its authority could not be compared with the Dharmasastra: but, on the subject of classes, it may be admitted; for the Tantras form a branch of literature highly esteemed, though at present much neglected. [See p. 125.] Their fabulous origin derives them from revelations of Siva to Parvati, confirmed by Vishnu, and therefore called Agama, from the initials of three words in a verse of the Todala tantra.

"Coming from the mouth of Siva, heard by the mountain-born goddess, admitted by the son of Vasudeva, it is thence called Agama."

Thirty-six are mentioned for the number of mixed classes; but, according to some opinions, that number includes the fourth original tribe, or all the original tribes, according to other authorities: yet the text quoted from the great Dharma purdana, in the digest of which a version was translated by Mr. Halhed, names thirty-nine mixed classes; and the Jatimala gives distinct names for a greater number.

On the four original tribes it may suffice, in this place, to quote the Jatimala, where the distinction of Brahmanas, according to the ten countries to which their ancestors belonged, is noticed: that distinction is still maintained.

"In the first creation, by Brahma, Brahmanas proceeded, with the Veda, from the mouth of Brahma. From his arms Cshatriyas sprung; so from his thigh, Vaisyas: from his foot Sudras were produced: all with their females.

"The Lord of creation viewing them, said, 'What shall be your occupations?' They replied, 'We are not our own masters, oh, God! command us what to undertake.'

"Viewing and comparing their labours, he made the first tribe superior over the rest. As the first had great inclination for the divine sciences, (Brahme veda,) therefore he was Brahmana. The protector from ill (cshayate) was Cshatriya. Him whose profession (vesa) consists in commerce, which promotes the success of wars, for the protection of himself and of mankind, and in husbandry, and attendance on cattle, he called Vaisya. The other should voluntarily serve the three tribes, and therefore he became a Sudra: he should humble himself at their feet."

And in another place:

"A chief of the twice-born tribe was brought by Vishnu's eagle from Saca dwipa: thus have Saca dwipa Brahmanas become known in Jambu dwipa.

"In Jambu dwipa, Brahmanas are reckoned tenfold; Sareswata, Canyacubja, Gauda, Mait'hita, Ulcala, Dravida, Maharash'tra, Tailanga, Gujjara, and Casmira, residing in the several countries whence they are named. [These several countries are, Sareswata, probably the region watered by the river Sersutty, as it is marked in maps; unless it be a part of Bengal, named from the branch of the Bhagirat'hi, which is distinguished by this appellation; Canyacubja or Canoj; Gauda, probably the western Gar, and not the Gaur of Bengal; Mit'hita, or Tirabhucli, corrupted into Tirhut; Utcala, said to be situated near the celebrated temple of Jaganndt'ha; Dravida, pronounced Dravira; possibly the country described by that name, as a maritime region south of Carnato, (As. Res. vol. u. p. 117); Maharashtra, or Marhatta; Telinga, or Telingana; Gujjara, or Guzrat; Casmira, or Cashmir.]

"Their sons and grandsons are considered as Canyucubja priests, and so forth. Their posterity, descending from menu, also inhabit the southern regions: others reside in Anga, Banga, and Calinga; some in Camarupa and Odra. Others are inhabitants of Sumbhadesa: and twice-born men, brought by former princes, have been established  in Rada, Magadha, Varendra, Chola, Swernagrama, China, Cula, Saca, and Berbera." [Anga includes Bhagalpur. Benga, or Bengal Proper, is a part only of the Suba. Varendra, the tract of inundation north of the Ganges, is a part of the present Zila of Rajeshahi. Calinga is watered by the Godaveri (As. Res. vol. iii. p. 48.) Camarupa, an ancient empire is become a province of Asam. Odra I understand to be Orisa Proper, Rada (if that be the true reading) is well known as the country west of the Bhagirat'ha. Magadha or Magadha, is Bahar Proper. Chola is part of Birbhum. Another region of this name is mentioned in the Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. p. 48. Swernagrama, vulgarly Sunargau, is situated east of Dacca. China is a portion of the present Chinese empire. On the rest I can offer no conjecture. Saca and Berbera, here mentioned, must differ from the Dwipa and the region situated between the Cusa and Sanc'ha dwipas.]

I shall proceed, without further preface, to enumerate the principal mixed classes, which have sprung from intermarriages of the original tribes.

1. Murdhabhishicta, from a Brahmana by a girl of the Cshatriya class; his duty is the teaching of military exercises. The same origin is ascribed in the great Dharma purana to the Cumbhacara, [Vulgarly, Cumar.] or potter, and Tantravaya, [Vulgarly, Tanti.] or weaver: but the Tantravaya, according to the Jatimala, sprung from two mixed classes, for he was begotten by a man of the Manibandha on a woman of the Manicara tribe.

2. Ambash'tha or Vaiaya, [Vulgarly, Baiaya.] whose profession is the science of medicine, was born of a Vaisya woman, by a man of the sacerdotal class. The same origin is given by the Dharma purana to the Cansacara, [ulgarly, Casera.] or brazier, and to the Sanc'hacara, [Vulgarly, Sac'hera.] or worker in shells. These again are stated in the tantra, as springing from the intermarriages of mixed classes; the Cansacara from the Tamracuta and the Sanc'hacara; also named Sanc'hadareca, from the Rajaputra and Gandhica: for Rajaputra not only denotes Cshatriyas as sons of kings, but is also the name of a mixed class, and of a tribe of fabulous origin.

Rudra yamala tantra: "The origin of Rajaputras is from the Vaisya on the daughter of an Ambash'tha. Again, thousands of others sprung from the foreheads of cows kept to supply oblations."

3. Nishada, or Parasava, whose profession is catching fish, was born of a Sudra woman by a man of a sacerdotal class. The name is given to the issue of a legal marriage between a Brahmana and a woman of the Sudra tribe. It should seem that the issue of other legal marriages in different ranks, were described by the names of mixed classes springing from intercourse between the several tribes. This, however, is liable to some question; and since such marriages are considered as illegal in the present age, it is not material to pursue the inquiry.

According to the Dharma purana, from the same origin with the Nishada springs the Varajiv, or astrologer. In the tantra, that origin is given to the Brahme-sudra, whose profession is to make chairs or stools used on some religious occasions. Under the name of Varajivi [Vulgarly, Baraiya.] is described a class springing from the Gopa and Tantravaya, and employed in cultivating betel. The profession of astrology, or, at least, that of making almanacks, is assigned in the tantra, to degraded Brahmanas.

"Brahmanas, falling from their tribe, became kinsmen of the twice-born class: to them is assigned the profession of ascertaining the lunar and solar days."

4. Mahishya is a son of a Cshatriya by a woman of the Vaisya tribe. His profession is music, astronomy, and attendance on cattle.

5. Ugra was born of a Sudra woman by a man of the military class. His profession, according to menu, is killing or confining such animals as live in holes: but, according to the tantra, he is an encomiast or bard. The same origin is attributed to the Napita [Vulgarly, Naya or Nai.] or barber; and to the Maudaca, or confectioner. In the tantra, the Napita is said to be born of a Cuverina woman by a man of the Patticara class.

6. Carana [Vulgarly, Caran.] from a Vaisya, by a woman of the Sudra class, is an attendant on princes, or secretary. The appellation of Cayast'ha [Vulgarly, Cait.] is in general considered as synonymous with Carana; and accordingly the Carana tribe commonly assumes the name of Cayast'ha: but the Cayast'has of Bengal have pretensions to be considered as true Sudras, which the Jatimala seems to authorize; for the origin of the Cayast'ha is there mentioned, before the subject of mixed tribes is introduced, immediately after describing the Gopa as a true Sudra.

One, named Bhutidatta, was noticed for his domestic assiduity; [ Literally, Staying at home, (caye sanst'hitah,) whence the etymology of Cayast'ha.] therefore the rank of Cayast'ha was by Brahmanas assigned to him. From him sprung three sons, Chitrangada, Chitrasena, and Chitragupta: they were employed in attendance on princes.

The Dharma purana assigns the same origin to the Tambuli, or betel-seller, and to the Tantica, or areca-seller, as to the Carana.

The six before enumerated are begotten in the direct order of the classes. Six are begotten in the inverse order.

7. Suta, begotten by a Cshatriya on a woman of the priestly class. His occupation is managing horses and driving cars. The same origin is given, in the puranas, to the Malacara, [Mali.] or florist; but he sprung from the Carmacara and Taitica classes, if the authority of the tantra prevails.

8. Magadha, born of a Cshatriya girl, by a man of the commercial class, has, according to the sastra, the profession of travelling with merchandize: but, according to the purana and tantra, is an encomiast. From parents of those classes sprung the Gopa [Gop.] if the purana may be believed; but the tantra describes the Gupa as a true Sudra, and names Gopajivi, [Giavid-Gop.] a mixed class, using the same profession, and springing from the Tantravaya and Manibandha tribes.

9 and 10. Vaideha and Ayogava. The occupation of the first, born of a Brahmani by a man of the commercial class, is waiting on women: the second, born of a Vaisya woman by a man of the servile class, has the profession of a carpenter.

11. Cshattri, or Cshatta, sprung from a servile man by a woman of the military class, is employed in killing and confining such animals as live in holes. The same origin is ascribed by the purana to the Carmacara, or smith, and Dasa, or mariner. The one is mentioned in the tantra without specifying the classes from which he sprung; and the other has a different origin according to the sastra and tantra.

All authorities concur in deriving the chandala from a Sudra father and Brahmani mother. His profession is carrying out corpses, and executing criminals; and officiating in other abject employments for the public service.

A third set of Indian classes originate from the intermarriages of the first and second set: a few only have been named by menu; and, excepting the Abhira, or milkman, they are not noticed by the other authorities to which I refer. But the purana names other classes of this set.

A fourth set is derived from intercourse between the several classes of the second: of these also few have been named by menu; and one only of the fifth set, springing from intermarriages of the second and third; and another of the sixth set, derived from intercourse between classes of the second and fourth, menu adds to these tribes four sons of outcasts.

The tantra enumerates many other classes, which must be placed in lower sets, and ascribes a different origin to some of the tribes in the third and fourth sets. To pursue a verbose comparison would be tedious, and of little use; perhaps, of none; for I suspect that their origin is fanciful; and, except the mixed classes named by MENU, that the rest are terms for professions rather than tribes, and they should be considered as denoting companies of artisans, rather than distinct races. The mode in which Amera Sinha mentions the mixed classes and the professions of artisans, seems to support this conjecture.

However, the Jatimala expressly states the number of forty-two mixed classes, springing from the intercourse of a man of inferior, with a woman of superior class. Though, like other mixed classes, they are included under the general denomination of Sudra, they are considered as most abject, and most of them now experience the same contemptuous treatment as the abject mixed classes mentioned by MENU. According to the Rudra yamala, the domestic priests of twenty of these tribes are degraded. "Avoid", says the tantra, "the touch of the Chandala, and other abject classes; and of those who eat the flesh of kine, often utter forbidden words, and perform none of the prescribed ceremonies; they are called Mlech'ha, and going to the region of Yavana, have been named Yavanas.

"These seven, the Rajaca, Carmacara, Na'ta, Baruda, Caiverta, and Medabhilla, are the last tribes. Whoever associates with them, undoubtedly falls from his class; whoever bathes or drinks in wells or pools which they have caused to be made, must be purified by the five productions of kine; whoever approaches their women, is doubtless degraded from his rank.

"For women of the Nata and Capala classes, for prostitutes, and for women of the Rajaca and Napita tribes, a man should willingly make oblations, but by no means dally with them."

I may here remark, that according to the Rudra yamala, the Nata and Nataca are distinct; but the professions are not discriminated in that tantra. If their distinct occupations, as dancers and actors, are accurately applied, dramas are of very early date.

The Pundraca and Pattasutracasa, or feeder of silk-worms, and silk-twister, deserve notice; for it has been said, that silk was the produce of China solely until the reign of the Greek Emperor JUSTINIAN, and that the laws of China jealously guarded the exclusive production. The frequent mention of silk in the most ancient Sanscrit books would not fully disprove that opinion; but the mention of an Indian class, whose occupation it is to attend silk-worms, may be admitted as proof, if the antiquity of the tantra be not questioned, I am informed, that the tantras collectively are noticed in very ancient compositions; but, as they are very numerous, they must have been composed at different periods; and the tantra which I quote, might be thought comparatively modern. However, it may be presumed that the Rudra yamala is among the most authentic, and by a natural inference, among the most ancient; since it is named in the Durga mehattwa where the principal tantras are enumerated. [Thus enumerated, "Cali tantra, Munamala, Tara, Nirvana tantra, Serva saran, Bira tantra, Singarchana, Bhuta tantra. Uddesan and Calica calpa, Bhairavi tantra, and Bhairavi calpa, Todala, Matribhedanaca, Maya tantra, Bireswara, Viswasdra, Samaya tantra, Brahma-yamala-tantra, Rudra-yamala-tantra, Sancu-yamala-tantra, Gaya-tri-tantra, Calicacula servaswa, Culdrnava, Yogini, tantra, and the Tantra Mahishamardini. These are here universally known, Oh Bhairavi, greatest of souls! And many are the tantras uttered by Sambhu."]

In the comparative tables to which I have referred, the classes are named, with their origin, and the particular professions assigned to them. How far every person is bound, by original institutions, to adhere rigidly to the profession of his class, may merit some enquiry. Lawyers have largely discussed the texts of law concerning this subject, and some difference of opinion occurs in their writings. This, however, is not the place for entering into such disquisitions. I shall therefore briefly state what appears to be the best established opinion, as deduced from the texts of menu, and other legal authorities.

The regular means of subsistence for a Brahmana, are assisting to sacrifice, teaching the Vedas, and receiving gifts; for a Cshatriya, bearing arms; for a Vaisya, merchandize, attending on cattle, and agriculture, for a Sudra, servile attendance on the higher classes. The most commendable are, respectively for the four classes, teaching the Veda, defending the people, commerce, or keeping herds or flocks, and servile attendance on learned and virtuous priests.

A Brahmana, unable to subsist by his own duties, may live by those of a soldier; if he cannot get a subsistence by either of these employments, he may apply to tillage, and attendance on cattle, or gain a competence by traffic, avoiding certain commodities. A Cshatriya, in distress, may subsist by all these means; but he must not have recourse to the highest functions. In seasons of distress, a further latitude is given. The practice of medicine, and other learned professions, painting and other arts, work for wages, menial service, alms, and usury, are among the modes of subsistence allowed to the Brahmana and Cshatriya. A Vaisya, unable to subsist by his own duties, may descend to the servile acts of a Sudra. And a Sudra, not finding employment by waiting on men of the higher classes, may subsist by handicrafts; principally following those mechanical occupations, as joinery and masonry; and practical arts, as painting and writing; by following of which he may serve men of superior classes: and, although a man of a lower tribe is in general restricted from the acts of a higher class, the Sudra is expressly permitted to become a trader or a husbandman.

Besides the particular occupations assigned to each of the mixed classes, they have the alternative of following that profession which regularly belongs to the class from which they derive their origin on the mother's side: those, at least, have such an option, who are born in the direct order of the tribes, as the Murdhabhishicta, Ambash'tha,  and others. The mixed classes are also permitted to subsist by any of the duties of a Sudra; that is, by a menial service, by handicraft, by commerce, or by agriculture.

Hence it appears that almost every occupation, though regularly it be the profession of a particular class, is open to most other tribes; and that the limitations, far from being rigorous, do, in fact, reserve only one peculiar profession, that of the Brahmana, which consists in teaching the Veda, and officiating at religious ceremonies.

The classes are sufficiently numerous; but the subdivisions of them have further multiplied distinctions to an endless variety. The subordinate distinctions may be best exemplified from the Brahmana and Cayast'ha, because some of the appellations, by which the different races are distinguished, will be familiar to many readers.

The Brahmanas of Bengal are descended from five priests, invited from Canyacubja, by Adiswara, king of Gaura, who is said to have reigned about nine hundred years after Christ. These were Bhatta NARAYANA, of the family of SANDILA, a son of Casyapa; Dacsha, also a descendant of Casyapa; Vedagarva, of the family of Vatsa; CHANDRA, of the family of Saverna, a son of Casyapa; and SRI HERSHA, a descendant of Bharadwaja.

From these ancestors have branched no fewer than a hundred and fifty-six families, of which the precedence was fixed by Ballala SENA, who reigned in the eleventh century of the Christian sera. One hundred of these families settled in Varendra, and fifty-six in Rara. They are now dispersed throughout Bengal, but retain the family distinctions fixed by Ballala Sena. They are denominated from the families to which their five progenitors belonged, and are still considered as Canyacubja Brahmanas.

At the period when these priests were invited by the king of Gaura, some Sareswata Brahmanas, and a few Vaidicas, resided in Bengal. Of the Brahmanas of Sareswata, none are now found in Bengal; but five families of Vaidicas are extant, and are admitted to intermarry with the Brahmanas of Rara.

Among the Brahmanas of Varendra, eight families have pre-eminence, and eight hold the second rank.
[VARENDRA BRAHMANAS.
CULINA 8 Maitra. / Bhima, or Cali / Rudra- Vagisi / Sanyamini, or Sandyat Bhadara
Lahari / Bhaduri / Sadhu-Vagisi / Bhadara.
The last was admitted by election of the other seven.
Suddha Srotriya 8.
cashta Srotriya 84.
The names of these 92 families seldom occur in common intercourse.]

Among those of Rara six hold the first rank.
[KARIYA BRAHMANAS.
CULINA 6.
Muc'huti, Vulgarly, Muc'herja / Ganguli / Canjelata.
Ghoshala / Banayagati, Vulgarly, Banoji / Chatati, Vulgarly, Chatoji
Srotriya 50
The names of these 50 families seldom occur in common intercourse.]

The distinctive appellations of the several families are borne by those of the first rank; but in most of the other families they are disused; and serman, or serma, the addition common to the whole tribe of Brahmanas, is assumed. For this practice, the priests of Bengal are censured by the Brahmanas of Mit'hila, and other countries, where that title is only used on important occasions, and in religious ceremonies.

In Mit'hila the additions are fewer, though distinct families are more numerous; no more than three surnames are in use in that district, Thacusa, Misra, and Ojha, each appropriated to many families.

The Cayast'has of Bengal claim descent from five Cayast'has who attended the priests invited from Canyacubja. Their descendants branched into eighty-three families; and their precedence was fixed by the same prince Ballala Sena, who also adjusted the family rank of other classes.

In Benga and Dacshina Rara, three families of Cayast'has have pre-eminence; eight hold the second rank.
[Cayast'has of Dacshina Rara and Benga.
Culina 3.
Ghosha / Vasu. Vulg. Bose / Mitra
Sanmaulica 8
De / Datta / Cara / Palita
Sena / Sinha / Dasa / Guha
Maulica 72
Guhan / Gana / Heda / Huhin / Naga / Bhadre
Soma / Pui / Rudra / Pala / Aditya / Chandra
Sanya, or Sain / -- / -- / -- / -- / --
Syama, &c. / -- / -- / -- / -- / --
Teja, &c. / -- / -- / -- / -- / --
Chaci, &c. / -- / -- / -- / -- / --
The others are omitted for the sake of brevity; their names seldom occur in common intercourse.]

The Cayast'has of inferior rank generally assume the addition of Basa, common to the tribe of Sudras, in the same manner as other classes have similar titles common to the whole tribe. The regular addition to the name of a Cshatriya is Verman; to that of a Vaisya, Gupta: but the general title of Deva is commonly assumed; and, with a feminine termination, is also borne by women of other tribes.

The distinctions of families are important in regulating intermarriages. Genealogy is made a particular study; and the greatest attention is given to regulate the alliance according to established rules, particularly in the first marriage of the eldest son. The principal points to be observed are, not to marry within the prohibited degrees; nor in a family known by its name to be of the same primitive stock; nor in one of inferior rank; nor even in an inferior branch of an equal one; for within some families gradations are established. Thus, among the Culina of the Cayast'has, the rank has been counted from thirteen degrees; and in every generation, so long as the marriage has been properly assorted, one degree has been added to the rank. But, should a marriage be contracted in a family of a lower degree, an entire forfeiture of such rank would be incurred.
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

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XII. Observations on the Sect of Jains.

[From the Asiatic Researches, vol. ix. p. 287-322. Calcutta, 1807. 4to.]

The information collected by Major Mackenzie, concerning a religious sect hitherto so imperfectly known as that of the Jainas, and which has been even confounded with one more numerous and more widely spread (the sect of Buddha), may furnish the ground of further researches, from which an exact knowledge of the tenets and practice of a very remarkable order of people may be ultimately expected. What Major Mackenzie has communicated to the Society, comes from a most authentic source; the declaration of two principal priests of the Jainas themselves. It is supported by similar information, procured from a like source, by Dr. I. Buchanan, during his journey in Mysore, in the year following the reduction of Seringapatam. Having the permission of Dr. Buchanan to use the extracts which I had his leave to make from the journal kept by him during that journey, I have inserted in the preceding article the information received by him from priests of the Jaina sect.

I am enabled to corroborate both statements, from conversation with Jaina priests, and from books in my possession, written by authors of the Jaina persuasion. Some of these volumes were procured for me at Benares: others were obtained from the present JAGAT SET, at Morshedabad, who, having changed his religion, to adopt the worship of Vishnu, forwarded to me, at my request, such books of his former faith as were yet within his reach.

It appears, from the concurrent result of all the enquiries which have been made, that the Jainas constitute a sect of Hindus, differing, indeed, from the rest in some very important tenets; but following, in other respects, a similar practice, and maintaining like opinions and observances.

The essential character of the Hindu institutions is the distribution of the people into four great tribes. This is considered by themselves to be the marked point which separates them from Mlech'has or Barbarians. The Jainas, it is found, admit the same division into four tribes, and perform like religious ceremonies, termed sanscaras, from the birth of a male to his marriage. They observe similar fasts, and practise, still more strictly, the received maxims for refraining from injury to any sentient being. They appear to recognise as subordinate deities, some, if not all, of the gods of the prevailing sects; but do not worship, in particular, the five principal gods of those sects; or any one of them by preference; nor address prayers, or perform sacrifice, to the sun, or to fire: and they differ from the rest of the Hindus, in assigning the highest place to certain deified saints, who, according to their creed, have successively become superior gods. Another point in which they materially disagree is the rejection of the Vedas, the divine authority of which they deny; condemning, at the same time, the practice of sacrifices, and the other ceremonies which the followers of the Vedas perform, to obtain specific promised consequences, in this world or in the next.

In this respect the Jainas resemble the Bauddhas or saugatas, who equally deny the divine authority of the Vedas: and who similarly worship certain pre-eminent saints, admitting likewise, as subordinate deities, nearly the whole pantheon of the orthodox Hindus. They differ, indeed, in regard to the history of the personages whom they have deified; and it may be hence concluded, that they have had distinct founders; but the original notion seems to have been the same. In fact, this remarkable tenet, from which the Jainas and Bauddhas derive their most conspicuous peculiarities, is not entirely unknown to the orthodox Hindus. The followers of the Vedas, according to the theology, which is explained in the Vedanta, considering the human soul as a portion of the divine and universal mind, believe that it is capable of perfect union with the divine essence: and the writers on the Vedanta not only affirm that this union and identity are attained through a knowledge of God, as by them taught; but have hinted, that by such means the particular soul becomes God, even to the actual attainment of supremacy. [Vrihad aranyaca upanishad.]

So far the followers of the Vedas do not virtually disagree with the Jainas and Bauddhas. But they have not, like those sects, framed a mythology upon the supposed history of the persons, who have successively attained divinity; nor have they taken these for the objects of national worship. All three sects agree in their belief of transmigration. But the Jainas are distinguished from the rest by their admission of no opinions, as they themselves affirm, which are not founded on perception, or on proof drawn from that, or from testimony.

It does not, however, appear that they really withhold belief from pretended revelations: and the doctrines which characterize the sect, are not confined to a single tenet; but form an assemblage of mythological and metaphysical ideas found among other sects, joined to many visionary and fantastic notions of their own.

Their belief in the eternity of matter, and perpetuity of the world, is common to the Sanc'hya philosophy, from which it was, perhaps, immediately taken. Their description of the world has much analogy to that which is given in the Puranas, or Indian theogonies: but the scheme has been rendered still more extravagant. Their precaution to avoid injuring any being is a practice inculcated in the orthodox religion, but which has been carried by them to a ludicrous extreme. [Jaina priests usually wear a broom adapted to sweep insects out of their way; lest they should tread on the minutest being.]

In their notions of the soul, and of its union with body, and of retribution for good and evil, some analogy is likewise observable. The Jainas conceive the soul (jiva) to have been eternally united to a very subtile material body, or rather to two such bodies, one of which is invariable, and consists (if I rightly apprehend their metaphysical notions) of the powers of the mind; the other is variable, and is composed of its passions and affections: (this, at least, is what I understand them to mean by the taijasa and carmana sariras). The soul, so embodied, becomes, in its successive transmigrations, united with a grosser body denominated audarica, which retains a definite form, as man and other mundane beings; or it is joined with a purer essence, varying in its appearance at pleasure, as the gods and genii. This last is termed Vaicarica. They distinguish a fifth sort of body, under the name of aharica, which they explain as a minute form, issuing from the head of a meditative sage, to consult an omniscient saint; and returning with the desired information to the person whence that form issued, or rather from which it was elongated; for they suppose the communication not to have been interrupted.

The soul is never completely separated from matter, until it obtain a final release from corporeal sufferance, by deification, through a perfect disengagement from good and evil, in the person of a beatified saint. Intermediately it receives retribution for the benefits or injuries ascribable to it in its actual or precedent state, according to a strict principle of retaliation, receiving pleasure or pain from the same individual, who, in a present or former state, was either benefitted or aggrieved.

Major Mackenzie's information confirms that which t had also received, concerning the distribution of these sectaries into clergy and laity. In Hindustan the Jainas are usually called Syauras; but distinguish themselves into Sravacas and Yatis. The laity (termed Sravaca) includes persons of various tribes, as indeed is the case with Hindus of other sects: but, on this side of India, the Jainas are mostly of the Vaisya class. [I understand that their Vaisya class includes eighty-four tribes: of whom the most common are those denominated Oswal, Agarval, Pariwar, and C'handewal.] The orthodox Hindus have a secular, as well as a regular clergy: a Brahmana, following the practice of officiating at the ceremonies of his religion, without quitting the order of a householder, may be considered as belonging to the secular clergy; one who follows a worldly profession, (that of husbandry  for example,) appertains to the laity; and so do people of other tribes: but persons, who have passed into the several orders of devotion, may be reckoned to constitute the regular clergy. The Jainas have, in like manner, priests who have entered into an order of devotion; and also employ Brahmanas at their ceremonies; and, for want of Brahmanas of their own faith, they even have re- course to the secular clergy of the orthodox sect. This subject is sufficiently explained by Major Mackenzie and Dr. Buchanan, I shall, however, add, for the sake of a subsequent remark, that the Jainas apply the terms Yati and Sramana, (in Pracrit and Hindi written Samana,) to a person who has devoted himself to religious contemplation and austerity; and the sect of Buddha uses the word Sramana for the same meaning. It cannot be doubted, that the Sommonacodom of Siam, is merely a corruption of the words 'Sramana Gautama, the holy Gautama or Buddha. [See As. Res. Veil vii. p. 415.]

Having been here led to a comparison of the Indian sects which follow the precepts of the Vedas, with those which reject their authority, I judge it necessary to notice an opinion, which has been advanced, on the relative antiquity of those religions; and especially the asserted priority of the Bauddhas before the Brahmanas.

In the first place, it may be proper to remark, that the earliest accounts of India, by the Greeks who visited the country, describe its inhabitants as distributed into separate tribes. [Seven tribes are enumerated: but it is not difficult to reconcile the distributions, which are stated by Arrian and Strabo, with the present distribution into four classes.] Consequently, a sect which, like the modern Bauddhas, has no distinction of cast, could not have been then the most prevalent in India.

It is indeed possible that the followers of Buddha may, like the Jainas, have retained the distribution into four tribes, so long as they continued in Hindustan. But in that case, they must have been a sect of Hindus; and the question, which is most ancient, the Brahmana or the Bauddha, becomes a solecism.

If it be admitted that the Bauddhas are originally a sect of Hindus it may be next questioned, whether that, or any of the religious systems now established, be the most ancient. I have on a former occasion, [As. Res. Vol. viii. p. 474. [Above, pp. 67. 68]] indicated the notions which I entertain on this point. According to the hypothesis which I then hinted, the earliest Indian sect of which we have any present distinct knowledge, is that of the followers of the practical Vedas, who worshipped the sun, fire, and the elements; and who believed the efficacy of sacrifices, for the accomplishment of present and of future purposes. It may be supposed that the refined doctrine of the Vedantas, or followers of the theological and argumentative part of the Vedas, is of later date: and it does not seem improbable that the sects of Jina and of Buddha are still more modern. But I apprehend that the Vaishnavas, meaning particularly the worshippers of RAMA and of CRISHNA, [In explanation of a remark contained in a former essay [p. 68] 1 take this occasion of adding, that the mere mention of Rama or Crishna, in a passage of the Vedas, without any indication of peculiar reverence, would not authorize a presumption against the genuineness of that passage, on my hypothesis; nor, admitting its authenticity, furnish an argument against that system. I suppose both heroes to have been known characters in ancient fabulous history; but conjecture that, on the same basis, new fables have been constructed, elevating those personages to the rank of Gods. On this supposition, the simple mention of them in genuine portions of the Vedas, particularly in that part of it which is entitled Brahmana, would not appear surprising. Accordingly, CRISHNA, son of DEVACI, is actually named in the Ch'handogya Upanishad (towards the close of the third chapter,) as having received theological information from Ghora, a descendant of Angiras. This passage, which had escaped my notice, was indicated to me by Mr. Speke, from the Persian translation of the Upanishad.] may be subsequent to those sects, and that the Saivas also are of more recent date.

I state it as an hypothesis, because I am not at present able to support the whole of this position on grounds which may appear quite satisfactory to others; nor by evidence which may entirely convince them. Some arguments will, however, be advanced, to show that the proposition is not gratuitous.

The long sought history of Cashmir, which in the original Sanscrit was presented to the Emperor Acber, as related by Abul-Iazil in the Ayin-Acberi, and of which a Persian translation exists, more ample than Abul-Iazil's brief extract, has been at length recovered in the original language. [The copy which I possess, belonged to a Brahmana, who died some months ago (1805) in Calcutta. 1 obtained it from his heirs.] A fuller account of this book will be hereafter submitted to the society: the present occasion for the mention of it is a passage which was cited by Dr. Buchanan, [As. Res. vol. vi. p. 165.] from the English translation of the Ayin Acberi, for an import which is not supported by the Persian or Sanscrit text.

The author, after briefly noticing the colony established in Cashmir by Casyapa, and hinting a succession of kings to the time of the Curus and Pandavas, opens his detailed history, and list of princes, with GONARDA, a contemporary of Yudhisht'hira. He describes Asoca (who was twelfth in succession from Gonarda) and his son JALOCA, and grandson Damodara, as devout worshippers of Siva; and JALOCA, in particular, as a conqueror of the Mlech'has, or barbarians. DAMODARA, according to this history, was succeeded by three kings of the race of Turushca; and they were followed by a Bodhisatwa, who wrested the empire from them by the aid of Sacyasinha, and introduced the religion of Buddha into Cashmir. He reigned a hundred years; and the next sovereign was Abhimanyu, who destroyed the Bauddhas, and re-established the doctrines of the Nila purana. This account is so far from proving the priority of the Bauddhas, that it directly avers the contrary.

From the legendary tales concerning the last Buddha, current in all the countries in which his sect now flourishes; [TACHARD, Voyage de Siam. Laloubere, Royaume de Siam.] and upon the authority of a life of Buddha in the Sanscrit language, under the title of Lalita purana, which was procured by Major Knox, during his public mission in Nepal, it can be affirmed, that the story of GAUTAMA BUDDHA has been engrafted on the heroic history of the lunar and solar races, received by the orthodox Hindus; an evident sign, that his sect is subsequent to that, in which this fabulous history is original.

The same remark is applicable to the Jainas, with whom the legendary story of their saints also seems to be engrafted on the pauranic tales of the orthodox sect. Sufficient indication of this will appear in the passages which will be subsequently cited from the writings of the Jainas.

Considerable weight might be allowed to an argument deduced from the aggravated extravagance of the fictions admitted by the sects of JINA and Buddha. The mythology of the orthodox Hindus, their present chronology adapted to astronomical periods, their legendary tales, their mystical allegories, are abundantly extravagant. But the Jainas and Bauddhas surpass them in monstrous exaggerations of the same kind. In this rivalship of absurd fiction, it would not be unreasonable to pronounce that to be most modern, which has outgone the rest.

The greater antiquity of the religion of the Vedas is also rendered probable, from the prevalence of a similar worship of the sun and of' fire in ancient Persia. Nothing forbids the supposition, that a religious worship, which was there established in times of antiquity, may have also existed from a remote period in the country between the Ganges and the Indus.

The testimony of the Greeks preponderates greatly for the early prevalence of the sect, from which the present orthodox Hindus are derived, Arrian, having said that the Brachmanes were the sages or learned among the Indians, [[x] Exp. Al. vi. 16.] mentions them under the latter designation ([x]) as a distinct tribe, which, though inferior to the others in number, is superior in rank and estimation: bound to no bodily work, nor contributing any thing from labour to the public use; in short, no duty is imposed on that tribe, but that of sacrificing to the gods, for the common benefit of the Indians; and, when any one celebrates a private sacrifice, a person of that class becomes his guide; as if the sacrifices would not else be acceptable to the gods? [[x] Arrian. Indic, c. 11.]

Here, as well as in the sequel of the passage, the priests of a religion consonant to the Vedas, are well described: and what is said, is suitable to them; but to no other sect, which is known to have at any time prevailed in India.

A similar description is more succinctly given by Strabo, 'It is said, that the Indian multitude is divided into seven classes; and that the philosophers are first in rank, but fewest in number. They are employed, respectively, for private benefit, by those who are sacrificing or worshipping, etc.' [[x] Strab. xv. c. 1. (p. 712, ed. Casaub.)]

In another place he states, on the authority of Megasthenes, 'two classes of philosophers or priests; the Brachmanes and Germanes: but the Brachmanes are best esteemed, because they are most consistent in their doctrine' [[x] Strab. xv. c. 1. (pag. 712. ed. Casaub.)] The author then proceeds to describe their manners and opinions: the whole passage is highly deserving of attention, and will be found, on consideration, to be more suitable to the orthodox Hindus than to the Bauddhas or Jainas: particularly towards the close of his account of the Brachmanes, where he says, 'In many things they agree with the Greeks; for they affirm that the world was produced and is perishable; and that it is spherical: that God, governing it as well as framing it, pervades the whole: that the principles of all things are various; but water is the principle of the construction of the world: that, besides the four elements, there is a fifth nature, whence heaven and the stars: that the earth is placed in the centre of all. Such and many other things are affirmed of reproduction, and of the soul. Like PLATO, they devise fables concerning the immortality of the soul, and the judgment in the infernal regions; and other similar notions. These things are said of the Brachmanes.'

STRABO notices likewise another order of people opposed to the Brachmanes, and called Pramnoe: he characterizes them as contentious cavillers, who ridiculed the Brachmanes for their study of physiology and astronomy.' [[x] Strab. XV. c. I. pag. 718, 719. ed. Casaub.]

PHILOSTRATUS, in the life of Apollonius, speaks of the Brachmanes as worshipping the sun. 'By day they pray to the sun respecting the seasons, which he governs, that he would send them in due time; and that India might thrive: and, in the evening, they intreat the solar ray not to be impatient of night and to remain as conducted from them.' [[x] lib. iii. cap. 4.]

PLINY and SOLINUS [PLIN., lib. vii. c. 2. Solin. i. 52.] also describe the Gymnosophists contemplating  the sun: and Hierocles, as cited by Stephanus of Byzantium, [[x] Stephan. de Urbibus, ad vocem Brachmanes.] expressly declares the Brachmanes to be particularly devoted to the sun.

This worship, which distinguishes the orthodox Hindus, does not seem to have been at any time practised by the rival sects of Jina and BUDDHA.

PORPHYRUS, treating of a class of religious men, among the Indians, whom the Greeks were accustomed to call Gymnosophists, mentions two orders of them; one, the Brachmanes, the other, the Samanoeans: 'the Brachmanes receive religious knowledge, like the priesthood, in right of birth; but the Samanoeans are select, and consist of persons choosing to prosecute divine studies.' He adds, on the authority of Bardesanes, that 'all the Brachmanes are of one race; for they are all descended from one father and one mother. But the Samanoeans are not of their race; being selected from the whole nation of Indians, as before mentioned. The Brachman is subject to no domination, and contributes nothing to others.' [PORPH. Abstinentia, lib. iv.]

In this passage, the Brachman, as an hereditary order of priesthood, is contrasted with another religious order; to which persons of various tribes were admissible: and the Samanoeans, who are obviously the same with the Germanes of STRABO, were doubtless Sannyasis; but may have belonged to any of the sects of Hindus. The name seems to bear some affinity to the Sramanas, or ascetics of the Jainas and Bauddhas.

CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS does indeed hint, that all the Brachmanes revered their wise men as deities; [[x] &c. Strom. lib. I. c. 15. p. 130. ed. Sylb.] and in another place, he describes them as worshipping Hercules and Pan. [Strom. lib. iii. c. 7. p. 194. ed. Sylb.] But the following passage from Clemens is most in point. Having said, that philosophy flourished anciently among the barbarians, and afterwards was introduced among the Greeks, he instances the prophets of the Egyptians, the Chaldees of the Assyrians; the Druids of the Gauls (Galatae); the Samanaeans of the Bactrians; the philosophers of the Celts; the Magi of the Persians; the Gymnosophists of the Indians: and proceeds thus: — 'They are of two kinds, some called Sarmanes, others Brachmanes. Among the Sarmanes, those called Allobii, [Same with the Hylobii of Strabo.] neither inhabit towns, nor have houses; they are clad with the bark of trees, and eat acorns, and drink water with their hands. They know not marriage, nor procreation of children; like those now called Encratetai (chaste). There are likewise, among the Indians, persons obeying the precepts of Butta, whom they worship as a god, on account of his extreme venerableness.' [[x] Strom, lib. 1. c. 15, p. 131. ed. Sylb.]

Here, to my apprehension, the followers of Buddha are clearly distinguished from the Brachmanes and Sarmanes. [The passage has been interpreted differently, as if Clemens said, that the Allobii were those who worshipped Butto. (See Moreri, Art. Samaneens.) The text is ambiguous.] The latter, called Germanes by Strabo, and Samamoeans by Porphyrius, are the ascetics of a different religion: and may have belonged to the sect of JINA, or to another. The Brachmanes are apparently those who are described by Philostratus and Hierocles, as worshipping the sun; and by Strabo and by Arrian, as performing sacrifices for the common benefit of the nation, as well as for individuals. The religion which they practised, was so far conformable with the precepts of the Vedas: and their doctrine and observances, their manners and opinions, as noticed by the authors above cited, agree with no other religious institutions known in India, but the orthodox sect. In short, the Brahmanas are distinctly mentioned by Greek authors as the first of the tribes or casts, into which the Indian nation was then, as now, divided. They are expressly discriminated from the sect of Buddha by one ancient author, and from the Sarmanes, or Samanoeans, (ascetics of various tribes) by others. They are described by more than one authority, as worshipping the sun, as performing sacrifices, and as denying the eternity of the world, and maintaining other tenets incompatible with the supposition that the sects of Buddha or Jina could be meant. Their manners and doctrine, as described by these authors, are quite conformable with the notions and practice of the orthodox Hindus. It may therefore be confidently inferred, that the followers of the Vedas flourished in India when it was visited by the Greek under Alexander: and continued to flourish from the time of Megasthenes. who described them in the fourth century before Christ, to that of Porphyrius, who speaks of them, on later authority, in the third century after Christ.

I have thus stated, as briefly as the nature of the subject permitted, a few of the facts and reasons by which the opinion, that the religion and institutions of the orthodox Hindus are more modern than the doctrines of Jina and of Buddha, may, as I think, be successfully resisted. I have not undertaken a formal refutation of it, and have, therefore, passed unnoticed, objections which are founded on misapprehensions.

It is only necessary to remark, that the past prevalence of either of those sects in particular places, with its subsequent persecution there by the worshippers of Siva, or of Vishnu, is no proof of its general priority. Hindustan proper was the early seat of the Hindu religion, and the acknowledged cradle of both the sects in question. They were foreigners in the Peninsula of India; and admitting, as a fact, (what need not however be conceded,) that the orthodox Hindus had not been previously settled in the Carnataca and other districts, in which the Jainas or the Bauddhas have flourished, it cannot be thence concluded, that the followers of the Vedas did not precede them in other provinces.

It may be proper to add, that the establishment of particular sects among the Hindus who acknowledge the Vedas, does not affect the general question of relative antiquity. The special doctrines introduced by Sancara ACHARYA, by RAMANUJA, and by MADHAVACHARYA, and of course the origin of the sects which receive those doctrines, may be referred, with precision, to the periods when their authors lived: but the religion in which they are sectaries has undoubtedly a much earlier origin.

To revert to the immediate object of these observations, which is that of explaining and supporting the information communicated by Major Mackenzie: I shall, for that purpose, state the substance of a few passages from a work of great authority among the Jainas, entitled Calpa Sutra, and from a vocabulary of the Sanscrit language by an author of the Jaina sect.

The Abhidhana chintamani, a vocabulary of synonymous terms, by HEMACHANDRA ACHARYA, is divided into six chapters (candas,) the contents of which are thus stated in the author's preface. 'The superior deities (Devadhidevas) are noticed in the first chapter; the gods (Devas) in the second; men in the third; beings furnished with one or more senses in the fourth; the infernal regions in the fifth; and terms of general use in the sixth.' 'The earth,' observes this author, 'water, fire, air, and trees, have a single organ of sense (indriya)] worms, ants, spiders, and the like, have two, three, or four senses; elephants, peacocks, fish, and other beings moving on the earth, in the sky, or in water, are furnished with five senses: and so are gods and men, and the inhabitants of hell.'

The first chapter begins with the synonyma of a Jina or deified saint; among which the most common are Arhat, Jineswara, Tirt'hancara or Tirt'hacara: others, viz. Jina, Sarvajnya and Bhagayat, occur also in the dictionary of Amera as terms for a Jina or Buddha; but it is deserving of remark, that neither Buddha, not Sugata, is stated by HEMACHANDRA among these synonyma. In the subsequent chapter, however, on the subject of inferior gods, after noticing the gods of Hindu Mythology, (Indra and the rest, including Brahma &c.) he states the synonyma of a Buddha, Sugata, or Bodhisatwa; and afterwards specifies seven such, viz. Vipasyi, Sic'hi, Viswanna, Cucuch'handa, Canchana, and Casyapa, [Two of these names occur in Captain Mahony's and Mr. Joinville's lists of five Buddhas. As. Res. vol. vii. p. 32 and 414.] expressly mentioning as the seventh BUDDHA, Sacyasinha, also named Servart'Hasiddha, son of Sud DHODANA and MAYA, a kinsman of the sun, from the race of GAUTAMA.

In the first chapter, after stating the general terms for a Jina or Arhat, the author proceeds to enumerate twenty-four Arhats, who have appeared in the present Avasarpini age: and afterwards observes, that excepting Munisuvrata and Nemi, who sprung from the race of HARI, the remaining twenty-two Jinas were born in the line of Icshwacu. [I understand that the Jainas have a mythological poem entitled Harivansa purana, different from the Harivansa of the orthodox. Their Icsnwacu, likewise, is a different person; and the name is said to be a title of their first Jina, Rishabha Deva.] The fathers and mothers of the several Jinas are then mentioned; their attendants; their standards or characteristics; and the complexions with which they are figured or described.

The author next enumerates twenty-four Jinas who have appeared in the past Utsarpini period; and twenty-four others who will appear in the future age: and, through the remainder of the first book, explain terms relative to the Jaina religion. The names of the Jinas are specified in Major Mackenzie's communication. [[In the Asiatic Researches, vol. ix. p. 244, &c.]]  Wherever those names agree with Hemachandra's enumeration, I have added no remark; but where a difference occurs I have noticed it, adding in the margin the name exhibited in the Sanscrit text.

I shall here subjoin the information gathered from Hemachandra's vocabulary, and from the Calpa sutra and other authorities, relative to the Jinas belonging to the present period. They appear to be deified saints, who are now worshipped by the Jaina sect. They are all figured in the same contemplative posture, with little variation in their appearance, besides a difference of complexion: but the several Jinas have distinguishing marks or characteristic signs, which are usually engraved on the pedestals of their images, to discriminate them.

1. RISABHA, or VRISHABHA, of the race of Icshwacu, was son of NABHI by MARUDEVA: he is figured of a yellow or golden complexion; and has a bull for his characteristic. His stature, as is pretended, was 500 poles (dhanush;) and the duration of his life, 8,400,000 great years (purva varsha.) According to the Calpa sutra, as interpreted by the commentator, he was born at Cosala or Ayodhya (whence he is named Causalica), towards the latter part of the third age. He was the first king, first anchoret, and first saint; and is therefore entitled Prat'hama Raja, Prat'hama BhIcshacara, Prat'hama Jina, and Prat'hama Tirt'hancara. At the time of his inauguration as king, his age was 2,000,000 years. He reigned 6,300,000 years; and then resigned his empire to his sons: and having employed 100,000 years in passing through the several stages of austerity and sanctity, departed from this world on the summit of a mountain, named Ashtapada. The date of his apotheosis was 3 years and 8, months before the end of the third age, at the precise interval of one whole age before the deification of the last Jina.

2. AJITA was son of Jitasatru by Vijaya; of the same race with the first Jina, and represented as of the like complexion; with an elephant for his distinguishing mark. His stature was 450 poles; and his life extended to 7,200,000 great years. His deification took place in the fourth age, when fifty lacshas of crors of oceans of years had elapsed out of the tenth cror of crors. [The divisions of time have been noticed by Major Mackenzie, As. Res. vol. ix. p. 257, and will be further explained.]

3. SAMBHAVA was the son of Jitari by Sena; of the same race and complexion with the preceding; distinguished by a horse; his stature was 400 poles; he lived 6,000,000 years; and he was deified 30 lacshas of crors of Sagaras after the second Jina.

4. ABHINANDANA was the son of SAMBARA by Sidd'hart'ha; he has an ape for his peculiar sign. His stature was 300 poles; and his life reached to 5,000,000 years. His apotheosis was later by 10 lacshas of crors of Sagaras than the foregoing.

5. SUMATI was son of Megha by Mangala; he has a curlew for his characteristic; His life endured 4,000,000 years, and his deification was nine lacshas of crors of Sagaras after the fourth Jina.

6. Padmaprabha was son of SRIDHARA by SUSIMA; of the same race with the preceding, but described of a red complexion. He has a lotos for his mark: and lived 3,000,000 years, being 200 poles in stature. He was deified 90,000 crors of Sagaras after the fifth Jina.

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7. Suparswa was son of Pratisht'ha by Prit'hwi; of the same line with the foregoing, but represented with a golden complexion; his sign is the figure called Swastica. He lived 2,000,000 years; and was deified 9,000 crors of Sagaras subsequent to the sixth Jina.

8. Chandraprabha was son of Mahasena by Lacshmana; of the same race with the last, but figured with a fair complexion; his sign is the moon; his stature was 150 poles, and he lived 1,000,000 years; and his apotheosis took place 900 crors of Sagaras later than the seventh Jina.

9. Pushpadanta, also surnamed Suvidhi, was son of Supriya by RAMA; of the same line with the preceding, and described of a similar complexion, his mark is a marine monster (macara); his stature was 100 poles, and the duration of his life 200,000 years. He was deified 90 crors of Sagaras after the eighth Jina.

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10. SITALA was son of Dridharat'ha by Nanda; of the same race, and represented with a golden complexion; his characteristic is the mark called Srivatsa. His stature was 90 poles; and his life 100,000 great years; his deification dates 9 crors of Sagaras later than the preceding.

11. SREYAN (SREYAS) or SREYANSA, was son of VISHNU by Vishna; of the same race, and with a similar complexion; having a rhinoceros for his sign. He was 80 poles in stature, and lived 8,400,000 common years. His apotheosis took place more than 100 Sagaras of years before the close of the fourth age.

12. Va'upujya was son of Vasupujya by Jaya; of the same race, and represented with a red complexion, having a buffalo for his mark; and he was 70 poles high, lived 7,200,000 years, and was deified later by 54 Sagaras than the eleventh Jina.

13. VIMALA was son of Critavarman by Syama; of the same race; described of a golden complexion, having a boar for his characteristic; he was 60 poles high, lived 6,000,000 years, and was deified 30 Sagaras later than the twelfth Jina.

14. ANANTA, also named Anantajit, was son of Sinhasena by SUYASAH. He has a falcon for his sign; his stature was 50 poles, the duration of his life 3,000,000 years, and his apotheosis 9 Sagaras after the preceding.

15. DHARMA was don of Bhanu by Suvrata, characterised by the thunderbolt; he was 45 poles in stature, and lived 1,000,000 years; he was deified 4 Sagaras later than the foregoing.

16. SANTI was son of Viswasena by Achira, having an antelope for his sign; he was 40 poles high, lived 100,000 years, and was deified 2 Sagaras subsequent to the last mentioned. [The life of this Jina is the subject of a separate work entitled Santi purana.]

17. Cunt'hu was son of Sura, by SRI; he has a goat for his mark; his height was 35 poles, and his life 95,000 years. His apotheosis is dated in the last palya of the fourth age.

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18. Ara was son of Sudarsana by Devi; characterised by the figure called Nandavarta: his stature was 30 poles, his life 84,000 years, and his deification 1,000 crors of years before the next Jina.

19. MALLI was son of Cumbha by PRABHAVATI; of the same race with the preceding; and represented of a blue complexion, having a jar for his characteristic; he was 25 poles high and lived 55,000 years; and was deified 6,584,000 years before the close of the fourth age.

20. MUNISUVRATA, also named Suvrata, or Muni was son of SUMITRA by PADMA, spruug from the race called Harivansa; represented with a black complexion, having a tortoise for his sign: his height was 20 poles, and his life extended to 30,000 years. His apotheosis is dated 1,184,000 years before the end of the fourth age.

21. Nimi was son of Vijaja by Vipra; of the race of Icshwacu; figured with a golden complexion; having for his mark a blue water-lily, (nilotpala); his stature was 15 poles; his life 10,000 years; and his deification took place 584,000 years before the expiration of the fourth age.

22. NEMI, also called Arishtanemi, was son of the king SAMUDRAJAYA by Siva; of the line denominated Harivansa; described as of a black complexion, having a conch for his sign. According to the calpa sutra, he was born at Soriyapura; and, when 300 years of age, entered on the practice of austerity. He employed 700 years in passing through the several stages of sanctity, and, having attained the age of 1,000 years, departed from this world at Ujjinta, which is described as the peak of a mountain, the same, according to the commentator, with Giranara. [I understand this to be a mountain situated in the west of India, and much visited by pilgrims.] The date of this event is 84,000 years before the close of the fourth age.

23. PARSWA (or Parswanat'ha) was son of the king Aswasena by Vama, or Bamadevi; of the race of Icshwacu; figured with a blue complexion, having a serpent for his characteristic. The life of this celebrated Jina, who was perhaps the real founder of the sect, is the subject of a poem entitled Parswanat'ha charitra. According to the Calpa stura, he was born at Banarasi, [Bhelupura, in the suburbs of Benares, is esteemed holy, as the place of his nativity.] and commenced his series of religious austerities at thirty years of age; and having completed them in 70 years, and consequently attained the age of 100 years, he died on Mount Sammeya or Samet. [Samet sic'hara, called in Major Rennel's map Parsonaut, is situated among the hills between Bihar and Bengal. Its holiness is great in the estimation of the Jainas: and it is said to be visited by pilgrims from the remotest provinces of India.] This ,happened precisely 250 years before the apotheosis of the next Jina; being stated by the author of the Calpa sutra at 1,230 years before the date of that book.

24. Vardhamana, also named Vira, Mahavira, &c. and surnamed Charama tirt'hacrit, or last of the Jinas: emphatically called Sramana, or the saint. He is reckoned son of Siddhart'ha by Trisala; and is described of a golden complexion, having a lion for his symbol.

The subject of the Calpa sutra, before cited, is the life and institutions of this Jina. I shall here state an abstract of his history as there given, premising that the work, like other religious books of the Jainas, is composed in the Pracrit called Magadhi; and that the Sanscrit language is used by the Jainas for translations, or for commentaries, on account of the great obscurity of the Pracrit tongue. [This Pracrit, which does not differ much from the language introduced by dramatic poets into their dramas, is formed from the Sanscrit. I once conjectured it to have been formerly the colloquial dialect of the Saraswata Brahmens [As. Res. vol. vii. p. 219.] but this conjecture has not been confirmed  by further researches. I believe it to be the same language with the Pali of Ceylon.]

According to this authority, the last Tirt'hancara, quitting the state of a deity, and relinquishing the longevity of a god, to obtain immortality as a saint, was incarnate towards the close of the fourth age (now past,) when 75 years and 8, months of it remained. He was at first conceived by Devananda, wife of Rishabhadatta, a Brahmana inhabiting Brahmanacunda grama, a city of Bharata varsha, in Jamba dwipa. The conception was announced to her by dreams. INDRA, [The Jainas admit numerous Indras; but some of the attributes, stated in this place by the Calpa sutra, belong to the Indra of the Indian mythology.] or SACRA, who is the presiding deity on the south of Meru, and abides in the first range of celestial regions, called Saudharma, being apprized of Mahavira's incarnation, prostrated himself, and worshipped the future saint; but reflecting that no great personage was ever born in an indigent and mendicant family, as that of a Brahmana, Indra commanded his chief attendant Harinai-Gumeshi to remove the fetus from the womb of Devananda to that of Trisala, wife of Siddhart'ha, a prince of the race of Icshwacu, and of the Casyapa family. This was accordingly executed, and the new conception was announced to Trisala by dreams, which were expounded by soothsayers, as foreboding the birth of a future Jina. In due time he was born, and his birth celebrated with great rejoicings.

His father gave him the name of Varduamana. But he is also known by two other names, Sramana and Mahavira. His father has similarly three appellations, Siddhart'ha, Sreyansa, and Yasaswi; and his mother likewise has three titles, Trisala, Videha-dinna, and Priticarini. His paternal uncle was Suparswa, his elder brother Nandivardhana, his sister (mother of Jamali) Sudarsana. His wife was Yasoda, by whom he had a daughter (who became wife of Jamali;) named Anojja and Priyadarsana. His granddaughter was called Seshavati and Yasovati.

His father and mother died when he was twenty-eight years of age; and ho continued two years with his elder brother: after the second year he renounced worldly pursuits, and departed amidst the applauses of gods and men, to practise austerities. The progress of his devout exercises, and of his attainment of divine knowledge, is related at great length. Finally, he became an Arhat or Jina, being worthy of universal adoration, and having subdued all passions; [So the commentator expounds both terms.]  being likewise omniscient and all-seeing: and thus, at the age of seventy-two years, he became exempt from all pain for ever. This event is stated to have happened at the court of king Hastipala, in the city of Pawapuri or Papapuri] [Near Rajagrihah, in Bihar. It is accordingly a place of sanctity. Other holy places, which have been mentioned to me are, Champapuri, near Bhagatpur, Chanaravati distant ten miles from Benares, and the ancient city Hastinapura in Hindustan: also Satrunjaya, said to be situated in the west of India.] and is dated three years and eight and a-half months before the close of the fourth age, (called Duhc'hama suc'hama) in the great period named avasarpini. The author of the Calpa sutra mentions, in several places, that, when he wrote, 980 years had elapsed since this apotheosis. [Samanassa bhagavau MAHABIRASSA java duhc'ha hinassa navabasa sayain bicwantain dasamassaya basa sayassa ayam asi ime sambach'hare cale gach'hai. "Nine hundred years have passed since the adorable Mahabira became exempt from pain; and of the tenth century of years, eighty are the time which is now elapsed."] According to tradition, the death of the last Jina happened more than two thousand four hundred years since; and the Calpa sutra appears therefore, to have been composed about fifteen hundred years ago. [The most ancient copy in my possession, and the oldest one which I have seen, is dated in 1614 samvat: it is nearly 250 years old.]

The several Jinas are described as attended by numerous followers, distributed into classes, under a few chief disciples, entitled Ganadharas or Ganadhipas. The last Jina had nine such classes of followers, under eleven disciples, Indrabhuti, Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Vyacta, Sudharma, Manditaputra, Mauryaputra, Acampita, Achalabhrata, Mevarya, Prabhasa. Nine of these disciples died with Mahavira; and two of them, Indrabhuti and Sudharma survived him, and subsequently attained beatitude. The Calpa sutra adds, that all ascetics, or candidates for holiness, were pupils in succession from Sudharma, none of the others having left successors. The author then proceeds to trace the succession from Sudharma to the different Sac'has, or orders of priests, many of which appear still to exist. This enumeration disproves the list communicated to Major Mackenzie by the head priest of Belligola.

The ages and periods which have been more than once alluded to in the foregoing account of the Jainas are briefly explained in Hemachandra's vocabulary. In the second chapter, which relates to the heavens and the gods, &c. the author, speaking of time, observes that it is distinguished into Avasarpini and Utsarpini, adding that the whole period is completed by twenty cotis of cotis of Sagaras] or 2,000,000,000,000,000 oceans of years. I do not find that he any where explains the space of time denominated Sagara or ocean. But I understand it to be an extravagant estimate of the time, which would elapse, before a vast cavity filled with chopped hairs could be emptied, at the rate of one piece of hair in a century: the time requisite to enter such a cavity, measured by a yojana every way, is a palya: and that repeated ten cotis of cotis of times [1,000,000,000,000,000 palyas = one Sagara, or sagaropama.] is a Sagara.

Each of the periods above-mentioned, is stated by Hemachandra, as comprising six aras; the names and duration of which agree with the information communicated to Major Mackenzie: In the one, or the declining period, they pass from the extreme felicity (ecanta suc'ha) through intermediate gradations, to extreme misery (ecanta duhc'ha). In the other, or rising period, they ascend in the same order, from misery to felicity. During the three first ages of one period, mortals lived for one, two, or three palyas; their stature was one, two, or three leagues (gavyutis); and they subsisted on the fruit of miraculous trees; which yielded spontaneously food, apparel, ornaments, garlands, habitation, nurture, light, musical instruments, and household utensils. In the fourth age, men lived ten millions of years; and their stature was 500 poles (dhanush): in the fifth age, the life of man is a hundred years: and the limit of his stature, seven cubits: in the sixth, he is reduced to sixteen years, and the height of one cubit. In the next period, this succession of ages is reversed, and afterwards they recommence as before.

Here we cannot but observe, that the Jainas are still more extravagant in their inventions than the prevailing sects of Hindus, absurd as these are in their fables.

In his third chapter, Hemachandra, having stated the term for paramount and tributary princes, mentions the twelve Chacravartis, and adds the patronymics and origin of them. Bharata is surnamed Arshabhi, or son of Rishabha; Maghavan is son of Vijaya; and Sanatcumara of ASWASENA. Santi, Cunt'hu and ARA are the Jinas so named, Sagara is described as son of Sumitra; Subhuma is entitled Cartavirya; Padma is said to be son of Padmottara; HARISHENA of HARI; JAYA of VIJAYA; BRAHMADATTA of BRAHME; and all are declared to have sprung from the race of Icshwacu.

A list follows, which, like the preceding, agrees nearly with the information communicated to Major Mackenzie. It consists of nine persons, entitled Vasudevas, and Crishnas. Here Triprisht'ha is mentioned with the patronymic Prajapatya; Dwiprisht'ha is said to have sprung from Brahme; Swayambhu is expressly called a son of Rudra; and Purushottama, of Soma, or the moon, Purusha- Sinha is surnamed SAIVI, or son of SIVA; Purushapundarica is said to have sprung from Mahasiras. Datta is termed son or Agnisinha; Narayana has the patronymic Das'rat'hi which belongs to Rama- Chandra; and Crishna is described as sprung from Vasudeva.

Nine other persons are next mentioned, under the designation of Sucla balas, viz. 1. Achala, 2. Vijaya, 3. Bhadra, 4. Suprabha, 5. Sudarsana, 6. ANANDA, 7. NANDANA, 8. PADMA, 9. RAMA.

They are followed by a list of nine foes of Vishnu: it corresponds nearly with one of the lists noticed by Major Mackenzie, viz. 1. Aswagriva, 2. Taraca, 3. Meraca, 4. Madhu, 5. Misumbha, 6. Bali, 7. PRAHLADA, 8. The king of Lanca (Ravana), 9. The king of Magadha (Jarasandha).

It is observed, that, with the Jinas, these complete the number of sixty-three eminent personages, viz. 24 Jinas, 12 Chacravartis, 9 Vasudevas, 9 Baladevas, and 9 Prativasudevas.

It appears from the information procured by Major Mackenzie, that all these appertain to the heroic history of the Jaina writers. Most of them are also both known to the orthodox Hindus, and are the principal personages in the Puranas.

Hemachandra subsequently notices many names of princes, familiar to the Hindus of other sects. He begins with Prit'hu son of VENA, whom he terms the first king: and goes on to Mandhata, Harischandra Bharata, son of Dushyanta, &c. Towards the end of his enumeration of conspicuous princes, he mentions Carna, king of Champa and Anga: Hala or Salivahana; and CUMARAPALA, surnamed CHAULUCYA, a royal saint, who seems from the title Paramarhata, to have been a Jaina, and apparently the only one in that enumeration.

In a subsequent part of the same chapter, Hemachandra, (who was himself a theologian of his sect, and author of hymns to Jina, [A commentary on these hymns is dated in Saca 1214 (A. D. 1292); but how much earlier Hemachandha lived, is not yet ascertained.]) mentions and discriminates the various sects; viz. 1st. Arhatas, or Jainas, 2dly, Saugatas, or Bauddhas, and 3dly, six philosophical schools, viz. 1st. Naiyayica, 2d. Yoya, 3d, Capila's Sanc'hya, 4th. Vaiseshica, 5th. Varhaspatya, or Nastica, and 6th. Charvaca or Locayata. The two last are reputed atheistical, as denying a future state and a providence. If those be omitted, and the two Mimansas inserted, we have the six schemes of philosophy familiar to the Indian circle of the sciences.

The fourth chapter of Hemachandra's vocabulary relates to earth and animals. Here the author mentions the distinctions of countries which appear to be adopted by the Jainas; viz. the regions (varsha) named Bharata Airavata, and Videha, to which he adds Curu; noticing also other distinctions familiar to the Hindus of other sects, but explaining some of them according to the ideas of the Jainas. 'Aryavarta,' he observes, 'is the native land of Jinas, Chacris, and Aradhachacris, situated between the Vindhya and Himadri mountains.' This remark confines the theatre of Jaina history, religious and heroic, within the limits of Hindustan proper.

A passage in Bhascara's treatise on the sphere, will suggest further observations concerning the opinions of the Jainas on the divisions of the earth. Having noticed, for the purpose of confuting it, a notion maintained by the Bauddhas (whom some of the commentators,  as usual among orthodox Hindus, confound with the Jainas, respecting the descent or fall of the earth in space; he says, [Goladhyaya, § 3. v., 8 & 10.] the naked sectaries and the rest affirm, that two suns, two moons, and two sets of stars appear alternately: against them I allege this reasoning. How absurd is the notion which you have formed of duplicate suns, moons and stars, when you see the revolution of the polar fish.' [Ursa minor.]

The commentators [LACSHMIDASA, MUNISWARA, and the Vasanabhashya.] agree that the Jainas are here meant; and one of them remarks, that they are described as naked sectaries &c.; because the class of Digambaras is a principal one among these people.

It is true that the Jainas do entertain the preposterous notion here attributed to them: and it is also true that the Digambaras, among the Jainas, are distinguished from the Suclambaras, not merely by the white dress of the one, and the nakedness, (or else the tawny apparel) of the other; but also by some particular tenets and diversity of doctrine. However, both concur in the same ideas regarding the earth and planets, which shall be forthwith stated, from the authority of Jaina books: after remarking, by the way, that ascetics of the orthodox sect, in the last stage of exaltation, when they become Paramahansa, also disuse clothing.

The world, which according to the Jainas is eternal, is figured by them as a spindle resting on half of another; or as they describe it, three cups, of which the lowest is inverted; and the uppermost meets at its circumference the middle one. They also represent the world by comparison to a woman with her arms akimbo. [The Sangrahani ratna and Locanab sutra, both in Pracrit, are the authorities here used.] Her waist, or according to the description first mentioned, the meeting of the lower cups, is the earth. The spindle above, answering to the superior portion of the woman's person, is the abode of the gods; and the inferior part of the figure comprehends the infernal regions. The earth, which they suppose to be a flat surface, is bounded by a circle, of which the diameter is one raju. [This is explained to be a measure of space, through which the gods are able to travel in six months, at the rate of 2,057,152 yojanas, (of 2,000 crosa each), in the twinkling of an eye.] The lower spindle comprises seven tiers of inferior earths or hells, at the distance of a raju from each other, and its base is measured by seven rajus. These seven hells are Ratna prabha, 'Sarcara prabha, Baluca prabha, Panca prabha, Dhuma prabha, Tama prabha, Tamatama prabha. The upper spindle is also seven rajus high; and its greatest breadth is five rajus. Its summit, which is 4,500,000 yojanas wide is the abode of the deified saints: beneath that are five Vimanas, or abodes of gods: of which the centre one is named Sarvart'hasiddha: it is encompassed by the regions Aparajita, Jayanta, Vaijayanta and Vijaya. Next, at the distance of one raju from the summit, follow nine tiers of worlds, representing a necklace (graiveyaca), and inhabited by gods, denominated, from their conceited pretensions to supremacy, Ahamindra. These nine regions are, Aditya, Pritincara, Somanasa, Sumanasa, Suvisala, Sarvatobhadra, Manorama, Supravaddha,  and Suddarsana.

Under these regions are twelve (the Digambaras say sixteen) other regions, in eight tiers, from one to five rajus above the earth. They are filled with Vimanas, or abodes of various classes of gods, called by the general name of Calpavasis. These worlds, reckoning from that nearest the earth, are, Saudhama and Isana: Sanalcumara and Mahendra; Brahme: Lantaca; Sucra; Sahasrara; Anala and Pranata; Arana and Achyuta.

The sect of Jina distinguish four classes of deities, the Vaimanicas, Bhuvanapatis, Jyotishis, and Vyantaras. The last comprises eight orders of demigods or spirits, admitted by the Hindus in general, as the Racshanas, Pisacshas, Cinnaras, &c. supposed to range over the earth. The preceding class (Jyotishis) comprehends five orders of luminaries; suns, moons, planets, constellations, and stars, of which more hereafter. The Vaimanicas belong to the various Vimanas, in the twelve regions, or worlds, inhabited by gods. The class of Bhuvanapati includes ten orders, entitled Asuracumara, Nagacumara, &c.; each governed by two Indras. All these gods are mortal, except, perhaps, the luminaries.

The earth consists of numerous distinct continents, in concentric circles, separated by seas forming rings between them. The first circle is Jambu dwipa, with the mountain Sudarsa Meru in the centre. It is encompassed by a ring containing the salt ocean; beyond which is the zone, named Dhatuci dwipa; similarly surrounded by a black ocean. This is again encircled by Pushcara dwipa, of which only the first half is accessible to mankind: being separated from the remoter half by an impassable range of mountains, denominated Manushottara parvata. Dhatuci dwipa contains two mountains, similar to Sumeru, named Vijanga and Achala; and Pushcara contains two others, called Mandira and Vidyunmali.

The diameter of Jambu dwipa being 100,000 great yojanas, [Each great yojana contains 2000 cos.] if the 190th part be taken, or [y] 526-6/19, we have the breadth of Bharata varsha, which occupies the southern segment of the circle. Airavata is a similar northern segment. A band (33648 yojanas wide) across the circle, with Sudarsa Meru in the middle of it, is Videha varsha, divided by Meru (or by four peaks like elephant's teeth, at the four corners of that vast mountain) into east and west Videha. These three regions, Bharata, Airavata, and Videha, are inhabited by men who practice religious duties. They are denominated Carmabhumi, and appear to be furnished with distinct sets of Tirthancaras, or saints entitled Jina. The intermediate regions north and south of Meru are bounded by four chains of mountains; and intersected by two others: in such a manner, that the ranges of mountains, and the intermediate vallies, increase in breadth progressively. Thus Himavat is twice as broad as Bharata varsha [y] (or 1052-12/19); the valley beyond it is double its breadth [y] (2105-5/19); the mountain Mahahimavat is twice as much [y] (4210-10/19); its valley is again double [y] (8421-1/19); and the mountain Nishaddha has twice that breadth [y] (l6842-2/19). The vallies between these mountains, and between similar ranges reckoned from Airavata (viz. Sic'hari, Rucmi and Nila) are inhabited by giants (Yugala), and are denominated Bhogabhumi. From either extremity of the two ranges of mountains named Himaval and Sic'hari, a pair of tusks project over the sea; each divided into seven countries denominated Antara dwipas. There are consequently fifty-six such; which are called Cubhogabhumi, being the abode of evil doers. None of these regions suffer a periodical destruction, except Bharata and Airavata, which are depopulated, and again peopled at the close of the great periods before-mentioned.

We come now to the immediate purpose for which those notions of the Jainas have been here explained. They conceive the setting and rising of stars and planets to be caused by the mountain Sumeru: and suppose three times the period of a planet's appearance to be requisite for it to pass round Sumeru, and return to the place whence it emerges. Accordingly they allot two suns, as many moons, and an equal number of each planet, star, and constellation to Jambu dwipa, and imagine that these appear, on alternate days, south and north of Meru. They similarly allot twice that number to the salt ocean; six times as many to Dhatuci dwipa; 21 times as many, or 42 of each, to the Calodadhi; and 72 of each to Pushcara dwipa.

It is this notion, applied to the earth which we inhabit, that BHASCARA refutes. His argument is thus explained by his commentators.

'The star close to the north pole, with those near it to the east and west, forms a constellation figured by the Indian astronomers as a fish. In the beginning of the night (supposing the sun to be near Bharani or Musca); the fish's tail is towards the west; and his head towards the east; but at the close of the night, the fish's tail, having made a half revolution, is towards the east, and his head towards the west; and since the sun, when rising and setting, is in a line with the fish's tail, there is but one sun; not two.' This explanation is given by Muniswara and Lacshmidasa. But the Vasana bhashya reverses the fish, placing his head towards the west at sun-set, when the sun is near Bharani.
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

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XIII. On the Origin and Peculiar Tenets of Certain Muhammedan Sects. [From the Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. p. 338-344. Calcutta 1801. 4to.]

The Bohrahs, numerous in the provinces of the Indian peninsula, but found also in most of the great cities of Hindustan, are conspicuous by their peculiar customs; such for example, as that of wearing at their orisons an appropriate dress, which they daily wash with their own hands. Their disposition for trade to the exclusion of every other mode of livelihood, and to the government of their tribe by a hierarchy, are further peculiarities, which have rendered them an object of inquiry, as a singular sect.

Researches made by myself, among others, were long unsuccessful. My informers confounded this tribe with the Ismailiyahs, with the Ali-ilahiyahs, and even with the unchaste sect of Cheragh-cush. Concerning their origin the information received was equally erroneous with that regarding their tenets. But at length a learned Sayyad referred me to the Mejatisu'lmuminim composed by Nurullah of Shuster, a zealous Shiah, who suffered for his religious opinions in the reign of Jehangir. In the passage, which will be forthwith cited from that work, the Bohrahs are described by the author as natives of Gujrat, converted to the Muhammedan religion about three hundred years before his time, or five centuries ago.

To that passage I shall subjoin extracts from the same work, containing an account of similar tribes, with some of which the Bohrahs may perhaps have been sometimes confounded. Concerning the Ismailiyahs, for whom they have been actually mistaken, it must be remembered, that these form a sect of Shiahs, who take their distinctive appellation from Ismail, eldest son and nominated successor of Iman Jafer, surnamed Sadik. They consider Ismail as the true heir of the Imamet, and do not acknowledge the legal succession of his brother Musa and of the five last Imams. This sect flourished under the Egyptian dynasty of Khalifs founded by MUHAMMED Mahadi, who claimed descent from the Imam Ismail himself. It was also conspicuous under a dynasty of princes of this sect, the first of whom, Hasan Sabah founded a principality in Irak. [See the Dabistan of Mulla Mohsen Fani; and D'herbelot's Bibliotheque orientale. If the industrious Bohrahs and the remorseless "assassins" had really arisen out of the same sect, it would be a new fact in the history of the human mind.] The sect may still exist in Syria; but it does not seem to be at present known in the Indian portions of Asia.

The Ali-ilahiyahs on the contrary, are become numerous in India. This sect is mentioned by the author of the Dabistan, as prevalent in his time, only at Uzbit, or Azbat, in the mountainous tract near Khata. It now prevails, according to information which I have received in a part of the dominions of Nawab-Nizamu'l-Mulc. The singular tenets of this heretical sect are thus stated by Mohsen Fani. "The Ali-ilahiyahs hold, that celestial spirits, which cannot otherwise be known to mankind, have frequently appeared in palpable shapes. God himself has been manifested in the human form, but especially in the person of Ali Murteza, whose image, being that of ALI ULLAH, or ALI God, these sectaries deem it lawful to worship. They believe in the metempsychosis; and, like others who maintain that doctrine, abstain from fleshmeat. They imagine that ALI MURTEZA, when he quitted this earth, returned to the sun, which is the same with himself; and hence they call the sun Ali Ullah. This sect does not admit the authenticity of the Koran as it is now extant: some pretending that it is a forgery of Abubecr's, Omar's and Othman's, others condemning it, simply because it was edited by the last mentioned Khalif. The members of this sect appear to vary in regard to some points of doctrine; but the leading and universal tenet of this sect is, that, in every age of the world, God is manifested in the persons of prophets and of saints; for instance, he was Adam, and afterwards Ahmed and Ali: and in like manner these sectaries believe in the transmigration of God into the persons of the Imams. Some of them affirm, that the manifestation of the divine being, in this age of the world, was Ali Ullah; and after him, his glorious posterity: and they consider Muhammed as a prophet sent by Ali Ullah. When God, say they, perceived Muhammed's insufficiency, he himself assumed the human form for the purpose of assisting the prophet." [See the Dabistan, from which this account is abstracted.]

It does not appear from any satisfactory information, that the Bohrahs agree with either of these sects, in deifying Ali, or in contesting the legal succession of the six last Imams. On the contrary, the tribe is acknowledged to consist of orthodox Sunnis, and of true Shiahs; but mostly of the last mentioned sect. These and other known circumstances corroborate the following account of that tribe, as given by Nurullah of Shuster, in the work before mentioned.

"The Bohrahs are a tribe of the faithful which is settled chiefly at Ahmedabad and its environs. Their salvation in the bosom of religion took place about three hundred years ago, at the call of a virtuous and learned man, whose name was Mulla Ali, and whose tomb is still seen at the city of Cambayat.

"The conversion of this people was thus conducted by him: As the inhabitants of Gujrat were pagans, and were guided by an aged priest, a recreant, in whom they had a great confidence, and whose disciples they were, the missionary judged it expedient, first to offer himself as a pupil to the priest, and after convincing him by irrefragable proofs, and making him participate in the declaration of faith, then to undertake the conversion of others. He accordingly passed some years in attendance on that priest, learnt his language, studied his sciences, and became conversant with his books. By degrees he opened the articles of the faith to the enlightened priest, and persuaded him to become Musleman. Some of his people changed their religion in concert with their old instructor. The circumstance of the priest's conversion being made known to the principal minister of the king of that country, he visited the priest, adopted habits of obedience towards him, and became a Muslem. But for a long time, the minister, the priest, and the rest of the converts, dissembled their faith, and sought to keep it concealed, through dread of the king.

"At length the intelligence of the minister's conversion reached the monarch. One day he repaired to his house, and finding him in the humble posture of prayer, was incensed against him. The minister knew the motive of the king's visit, and perceived that his anger arose from the suspicion that he was reciting prayers and performing adoration. With presence of mind, inspired by divine providence, he immediately pretended that his prostrations were occasioned by the sight of a serpent, which appeared in the corner of the room, and against which he was employing incantations. The king cast his eyes towards the corner of the apartment, and it so happened that there he saw a serpent; the minister's excuse appeared credible, and the king's suspicions were lulled.

"After a time, the king himself secretly became a convert to the Musleman faith; but dissembled the state of his mind, for reasons of state. Yet, at the point of death, he ordered, by his will, that his corpse should not be burnt, according to the customs of the pagans.

"Subsequently to his decease, when Sultan Zefer, one of the trusty nobles of Sultan Firuz Shah, sovereign of Delhi, conquered the province of Gujrat; some learned men, who accompanied him, used arguments to make the people embrace the faith, according to the doctrines of such as revere the traditions. [The Sunnis, or orthodox sect.] Hence it happened, that some of the tribe of Bohrahs became members of the sect of the Sunnet.

"The party which retains the Imamiyeh tenets, comprehends nearly two thousand families. They always have a pious learned man amongst them, who expounds cases of law according to the doctrines of the Imamiyehs. Most of them subsist by commerce and mechanical trades; as is indicated by the name of Bohrah, which signifies merchant, in the dialect of Gujrat. They transmit the fifth part of their gains to the Sayyads of Medineh; and pay their regular eleemosynary contributions to the chief of their learned, who distributes the alms among the poor of the sect. These people, great and small, are honest, pious, and temperate. They always suffer much persecution (for the crime of bearing affection towards the holy family) from the wicked murderers, [The orthodox.] who are invested with public authority; and they are ever involved in the difficulties of concealment.

"The Sadikiyahs are a tribe of the faithful Hindustan; pious men, and disciples of Sayyad Cabiru'ddin, who derived his descent from ISMAIL, son of Imam Jafer. This tribe is denominated Sadikiyahs, by reason of the sincere [Sadik] call of that Sayyad. Although that appellation have, according to received notions, a seeming relation to ABUBECR, whose partisans gave him this title, yet it is probable that the sect assumed that appellation for the sake of concealment. However, no advantage ever accrues to them from it. On the contrary, the arrogant inhabitants of Hind, who are Hindus, being retainers of the son of the impious Hind, [Meaning Hinda, the mother of Moaviyyeh.] have discovered their attachment to the sect of Shiahs, and have revived against them the calumnies which five hundred years ago they broached against the Ismailiyahs. They maliciously charge them with impiety; such, indeed, is their ancient practice. They violate justice, and labour to extirpate this harmless tribe. In short, they cast the stone of calumny on the roof of the name and reputation of this wretched people, and have no fear of God, nor awe of his Prophet. [The author proceeds in a strain of invective against the Sunnis; especially against Mulla ABDULLAH of Lahor, who bore the title of the Makhdu-Mu'l-Mulc. This, being superfluous, is here omitted.]

"In short, nearly thirty thousand persons of this sect are settled in provinces of Hindustan, such as Multan, Lahor, Dehli, and Gujrat. Most of them subsist by commerce. They pay the fifth part of their gains to the descendants of Sayyad Cabir, who are their priests; and both preceptor and pupil, priests and laymen, all are zealous Shiahs. God avert evil from them, and make the wiles of their foes recoil!

"The Hazarehs of Cabul are an innumerable tribe, who reside in Cabul, Ghaznin, and Kandahar. Many of them are Shiahs, and adherents of the holy family. At present, among the chief of the Shiahs, is Mirza Shadman, with whom the faithful are well pleased, and of whose incursions the Kharejis [The word is here used as a term of reproach; for its origin, as the appellation  of a sect, see D'herbelot's Bibliotheque orientale.] of Cabul and Ghaznin bitterly complain.

"The Baloch of Sind; many of these are devoted Shiahs. They call themselves, and are called by all the faithful, Ali's friends. Sayyad Raju of Bokhara exerted himself in the guidance of this tribe; his descendants remain among them, and are occupied with the concerns of the sect."
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Re: Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus

Postby admin » Fri Dec 25, 2020 5:44 am

INDEX.

A.


Abhava, 167, 182, 194.
Abhidhana chintamani, 289.
Abhimana, 153.
ABHIMANYU, 285.
Abhira, 274.
Abhisheca, 19.
Abhyantara, 252.
ABJA, 26.
Ablutions, 76, 84.
Absorption of the soul in the Supreme Being, 150, 234, 241.
ABU'L-FAZL, 284.
Acasa, 154, 170, 174, 217, 222, 239, 248, 253, 256.
Acasasticaya, 248.
Achara, 193.
Achara chandrica, 92.
Acharadersa, 92.
Ach'havac, 84, 119.
ACHYUTA CRISHNANANDA TIRT'HA, 216.
Adbhuta, Adbhutu brahmana, 49.
Ad'harma, 181, 248, 255.
Adharmasticaya, 248.
Adhicaranas 189, 191, 192, 211, 252.
Adhisht'hatri, 262.
Adhwara, 43.
Adhwaryu, 5, 83.
Adhyaya, 8, 19, 31, 34.
ADISWARA, 277.
ADITI, 95.
ADITYA, the sun, 32.
Adityas, 16, 20, 44, 131.
ADWAITANANDA, 213, 215.
ADWAYANANDA, 215.
Agama, 270.
Agamas, 9, 251, 266, 268.
AGASTYA, 10, 14.
AGHAMARSHANA, 17.
Aghatin, 247,
AGNI, author of part of the Vajurveda, 44. Incarnation of Agni, 145.
Agnidhra, 119.
Agni purana, 77.
Agni rahasya, 35, 209.
Agnishtoma, 31, 44, 49, 119.
Ahancara, 153, 267.
Aharica, 282.
AINDRAYANI, 90.
Aindri, 117.
Aiswarya, 267.
AITAREYA, 25.
Aitareya aranyaca, 25, &c.
Aitareya brahmana, 11, 15, 19, &c
Aitareya upanishad, 26, 55, 208.
Aitihya, 259.
AITISAYANA, 189.
Aja, 223.
AJATASATRU, 30, 38, 222.
AJIGARTA, 10.
AJITA, 291.
Ajiva, 245.
Alocacasa, 248.
Ali-ilahiyahs, 302, 303.
ALI-MURTEZA, 303.
ALI-ULLAH, 303.
Allobii, 288.
AMBARISHA, 11.
Ambasht'ha, 21
AMBASHT'HYA, 21.
Ambhas, 26.
AMBHINI, 16.
AMBHRINA, 16.
AMERA SINHA, 274.
Anritavindu upanishad, 58.
Analavanda, 213.
Ananda, 46, 258.
Anandagiri, 36. 58.
Anandajnyana, 45, 49, 56.
Anandasrama, 55.
Anandatirt'ha, 25, 49.
Anandamaya, 217.
Anantatirt'ha, 214.
Anandavalli upanishad, 59
Ancestors, ceremonies performed in their honour, 113, &c.
Andaja, 239.
Andhra, dialect, 201.
Anga, 11, 22.
Anga, 271, 297.
ANGIR, 56.
ANGIRAS, 10, 11, 18, 22, 34, 39, 56, 71, 219, 284.
Aniructa gana, 48.
Aniruddha, 267, 268.
Anna, 240.
Annamaya, 239.
Anomalies of the dialect of the Vedas, 202.
ANTACA, 90.
Antaraya, 247.
Antaricsha, 269.
Antaryamin, 218.
Anu, 223.
Anubhava, 168, 183.
Anucramani, 10, 13.
Anugamana, 74.
Anumana, 193.
ANUMATI, 95, 121.
Anurad'ha, 126.
Anust'hana sarira, 155.
Anusht'hubh, 18.
Anuvacas of the Rig veda, 8, of the White Yajur veda, 31, of the Black Yajur veda 43, of the At'harvana veda, 53.
Anuvaha, 119.
Anwayart'ha pracasica, 214.
Ap, 130, 239.
Apachyas, 20.
Apadesa, 185.
Apana, 27, 122.
APANTARATAMAS, 209.
APASTAMBA, 6, 61, 73, 90, 126, 200.
Apastambiyas, 6.
Apavarga, 258.
Apratisanc'hya nirodha, 256.
Apravritti, 246.
Apsarases, 71.
Apta vacya, 193.
Aptya, 14, 20.
Apurva, 203.
APYAYA DICSHITA, 213, 216.
Aranya of the Rig veda, 25, of the Taittiriya Vajur-veda, 45.
Aranyaca, 25. Fifth aranyaca, 196.
Aranya-gana, 48, 49.
Archica, 47.
Archica gana, 48.
Araha vainasicus, 253.
Arg'ha, 84, 103.
Arghya, 130.
ARHAT, 245, 251, &c.
Arhat, 290.
Arhatas, 245, &c.
Arhatas, 297.
ARINDAMA, 25.
ARJUNA, 43.
Arna, 49.
ARRIAN, his account of the Indian sages, 285, 286.
Arshaya brahmana, 48.
Art'ha, 172.
Art'hapatti, 194.
Art'haveda, 193.
ARUNA, 19, 30, 50, 52.
ARUNDHATI, 70.
Aruniya or Aruniyoga upanishad, 58.
ARYAMAN, 46, 135, 139.
Aryavarta, 298.
Asadhu, 247.
ASAMATI, 11.
Asandivat, 21.
Asanga, 11.
Asat, 17.
Asclepias, juice of the acid, 14, 43, See Soma.
Ash'taca, 43.
Asicni, 85.
Aslesha, 54, 67.
Asmarat'hya, 210, 220, 222.
Asrama upanishad, 39.
Asrava, 246.
Asticaya, 248.
Astronomical notions of the Jainas, 300.
Asu, 29.
Asuri, 63, 89, 145, 164.
Aswabala, 202.
ASWALA, 41, 57.
ASWALAYANA, 5, 16, 57, 61, 196.
Aswalayani sac'ha, 8.
Aswamedha, 31, 35, &c. 43, 75, 150, 241.
Aswamedhya, 35.
ASWAPATI, 50.
ASWATARASWA, 50, 52.
Aswina (month), 117, 121.
Aswini, 67.
Aswini, 130, 134.
Aswins, 14, 16, 32, 67.
At'harvan, 2, 32, 34, 39, 56.
At'harva or At'harvana veda, 2, 39, 47, 53, &c.
At'harvasiras upanishad, 57.
Atheistical Sanc'hya, 149, 159.
Atiratra, 45.
Ativahica, 155.
Atmabodha upanishad, 69.
Atman, 154, 219, 253, &c. 262.
Atma upanishad, 58.
Atoms, 153, 155, 176, 210, 223, 249, 257.
ATREYA, 6, 189.
Atreyi, 210.
Atreyi sac'ha, 6, 44.
Atri, 10, 22, 96.
ATYARATI, 23.
Auc'hyayas, 6.
Audarica, 282.
AUDULOMI, 210, 222, 236.
AUDUMBARA, 90.
Aupanianyavas, 6.
Avachatruca, 22.
Avaha, 119.
Avasarpini age 290, 295.
Avaitras, 26, of AGNI, 145. hereditary avatara of Ganesa, 125.
AVICSHIT, 22.
Avidya, 255.
Avyacta, 223.
AYASYA, 40.
Ayatana, 220.
Ayin Acberi, 284.
Ayagava, 274.
Ayushca, 247.

B.

BABHRU, 25.
BADARAYANA, 189, 210, 237.
BADARI, 189, 210, 220, 236.
Baddha, 246.
Baddhatma, 245.
BAHCALA, 4.
BAHCALI, 5.
BAHULA, 121.
Bahula chaturt'hi, 121.
Bahvrich, 4, 196.
Bajvrich brahmana upanishad, 25.
Bahvrich sac'ha, 200.
Bahya, 252.
Baidya, 272.
Bala, 267.
Balaca, 38.
BALACI, 38, 222.
BALA CRISHNA, 34, 57, 58.
Baladevas, 297.
BALA RAMA, 267.
BALIBHADRA, 166.
BALLABHA ACHARYA, 166, 180, 214.
BALLALA SENA, 277, 278.
Baloch, 306.
Bandha, 262.
Ban-ling. 97.
Banga, 271, 278.
Bardiya, 273.
Barbara language, 201.
BARDESANES, 287.
Barga, 8
Baruda, 275.
Bathing, 77, 81, 85.
Bauddhas, 210, 243, 251, &c. 280, &c.
Baud'hayana, 61, 90, 127, 200.
Bauddhayanas, 6.
Beatitude, 149, 168.
Beings, three orders of, 155.
Berbera, 271.
Bhadra, 92.
Bhadravacasa, 98.
BHAGA, 16.
Bhagavad gita, 209, 266.
BHAGAVAT, 267, &c.
Bhagavata purana, 13, 63, 71, 123, 266.
Bhagavatas, 210, 266, &c.
BHALLAVI, 50.
Bhamati. 213.
Bhanganaya, 249.
BHARADWAJA, 10, 56, 277.
Bharani, 301.
BHARATA, 22.
BHARGA, 25.
BHASCARA, 272, 298, 301.
Bhashya, 166.
Bhashya ratna prabha, 213.
BHATTA, 192, 213.
BHATTA BHASCARA, 69, 214.
BHATTA CUMARILA SWAMI, 190.
Bhatta dipica, 191.
BHATTA NARAYANA, 277.
Bhautica, 252, 253.
Bhautica sarga, 155.
Bhava, 167.
BHAVADEVA, 92, 235.
BHAVADEVA MISRA, 214.
Bhavani, 182.
Bhavanat'ha Misra, 191.
BHAVANI, 68.
Bhavart'ha dipica, 166.
Bhavayavya, 11.
Bhawishya purana, 81, 82.
Bhecuri, 136.
Bheda, 183.
Bhelupura, 293.
BHIMA, 25.
BHIMASENA, 121.
Bhoctri, 245.
Bhogya, 245.
BHOJA RAJA or BHOJA PATI, 149.
Bhojya, 20.
BHRIGU, 10, 21, 45, 57.
Bhriguvalli upanishad, 59.
Bhu, 269.
Bhaman, 220.
Bhur, bhuvah, swah, 12.
Bhuta, 252.
Bhuta yoni, 219.
Bhutidatta, 273.
Black Yajur veda, 5, 43, &c.
Bodhatma, 245.
BODHAYANA, 190.
Bodhisatwa, 285, 290.
BODHU, 89.
Body, twofold, 155. Enquiry concerning body in the Nyaya, 170.
Bohrahs, 302.
Brachmanes, 285, &c.
Brahma or Brahme, and Brahma, 218.
Brahma (Brahme), 24, 29, 32, 45, &c. 218, &c.
BRAHMA, 15, 16, 29, 30, 32, 56, 218, &c.
BRAHMA, VISHNU, and RUDRA, 81.
Brahma mimansa, 189, 208, &c.
Brahmamrita vershini, 214.
Brahman, 218, &c.
Brahmana ch'handasi, 83, 119.
Brahmanah parimarah, 24.
BRAHMANANDA, 216.
BRAHMANANDA SARASWATI, 214.
Brahmanas, 271, 283.
Brahmanas of the Vedas, 7, 39, 196, 198, &c.; of the Rig veda, 19, &c.; of the White Yajurveda, 34, &c.; of
the Black Yajur veda, 45, &c.; of the Sama-veda, 49, &c.; of the At'harva veda, 54, &c.
Brahmana sarvaswa, 92.
Brahma purana, 72.
Brahma sutras, 209.
Brahma vidyabharana, 213.
Brahmavidya upanishad, 57.
Brahmavindu upanishad, 58.
Brahme, see Brahma.
Brahme pura, 221.
Brahme sudra, 272.
Brahme sutra bhashya, 214.
Brahmevadin ( — dini), 16.
Brahmi, 153.
Breath, (oblations to), 122.
Bridegroom, his solemn reception by the father of the bride, 128, &c.
Bucca Raya, 192.
BUDDHA, 63, 68, 243, &c. 251, &c.
BUDDHA, mentioned by Clemens ALEXANDRINUS, 287.
Buddhi, 153, 180, 183, 184, 238, 266.
Buddhists, see Bauddhas.
BUDDHISTS, 280, &c.
BUDHA, 10, 96.
Bull, an emblem of religious duty, 83.
Burning of dead bodies, 98.
BUTTA, 288.

C.

CABANDHA, 7.
CABANDHI, 57.
CABIRUDDIN, 305.
CACSHIVAT, 11.
Cait, 273.
Caiverta, 275.
Caiwalya, 148, 258.
Caiwalya upanishad, 59.
Cala, 248.
Calabhairava, 108.
Calagnirudra upanishad, 59.
Calamuc'has, 201.
Calanus, 205.
Calendar, ancient, 65, &c.
CALl, 68.
Calica purana, 68.
CALIDASA, 96, 121, 129.
Calinga, 271, 272.
Cali yuga, 66, 127.
Calpa, 61.
Calpas, 44, 237.
Calpa sutras, 200.
Cama, 17.
CAMA, 267.
Camya, 74.
CANABHUJ, or CANABHACSHA, 210, 257. See CANADE.
CANABHUJ, CANABHACSHA, 257.
CANADE, 143, &c. 165, &c. 249, 257, &c.
Canda, 43, 53.
Candanucrama, 6.
Candica, 31, 34, 43.
Cansacara, 272.
Cant'hasruti upanishad, 58.
Canwa, 6.
Canwa school, 34, 36, 42, 209.
Canyacubja Brahmanas, 271, 277.
Canyacubja, Brahmans of, 3.
Capala, 275.
Capalas or Capalicas, 261.
CAPILA, 63, 68, 89, 144, &c. 224. His doctrine contrasted with Patanjali's, 159.
Capita bhashya, 144, 146.
Caran, 273.
Carana, 273.
Carana, 168, 262, 263.
Carana sarira, 239.
Carica, 166. See Sanc'hya carica.
Carmacara, 273, 274, 275.
Carma mimansa, 188, &c.
Carman, 182, 241, 246, 247.
Carmana sarira 282.
Carme, see Carman.
CARSHNAJINI, 210.
Carta, 262.
Cartica, 72.
Carya, 168, 262.
Carya brahme, 236.
CASARITSNA, 210, 222.
Casera, 272.
Cashmir, chronicle of, 284.
Casi, 12. 30, 38.
Cash'ta srotriya Brahmanas, 211.
Casmira Brahmanas, 271.
CASU, 11.
CASYAPA, 10, 21, 121, 277.
Cat'ha, 6.
Cat'ha, 186.
Cat'has, 6.
Cat'ha, Cat'havalli, or Cat'haca upanishad, 47, 55, 58, 208.
CATYA, 57.
Catyayana, 10, 57, 61, 90.
Catyayani, 39.
Cauta upanishad, 69.
CAUSALYA, 57.
Cause and effect, 224, 225.
CADSHlTAci, 5.
Caushitaci brahmana upanishad, 30, 208.
Causici, 98.
Caut'humi sac'ha, 6, 7, 196.
CAVASHA, 21, 42.
CAVASHEYA, 42.
Caya, 260.
Cayast'has; 273, 277, 278.
Cecaya, 50.
Cena or Ceneshita upanishad, 53, 55, 59, 208.
Ceremonies, writers on, 61. Ceremonies to be observed by a Brahman when rising from sleep, 77, &c. Funeral ceremonies, 97, &c. Ancestral ceremonies, 113, &c Hospital and nuptial ceremonies, 128, &c.
Cesava Misra, 166, 172.
t'hacravartis, 297.
t'haitana atma 245
t'haitra, 126, &c.
t'haitta, 252.
t'hampa, 297.
t'hampapuri, 295.
C'handa, 8, 19.
C'handadeva, 191.
t'handala, 53, 274.
t'handiceyas, 6.
CHANDRA, 277.
t'handrabhaga, 98.
t'handravati, 295.
CHARACA, 6.
t'haracas, 6.
t'harana vyuha, 4.
t'haru, 202.
CHARVACA, 144, 152, 259.
t'harvaca school, 298.
t'harvacas, 211, 259, &c.
t'haturt'hi, 140.
t'haturvedi, 3.
t'haube, 3.
t'haut'hi, 140.
CHEDI, 11.
Cheragh-cush, 302.
Ch'hala, 186.
Ch'handasi sanhita, 47.
C'handoga priests, 47.
Ch'handogya, 6.
Ch'handogya upanishad, 3, 49-53, &c. 55, 208, 284.
Ch'hetri, 108.
C'hilagrant'ha. 209.
China, 271.
CHITRA, 11, 30.
Chitra, 126, 204.
CHITRAGUPTA, 241.
Chitragupta, 273.
Chitrangada, 273.
Chitrasena, 273.
Chitta, 252, 253, &c.
Chola, 271.
Chronology, 65, 126.
Chulica upanishad, 51.
CHYAVANA, 21.
Cilala, 106.
Cinata, 41.
CIRISA, 25.
Classes of the Hindus, 270, 280. Known to Greek writers 285, &c.
CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS, 287.
Clepsydra, 66.
Colour, Nyaya doctrine respecting it, 177.
Commentaries, their importance in preserving the text of a book from changes, 60.
CONDA BHATTA, 166.
Controversies of various philosophical schools, 152, 159, 160, 170, 173, 185, 194, 199, 243, 249, 259, 264, &c.
Cosa, 239.
Cows let loose on certain solemn occasions, 131.
Cows, sacrifice of, 128, 129, 131.
Crama copies of the Rig and Yajur veda, 9.
Creation of the world, 17, 81, 87.
CRISHNA, 67, &c.
CRISHNANANDA, 53, 215.
CRISHNA Dwaipayana, 209.
Crishnalancara, 216.
CRISHNA mentioned in the ch'handogya upanishad, 284.
Crishnas, nine, of the Jains, 297.
CRISHNA TIRT'HA, 214.
Crishna upanishad, 67.
CRITI, 6.
Crittica. 54, 65.
Criya, 73.
Criyasacti, 263.
Criyayoga, 268.
Cshatriyas, 271. massacred by Parasurama, 70.
Cshurica upanishad, 57.
Cula, 271.
Culina Brahmanas, 277.
CULLUCA BHATTA, 2.
CUMARILA SWAMI, 190, &c. 199.
Cumar, 272.
Cumbhacara, 272.
Curayana, 11.
Curma purana 149.
CURU, 42.
Curu, 20, 40.
CURUNGA, 11
Cusa, 70, &c.
CUSHARU, 25.
Cushion used at certain ceremonies, 129, &c.
Cusumanda, 91.
CUSICA, 14.
Cusumanjali, 166.
Cut'humi, 6.
CUTSA, 10, 14.
Cuverina, 273.

D.

Dabistan, 303.
DACSHA, 16, 277.
DACSHINA, 15, 16.
Dacshina Rara, 278.
DADHYACH, 32, 34, 40.
Dahara, 221.
Dahara vidya, 209.
Daivata, 12.
DAMODARA, 285.
DARA SHUCOH, 1.
Darbha, 54.
Darsana, 210, 263.
Darsana upanishad, 69.
Darsana varaniya, 247.
Dasati, 47.
Dasa, 274. a common termination of proper names, 278.
Daurinanasya, 255.
Death, 233, 251.
Deistical Sanc'hya, 159.
Deities invoked in the hymns of the Vedas, are resolvable into different titles of one God, 12. Deities of Hindu mythology have but a definite duration of life, 100, 150, 151.
Deities worshipped by the early Hindus 284. Four classes of Deities distinguished by the Jainas, 299.
Deliverance from evil, 149, 150, &c.
Deva, a common termination of proper names, 278.
DEVACI, 69.
Devadarsa, 7.
Devadarsi sac'ha, 7.
Devadhidevas, 289.
DEVADUTI, 145.
DEVALA, 224.
Devas of the Jainas, 289.
Devald of a mantra, 9.
Devavrid'ha, 25.
Devayana, 235.
Dhanisht'ha, 66.
Dhanush, 291, 296.
Dhareswara, 149.
D'harma, 181, 189, 248, 255.
DHERMARAJA, 90.
DHARMARAJA DICSHITA, 215.
Dharmasastra, 199.
Dharmasticaya, 248.
DHATRI, 120, 121.
Dherma see Dharma.
DHRITARASHTRA, 71, 74.
Dhwansa, 183.
Dhyanavindu upanishad, 58.
Dialectic philosophy of Gotama, 165.
Dialects, provincial, 201.
Digambaras, 245, 298.
DILIPA, 129.
Dirg'hatamas, 22.
Divacara Bhatta, 127.
Divine grace, 241.
Divodasa, 12.
Diwali, 140.
Dobe, 3.
Donations accompanied by religious formalities, 111, 112.
Dosha, 184.
Dravida dialect, 201.
Dravi'a Brahmanas, 271.
Dravya, 248.
Dric sacti, 263.
Drishtanta, 185.
Duhc'ha, 255.
Duhc'hama suc'hama, 295.
Duhc'hanta, 262, 263
DUHSHANTA, 22.
Durga mahattwa, 275.
Durmuc'ha, 23.
DUSHMANTA, DUSHYANTA, 22.
DWAIPAYANA, 64, 209.
Dwara, 263.
Dwivedi, 3.

E.

Ear. Impurity removed by touching the right ear, 78.
Earth, invoked, 85.
Ecayana, 266.
Elements, five, 154, 239. Four, 252, 254.
Error, 156.
Eternity of sound, and of the Veda, 195, &c. 223.
Etherial fluid, 154, 170, 174, 226.
Evidence, three kinds of, 151.
Evil spirits, 120.
Existence of God denied by Capila, 159.

F.

Faith, 241.
Fire, sacrificial, its consecration, 92, &c. Seven tongues of fire, 119. Maintenance of a perpetual fire, 118, 233.
FIRUZ SHAH, 304.
Frame, twofold corporeal, investing the soul, 155.
Free will, 241.
Fruit of works, 241.
Fuel used at sacrifices, 94.
Funeral rites, 96, &c.

G.

Gana, 49.
Ganadharas, 295.
Ganadhipas, 295.
Ganapatyas, 123, 125.
Ganas, 137.
Gandaci river, 97.
Gand'hara, 25.
Gandharha, 33. The sun, 134, 141.
GANDHARI, 74.
Gandhica, 272.
GANESA, 123.
Ganga, 23, 85, 98.
GANGADHARA, 214.
GANGAYANI, 30.
Garbha upanishad, 57, 154.
GARGA, 38, 57.
GARGI, 41.
GARGYA, 38.
Garuda purana, 63.
Garuda upanishad, 59.
Gat'hin, 14.
Gauda Brahmanas, 271.
GAUDAPADA, 58, 63, 145, 214, &c.
Gaura, 277.
GAURICANTA, 166, 177.
GAUTAMA, 200, 251, 283.
Gavyutis, 296.
Gayatri, 14, 77, &c.; 103, &c.; 197. Explained, 78. Another version, 109.
Gayatri metre, 18.
Germanes, 286.
Ghana copies of the Rig and Vajur veda, 9.
Ghatin, 247.
GHORA, 284.
Giranara, 293.
Glossary to the Vedas, 12.
Goaria gop, 274.
GOBHILA, 61,
Gobhiliya sac'ha, 200.
Goculast'has, 124, &c.
Gods. See Deities.
Goghna, 128, 129.
Gonarda, 281.
Gop, 274.
Gopa, 273, 274.
Gopajivi, 274.
Gopala tapaniya upanishad, 67.
Gopat'ha brahmana, 54, 55.
Gopichandana upanishad, 69.
GOTAMA, 52, 74, 143, 165, &c. 226.
Gotras, 70.
Gotrica, 247.
Goverdhana Misra, 166.
GOVINDA, 214.
GOVINDA BHATTA, 166.
Govindananda, 213.
Govindanat'ha, 63.
Gramageya gana, 47, 48.
Gravastata, 84.
Great Soul, 13.
Grihya, 71.
Grihya grant'ha, 200.
Grishma, 127.
GRITSAMADA, 10.
Guest, solemn reception of, 128, &c.
Gujjara Brahmanas, 271.
Guna, 157, 263,
GUNAVISHNU, 92, 134, 138.
Gupta, a common termination of proper names, 278.
GURU, 190.
Gymnosophistae, 287, &c.

H.

Hansa upanishad, 59.
Harda vidya, 209.
Harihara, 192.
HARINAIGUMESHI, 294.
HARITA, 73.
HASAN SABAH, 303.
Hasta, 126.
Hastinapura, 295.
HASTIPALA, 295.
HAYAGRIVA, 50.
Hazarehs, 305.
HELAYUDHA, 92, 138.
HEMACHANDRA, 289.
Hemanta, 127.
Heretical systems of Hindu philosophy, 143.
Hetu, 185, 254.
Hetwabhasa, 186.
HIEROCLES, 287, 288.
Himavat, 20.
Hindi language: parts of the Vedas translated into it, 1.
HIRANYAGARBHA, 29, 221, 236.
HIRANYANABHA, 6.
HIRANYASTUYA, 10.
Holaca or Hoti festival, 140, 200.
Homa, 31, 203.
Hospitality, 129.
Hotri, 83, 119.
HUHU, 90.
Hylobii, 288.

I.

Idtivatsara, 33.
Idvatvatsara, 33.
Ijas, 127.
Iman JAFER, 302, 305.
Immolation of victims, 68, 151. Allegorical immolation of brahma, 17, 31, 35, 104, 105.
Incarnations. See Avatara.
Indra, 13, 20, &c., derivation of the name, 28. Fourteen Indras, 71. Realm of Indra, 236.
Indradyumna, 50, 51.
Indrapramati, 4, 5.
Indras, many admitted by the Jainas, 294.
Inference, three kinds of, l51, 152.
Intellect, obstructions of, 156.
Isadhyaya, 34.
Isavasya, 34, 55, 208.
Ishti, 203.
ISWARA, 145, 154, 159, 245, 262.
ISWARA CRISHNA, 63, 148, 213.
Iswara gita, 227. See Bhagavad gita.
Iswara prasada, 241.
Itihasa, 2, 3, 39, 57.

J

JABALA, 19.
Jabalas, 6.
Jabata upanishad, 59.
Jagati metre, 18.
JAHNU, 85.
JAIGISHAVYA, 152.
JAIMINI, 4, 6, 143, &c.; 189, 219, 231, 236.
Jaina sect, 144, 211, 243, &c.
Jainas, 280, &c.
Jaloca, 285.
Jalpa, 186.
JAMADAGNI, 10.
Jambu Dwipa, 271.
JANA, 50, 51.
JANACA, 25, 40, 42, 222.
Janamejaya, 19, 21, 25, 43.
Janantapa, 23.
Janasruti, 50.
Jangama, 245.
Jara, 251.
Jata copies of the Rig and Yajur veda, 9.
Jatadharis, 261.
Jati, 182, 187, 255.
Jatimala, 270, 271.
JATUCARNA, 90.
JINA, 243, &c.; 251, &c.
Jinas, 290, &c.
Jiva, 245, 253, 262, 267, 282.
Jivaja, 239.
JIVALA, 50.
Jivan mucti, 237, 241.
Jivasticaya, 248.
Jivatman, 169, 269.
Jiticiya, 85.
Jnyana, 267.
Jnyana varaniya, 247.
Jnyana yoga, 268.
JUHU, 16.
Jupiter, the planet, 18, 96.
Jyesht'ha, 126.
Jyotish, 34, 65.
Jyotish'toma, 35, 43.

L.

LABUCAYANA, 189.
Lacshana, 167.
LACSHMI, prayer to, 112.
LACSHMIDASA, 298, 301.
LACSHMI NARAYANA, 97, 124.
Laghu dipica, 45.
Lalita purana, 285.
Latayana, 61.
Liberation of the soul, 155, 237, 241, 246.
Lic'hita, 200.
Light, invoked, 79, &c.
Linga, 124, 155.
Linga sarira, 155, 239, 269.
Lingis, 124.
Loca, 248.
Locacasa, 248.
LOCACSHI, 6, 90.
Locayata school, 298.
Locayaticas, 259, &c.
Lunar month, 126, 127.
Lunchitacesa, 245.

M.

Madana parijata, 72.
Mad'hava, 126, &c.
Mad'hava Acharya, 30, 123, 191, 289. His age, 192. See sayana acharya.
MADHAVA DEVA, 166, 177.
Madhu, 126, &c.
MADHU, 214.
Mad'huch'handas, 10, 17, 32.
Mad'huparca, 130, 132.
MADHUSUDANA SARASWATI, 4, 216.
Madhu vidya, 209.
Madhyamica, 251, 259.
Mad'hyandina, 6, 31.
Madhyandina sac'ha, 31, 34, 40, 42.
Madhyandina satapat'ha, 35.
Magadha, 271, 272, 273.
Magadhi dialect, 294.
Magha, 54.
Magha, 66, 72, 117, 126.
Mahabharata, 73.
Mahadeva, 68.
Mahabhuta, 252.
Mahalaya, 117.
Mahanarayana upanishad, 45.
Maharashtra Brahmanas, 271.
Mahasala, 219.
Mahasarga, 152.
Mahat, 153, 223, 262, 266.
Maheswaras, 210, 244, 261, &c.
MAHIDASA, 26.
MAHIDHARA, 3 I, 34, 60.
Mahishya, 273.
Mait'hila or Mit'hila Brahmanas, 271, 278.
MAITRA, 47.
Maitravaruna, 83, 119.
Maitrayani, 90.
Maitrayani sac'ha, 46.
Maitrayani upanishad, 46.
Maitrayaniyas, 6.
MAITREYA, 25.
Maitreya upanishad, 154.
MAITREYI, 39, 40, 42, 222.
Malacara, 273.
Mali, 273.
MAMATA, 22.
Manana, 263.
Manas, 153, 171, 172, 269.
Mandalas of the Rigveda sanhita, 8.
MANDHATRI, 11.
Manduca or Manducya upanishad, 2, 55, 57.
MANDUCEYA, 5.
Manibandha tribe, 272, 274.
Manicara, 272.
Mantras. 7, 8, 30, 31, 196.
Mantra sastra, 9.
MANU, see MENU.
Marana, 255.
MARICHI, 10, 18.
Marriage ceremonies, 128-142.
Marudvidha, 85.
MARUTS, 14, 20, 22, 137.
MARUTTA, 22.
Mashndra, 23.
Matri gana, 200.
Matsya purana, 63, 73, 153.
Matter, believed by the Jainas to be eternal, 282.
Maulica Brahmanas, 278.
Maya, 17, 153, 242, 262.
Mayamayi, 240.
Mayuc'ha mala, 191.
Medabhilli, 275.
MEDHATIT'HI, 2, 10, 32.
MEDHYATIT'HI, 11.
Meditation, religious, 231, &c.
MEGASTHENES, 286, 289.
Mejatisu'l mumenim, 302.
MENU, 11. Race of, 21. The first MENU, 38. Laws of menu cited, 2, 12, 55, 62, 80, 87, 118, 142, 149, 224, 270.
Menwantaras, 117.
Meru, 24.
Mesha, 127.
Metempsychosis, 151, 229.
Metre of the hymns in the Vedas, 18.
MEYA, 62.
Mimansa, 60, 143, 188, &c.
Mimansa bhashya, 214.
Mimansa caustubha, 191.
Mimansa nyaya viveca, 191.
Mina, 126, 127.
Mind, an organ of perception and action, 153.
Misra a surname, 278.
Mitacshard, a commentary on the Vrihad aranyaca, 36.
Mit'hyapravritti, 246.
MITRA, 16, 18, 46.
Mlech'has, 201, 275, 280, 285.
Mocsha, 168, 246, 258, 262.
Moha, 184, 258.
Mohaniya, 247.
MOHSEN FANl, 303.
Monotheism of the Vedas, 12, &c. 29, 123.
Months, 126, &c.
Moon, its origin, 96.
Mourning, 101, &c.'
Mrigasiras, 126.
Mrityu, 40, 58.
Muctacach'ha, 251.
Muctambaras, 245.
Muctatma, 245.
Muctavasanas, 245.
Mucti, 74, 237, 241, 245, 258.
Muhammedan sects, 302.
Muhurta, 55, 66.
Mula pracriti, 153.
MULLA ALI, 304.
Mundaca upanishad, 55, 56, 208.
MUNISWARA, 298, 301.
Murahabhishicta, 276.
Muslemans of India, borrow superstitious ceremonies from the Hindus, 140.
Mythology of the Vedas, 13.

N.

NABHANEDISHT'HA, 11.
Nabhas, 127.
Nabhasya, 127.
Naca, 33.
NACHICETAS, 58, 218.
Nacshatras, 126.
Nadavindu, 58.
Nagnajit, 25.
Nagoji, 145, 149.
Nai, 273.
Naigama, 12.
Naimittica, 74.
Naishadhiya, 132.
Naiyayica, 297.
Naiyayica school, 165.
Namica, 247.
Nandana, 28.
Nandavarta, 293.
Nandimuc'ha, 117.
Napita, 273, 275.
NARASARYA, 90.
NARAYANA, allegorical immolation of, 2, 17, 32, 35.
Narayana Purusha, 32.
NARAYANA TIRT'HA, 147, 166, 216.
Narayana upanishad, 59.
NARAYANENDRA, 26.
NAREDA, 3, 21, 50.
Nastica school, 298.
Nasticas, 244, 251.
Nasticya, 268.
Nata, 275.
Nataca, 275.
Naya, 273.
Nema, 201.
Nermada, 97.
Neshtri, 119.
Nichyas, 20.
Nidarsana, 185.
Nigamana, 185.
Nighanti, 12.
Nigrahast' hana, 187.
Nihsarana, 258.
Nihs reyasa, 168, 258.
Nilacant'ha, 214.
Nila purana, 285.
Nilarudra upanishad, 58.
Nimba tree, 101.
Nimitta carana, 265.
Niriswara sanc'hya, 149.
Nirjara, 246.
Nirneya, 186.
Nirneya sindhu, 113.
Niructa, 12, &c. 60.
Nirupa, 255.
Nirvana, 258, 259.
Nishada, 272.
Niti manjari, 61.
Nityanandasrama, 36.
Nityasiddha, 245.
Nivaha, 119.
Nrimedha, 43.
NRISINHA, 58.
Nrisinha purana, 63.
Nrisinha tapaniya upanishad, 55, 58.
NRISINHA SARASWATI, 215.
Nuptial ceremonies, 142, &c.
NURULLAH, 302, 303.
Nyaya, 143, 150, 165, &c. Syllogism, 185, 211.
Nyaya lilavati, 166.
Nyaya mala vistara, 191
Nyaya ratnamala, 191.
Nyaya sancshepa, 166.
Nyaya sangraha, 166.
Nyaya sara, 166.
Nyayavati didhiti, 191.

O.

Obsequies, 96, &c. Twelve kinds of, 113.
Obsolete dialect of the Vedas, 202.
Odra, 272.
Ojha, 278.
Om, 70, 80, 159, 220, 262.
Om tat sat, 132.
Organs, 153, 171, 228.
Orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy, 143.

P.

Pacast'haman, 11
Pada copies of the Rig and Vajur veda, 9.
Pada, 148.
Padart'ha, 167, 172.
Padart'ha dipica, 166.
Padayajanica, 215.
Padma purana, 95.
PAILA, 4.
Pain, three sorts of, 150, 151.
Paippaladi sac'ha, 7, 56.
Pala, 66.
Palasa, 80, 107, 203.
Pali, 294.
Palyas, 296.
Panchagnividya pracarana, 209.
Pancha panchajandh, 224.
Panchala, 20, 23, 40.
Pancharalras, 211, 244, 266, &c.
Panchasic'ha, 63, 145, 164, 224.
Panchavinsa brahmana, 49.
PANINI, 6, 10, 13.
Panjica, 19, 49.
Papapuri, 295.
Parajayahetu, 187.
Paramahansa, 298.
Paramahansa upanishad, 59.
Paramanu, 223.
Paramarhata, 297.
Paramart'hici, 240.
Paramatma, 169.
Paramatma vidya, 209.
Paramesh'thi, 13, 17, 21, 32.
PARASARA, 66, 126, 192, 209.
PARASARYA, 40, 90.
Parasica language, 201.
Parasreyas, 266.
PARASU, 11.
PARASU RAMA, 70.
PARCHASIC'HA, 89.
Paricsha, 167.
PARICSHIT, 19, 21.
Paridevana, 255.
Parimata, 213, 216.
Parivaha, 119.
Parivatsara, 33.
Parnotaja, 71.
Part'ha Sarat'hi Misra, 191.
Parushti, 85.
Parvata, 21.
Paryanca vidya, 209.
Pasa, 262.
Pasu, 203, 262.
Pasupatas, 144, 211, 244, 261, &c.
PASUPATI, 261
Pasupati idstra, 262.
Pataliputra, 235.
Patanjala bhashya, 148.
PATANJALI, 145, &c. 159, 232.
Patanjali sutra vritti, 149.
Pat'hya, 7.
Pattasutra casa, 275.
Patticara, 273.
Pauranicas, 259.
Pauranica sanc'hya, 149.
Paurusha, 119.
Pausha, 117.
Paushyinji, 6.
Pautimashi, 42.
Pautimashya, 40.
Pawapuri, 295.
Perception, 151.
Persian translation of the upanishads, 284.
Persians, their ancient religion, 285, 286.
P'hala, 184.
P'halguna, 126.
Philosophy, Hindu systems of, 227, &c.
PHILOSTRATUS, 287, 288.
Pica, 201.
Pijavana, 22.
Pilu, 201.
Pinda, 73.
Pindacara, 98.
Pin'da upanishad, 58.
PIPPALADA, 7, 57.
Pisachas, 174.
Pitonhid, 83.
Pitris, 114, 230.
Pitri medha, 32, 43.
Pitri pacsha, 117.
Planets, sacrifice to the, 95.
PLAYOGA, 11.
PLINY, 287.
PORPHYRIUS, 287, 288.
Potri, 84, 119.
PRABHACARA, 190.
Prabhacaras, 194.
Pracaranas, 165.
PRACHETAS, 72, 129.
PRACHINASALA, 50.
Prachinayoga, 51.
Prachyas, 20.
Pracrit 294.
Pracriti, 153, 168, 216, 223, 262, 265.
Pradesamatra, 210.
Pradhana, 216, 228, 264.
Pradyumna, 267.
Pragabhava, 183.
Prajanat'ha, 66.
PRAJAPATI, 13, &c. 29, &c. 44. Abode of Prajapati, 236.
Prajapatya sacrifice, 73.
Prama, 183.
Pramana, 168, 193.
Prameya, 168.
Pramnae, 286.
Prana, 122, 217, 228.
Pranagnihotra, 53.
Pranagnihotra upanishad, 57.
Prana samveda or Prana vidya, 209.
Prapataca, 34, 43, 47, 53.
Prasna, 43.
Prasna upanishad, 55, 57, 154, 208.
Prast'ha, 66.
Prast'hana bheda, 7.
Pratardana, 12, 30, 217.
Pratijuya, 185.
Pratisanc' hya-nirodha, 255.
Prativasudevas, 297.
Pratyaya, 254.
Pravaha, 119.
PRAVAHANA, 50.
Pravritti, 183, 246.
Prayojana, 185.
Prelyabhava, 184.
Priests, seventeen required at a great solemnity, 206.
Prit'hivi, 44, 240.
Prit'hu, 85.
Priyamedha, 22.
Pudgala, 246, 248.
Pudgalasticaya, 248.
Puja, 75.
PULUSHA, 50, 51.
Pumas, 154.
Punarbhoga, 184.
Punarutpatti, 181.
Pundraca, 275.
Puranas, 2, 36, 39, 57, 153.
Purisaya, 221.
Purna vainasicas, 253.
Purohita, 24.
Purusha, 26, 54, 154, 221, 264.
Purusha medha, 2, 3 2, 35, 197.
Purusha sucta, 104, 197.
Purva bhadrapada, 126.
Purva mimansa, 143, 188, 189, &c.
Purva pacsha, 192.
Purva tapaniya, 58.
Purva valli, 58.
Purva varsha, 291.
Pushan, 15, 16, 135.
PUTRA, 50.
Putrajiva, 83.

Q.

Qualities, 157, 177, &c. See Guna.

R.

Racshoghna, 119.
Rada (Rara), 271, 277, 278.
Rad'ha, 124.
Rad'haballabhi, 124.
Raghavananda, 191.
Raja, 20.
Rajaca, 275.
Raja Martanda, 149.
Rajaputra, 272.
Rajas, 157.
Rajasuya, 31, 35, 43.
Raja vartica, 148.
RAMA, 67, 68, 284. Worshippers of RAMA, 124.
AMACRISHNA, 145, 147.
RAMACRISHNA DICSHITA, 215.
RAMALINGACRITI, 166.
RAMA MOHEN RAYA (Rammohun Roy), 212.
RAMANUJA, 214, 261, 267, 289.
Ramanujas, 124.
Rama tapaniya upanishad, 59, 67.
RAMA Tirt'ha, 214, 215.
RANA RANGA MALLA, 149.
Ranayaniyas, 7, 209.
Ranganat'ha, 214, 216.
RANGARAJA DICSHITA, 216.
Raumaca language, 201.
Regions of the world sacred to the Jainas, 298, 299.
Rehesya, 55.
Rich, 4, 53, 104, 197.
Rice, used at the nuptial ceremonies, 135.
Rig veda, 4, 8, &c. 197, &c. Passage on the burning of widows, 71, 72, 73.
RISHABHA, 291.
Rishi of a mantra, 9, &c. 32, 43, 48.
Rituals, 200.
RITUVID, 25.
Rivers, holy, 85.
ROHIDASWA, 12.
ROMASA, 11.
Rudimental creation, 155.
RUDRA, 15, 16, 87, 137, &c.
RUDRANI, 112.
Rudras, 16, 20, 44, 131.
Rudra yamala tantra, 270.
Rupa, 255.
Rupa scandha, 253.

S.

Sahara bhashya, 190.
SABARA SWAMI, 190.
Sabda, 194.
Sabda, 259.
Saca, 271.
Saca dwipa, 211.
Sacalya, 5, 41, 90.
Sacalya sac'ha, 8.
Sacapurni, 5.
Sacayana, 47.
Sac'has of the Vedas, 4, &c.
Sac'hera, 272.
Sachiguna, 23.
Sacraments, five great, 92, &c. viz. 1st. Study of the Veda, 88, &c. 2d. Sacrifice to the Deities, 92, &c. 3d. Sacrifice to the Manes, 97, &c. 4th. Sacrifice to the Spirits, 120, &c. 5th. Hospitality, 129, &c.
Sactas, 68, 123, &c.
Sacti, 123, 167, 267.
SACYA, 190, 251.
Sacyasinha, 285.
Sadananda, 215.
Sadhana, 246.
Sadhu, 247.
Sadhya, 105, 246.
Sadhyas, 20.
Sadikiyahs, 305.
Sadrisya, 167.
Sadyuctimuctavali, 166.
SAGARA, 224.
SAHADEVA, 25.
Sahas, 127.
Sahasya, 127.
Sahotaja, 71.
Saivas, 68, 123, &c. 284.
Salagrama, 97.
Samadhi, 74, 148.
Samagas, 6.
Saman, 4, 47, 197.
Samana, 122.
Samanoeans, 287.
Samanya, 182.
SAMASRAVAS, 41.
Samavaya, 169, 182.
Sama veda, 47, &c.
Samavediya priests, 47.
Samba purana, 78.
Sambandha, 168.
Sambhavi, 259.
Samet sic'hara, 291.
Sami, 101, 107, 137.
Samprasada, 221.
Samraj, samrdjya, 20.
Samvaha, 119.
Samvara, 246.
Samvarga vidya, 209.
SAMVARTA, 22.
Samvatsara, 33, 55.
Samyacpravritti, 246.
SANACA, 80, 89.
SANANDANA, 89.
SANASRUTA, 25.
SANATANA, 89.
SANATCUMARA, 3, 50.
Sancalpa, 71, &c.
Sancara, 26, 34, 36, 45, 49, 53, 55, 57, 63, 123, 190, &c. 212, &c.
Sancara Acharya, 289.
Sancara Misra, 164.
Sancara vijeya, 63.
Sancarshana, 267, 268.
Sanc'ha, 200.
Sanc'hacara, 272.
Sanc'ha daraca, 272.
Sanc'hya, 144.
Sanc'hya, 282, 297.
Sanc'hya, system of philosophy, 143, &c.
Sanc'hya bhashya, 147.
Sanc'hya carica, 145.
Sanc'hya caumudi, 147.
Sanc'hya chandrica, 147.
Sanc'hya pravachana, 146, 148.
Sanc'hya sara, 146, 214.
Sanc'hya tatwa caumudi, 147.
Sanc'hyayana, 5, 61.
Sancshepa sariraca, 215.
Sandhya, 240.
SANDILA, 277.
Sandilva, 266.
Sandilya vidya, 209.
SANGAMA, 192.
Sangraha, 148, 191.
Sangrahani ratna, 299.
Sanhita, 4, 7, of the Rig veda, 8, &c. Of the White Yajur veda, 31. Of the Black Yajur veda, 43, &c. Of
the Sama veda, 49. Of the At'harvana veda, 53, 55.
Sanjivi, 42.
Sanjnya scandha, 254.
Sanmaulica Brahmanas, 278.
Sannyasa upanishad, 58.
Sannyasi, 72.
Sannyasis, 287.
Sunsaya, 184.
Sanscara, 181, 255.
Sanscaras, 280.
Sanscara scandha, 254.
Sanyoga, 169.
Sapindana, 115.
Sapta chitica, 119.
Sarada, 127.
Saraswata Brahmanas, 271, 277.
Saraswata nation and language, 294.
SARASWATl, 85, 95, 137.
Sarayu, 98.
Sarcaracshya, 50, 51.
SARJA, 25.
Sarira, 218.
Sariraca bhashya vibhaga, 213.
Sariraca mimansa bhashya, 213.
Sariraca mimansa sutras, 209, &c.
Sarira sutra sarart'ha chandrica, 214.
SARVAJNYATMA GIRI, 214.
Sarvajnyatwa, 263.
Sarvamedha, 32.
Sarva vainasicas, 253.
Sarvopanishatsara, 59.
SARYATA, 21.
Sastra, 194, 251.
'Sastra dipica, 190, 191.
Sastra siddhanta lesa sangraha, 216.
SASWATI, 11.
Sat, 17.
Satadru, 85.
SATANICA, 21.
Satapat'ha brahmana, 34, 36, 61.
SATARUPA, 38.
Sati, 72 &c.
SATRAJIT, 21.
Satrunjaya, 295.
Saturn, the planet, 96.
Sattwa, 157.
Satwats, 20.
SATYACAMA, 19, 57, 218.
SATYAHAVYA, 23.
SATYAVAHA, 56.
Satya vidya, 209.
SATYAYAJNYA, 50, 51.
Saugatas, 251, 297.
SAUNACA, 1, 10, 26, 56, 219.
Saunaciya sac'ha, 56.
Sauras, 123, 125.
Saurayanayya, 40.
Sauryayani, 57.
Sautramani, 31, 35.
Sautranticas, 252, &c.
SAVERNA, 277.
Savitri, 15, 18, 137, 139.
SAVITRI, 15.
SAVYA, 10.
Sayanacharya, 8, 15, 19, 26, 44, 48, 49, 55, 192. See Madhava Acharya.
Scanda upanishad, 69.
Scandhas, 253, &c.
Seasons, six, 126.
Sectaries, Indian, 243, &c.
Self-immolation, 205.
Serman, 278.
SESHANAGA, 65.
Seswara sanc'hya, 149.
Seven steps, 138.
Shaddyatana, 255.
Shadman, 306.
Shadvinsa, 49.
Shiahs, 302, 303.
Shodasa cala vidya, 209.
Siddhanta, 185, 192.
Siddhanta calpataru, 216.
Silk, 275.
Siman, 28.
SINDHUDWIPA, 11.
Sisira, 126, 127.
SITA, 124.
SIVA, 124, 261.
Sivabhagavatas, 261.
Sivagama, 262.
Sivi, 11, 23, 57,
Sloca vartica, 191.
Smarana, 183.
Smriti, 193, 199, 224, 230.
Snava, 41.
Soca, 255.
Solinus, 287.
Soma, 14, 150, 203.
SOMA, 16, 44, 96, 114, 129, 133, 137.
SOMACA, 25,
Somanat'ha, 191.
SOMASUSHMAN, 21.
Sommonacodom, 283.
Soul, 29, 154, 162, 168, 226, 238, 260, 261, 282.
Sound, its perpetuity, 185, 195.
Sources of knowledge, 151, 168, 194, 211.
Sparsa, 255.
Sp'hota, 195.
Sraddha, 241.
Sraddha, 73. 102, 103, 113, 117.
Sramana. 283, 287.
Sravacas, 282.
Sravana, 263.
Sravana, 66.
Sravisht'ha, 66.
Sreyas, 258.
Sruti, 199.
SRIHERSHA, 277.
Srivatsa, 292.
STEPHANUS BYZANTINUS, 287.
St'havara, 245.
St'hiti st'havaca, 181.
St'hita sarira, 239, 269.
STRABO, his account of Indian classes, 286.
Subodhini, 214, 215.
Substances, nine, of the Nyaya system, 172.
Subtile frame, investing the soul, 155, 239, 269.
Suca, 63, 90.
SUCARMAN, 6.
SUCESA, 57.
Suc'ha, 258.
Suchi, 127.
Sucra, 127.
Sucshma sarira, 155, 239, 269.
Sucta, 8, 53.
Suclabatas, 297.
Suclambaras, 298.
SUDACSHINA, 96.
SUDAS, 22, 25.
Sudd'ha Ganapati, 125.
Sudhanwa, 190.
Sudhas rotriya Brahmanas, 277.
Sudras, 271.
SUGATA, 251.
Sugata, 290.
SUMANTU, 4, 6, 7,
SUMBHADESA, 271.
SUMERU, 175.
Sun, 15, 82, 83.
SUNACA, 56.
SUNASEP'HA, 10.
Sundari tapani, 69.
Sunnis, 303, 304.
Sunya, 223.
SURABHI, 121, 129.
Sureswaracharya, 36.
Surya, 15.
Sushadman, 25.
Sushaman, 11.
Sushmana, 136.
Sushmina, 23.
Sushamna, 96, 234.
SUTA, 4.
Suta, 273.
Sutras of Buddhamuni, 251.
of CANADE, 165, &c.
of Badarayana, 209, 211.
of GOTAMA, 165, &c.
of JAIMINI, 189, &c.
of Panchasic'ha, 147.
of PATANJALI, 148, 149.
of VRIHASPATI, 260.
SUTWAN, 25.
SUVRATA, 66.
Swadha, 17, 103, 112.
SWAHA, 103, 112.
SWANAYA, 11.
Swar, 33, 269.
Swaraj, 20.
Swarga, 29.
Swastica, 292.
Swatantrya. 241.
Swati, 126.
Swayambhu Brahme, 32.
Swayampracasananda Saraswati, 216.
Swernagrama, 271.
SWETACETU, 30, 50.
Swetambaras, 245.
SWETASWATARA, 47.
Swetaswatara sac'ha, 6, 47.
Swetaswatara upanishad, 47, 208.
Syauras, 282.
Syena yaga, 204.
Syllogism, 185, 211.

T

Tad, 17.
Taijasu arira, 282.
Tailanga Brahmanas, 271.
Tailica, 273.
Taittiriyacas, 6, 200.
Taittiriya sac'ha, 200.
Taittiriya sanhita, 26.
Taittiriya upanishad, 3, 5, 45, 55, 208.
Taittiriya Yajur veda, 18, 24, 36, 44, 59, 127.
Talavacaras, 7, 53.
Tamarasa, 201.
Tamas, 17, 157.
Tambula, 72.
Tambuli, 273.
Tamracuta, 272.
Tanaya brahmana, 49.
Tanlica, 273.
Tanmatra, 153, 238.
Tanmatrasarga, 155.
Tanti, 272.
Tantras, 9, 36, 68, 125, 224, 266, 270, 275.
Tantravaya, 272, 273, 274.
Tapaniyas, 6.
Tapaniya upanishad, 2.
Tapas, 44, 246. A month, 66, 126, 127.
Tapasya, 126, 127, &c.
Tarca, 186.
Tarcabhasa, 166.
Tarcabhasha, 166.
Tarcabhasha pracesa, 166.
Tarcabhasha sara manjari, 166.
Tarpana, 72.
Tatwa, 184, 263.
Tatwa caumudi, 147.
Tatwa samasa, 146, &c.
Tatwa vindu, 213.
Tejas, 157, 239, 267.
Tejivindu upanishad, 58.
T'hacusa, 279.
Theistical Sanc'hya, 149.
Tila, 70.
Time, 175, 248, 249.
Tirabhucti (Tirhut), 235.
TIRINDIRA, 11.
Tirt' hancara, 294.
TITTIRI, 6.
Tiware, 3.
Todala tantra, 270.
Traipuriya upanishad, 69.
Transmigrations of the soul, 229.
TRASADASYU, 10.
TRAYYARUNA, 10.
Triad of gods, 78, 153.
Tricanda mandana, 127.
Trich, 197.
Tripura upanishad, 69.
Tripuri upanishad, 69.
Trish'tubh (metre), 18.
TRITA, 14.
Trivedi, 3.
Trivrit, 202.
TURA, 21, 42.
Turushcas, 273.
TWASHTRI, 16.

U

Uc'ha, 6.
UCHCH'HISHTA GANAPATI, 125.
Uct'hya, 45.
Udaharana, 185.
UDAMAYA, 22.
Udana, 122.
UDAYANA ACHARYA, 166, 179.
Udbhid, 204.
Udbhijja, 239.
UDDALACA, 19, 30, 50, &c. 218.
Uddesa, 167.
Udgatri, 83.
Udumbara, 205.
Udvaha, 119.
Ugana, 49.
Ugra, 273.
UGRASENA, 21.
Uhagana, 48, 49.
Uhyagana, 49.
Ujas, 127.
Ujjinta, 293.
UPACOSALA, 218.
Upacosala vidya, 209.
Upadana, 255, 265.
Upadesa sahasri, 214.
Upadhi, 182.
Upahara, 263.
Upamana, 193.
UPAMANYU, 50
Upanaya, 185.
Upanishad, 7, 25, 30, 55, 154, 208, &c.
UPAVARSHA, 212.
Ushnih, 18.
Usic, 11.
USINARA, 11, 20.
Utcala Brahmanas, 271.
Utsarpini age, 290.
Uttara, 192.
Uttara curu, 20, 23.
Uttara grant'ha, 197.
Uttara madra, 20.
Uttaru p'halguni, 126.
Uttara tapaniya, 58.
Uttara valli, 58.
UVATA, 31, 60.

V

VACH, 16.
VACHACRU, 41.
VACHACUTI, 90.
VACHESPATI, 145, 147, 166, 213.
VACPATI, 66.
Vada, 186.
Vaibhashicas, 252, &c.
Vaicarica, 282.
VAIDARBHI, 57.
Vaideha, 274.
Vaidicas, 277.
Vaidya, 272.
VAIJAVAPI, 90.
Vainava, 98.
Vaisac'ha, 72, 126, &c.
VAISAMPAYANA, 4, 5.
Vaiseshica, 143, 144, 165, &c.
Vaiseshica school, 297.
Vaishnavas, 68, 123, 284.
Vaiswadeva sacrifice, 72, 118.
Vaiswanara, 219.
Vaiswanara vidya, 209.
Vaisyas, 271. Vaisya class among the Jainas, 283.
Vaitarani, 111.
Vaitarani dhenu. 111.
Vaiyacarana bhushana, 166.
VAIVASWATA, 90.
Vajapeya, 31, 35, 43, 206.
Vagaratna, 21.
Vajasaneya sanhita upanishad, 34.
Vajasaneyi Yajur veda, 5, 10, 31, &c. 42, &c. 200, 267.
Vajasaneyi brahmana upanishad, 36.
Vajasaneyins, 209.
VAJASRAVASA, 58.
Vajins, 6, 42, 209.
Vajrasuchi upanishad, 69.
Valaca, 225.
VALLABHA ACHARYA, 123.
Valli upanishad, 58.
VAMADEVA, 10, 29, 32.
Vamadevya hymn, 140.
Vamadevya vidya, 209.
Varaha, 98, 201.
Varaha avatara, 44.
Varaha calpa, 44.
Varajivi, 272.
Varanasi (Benares), 235.
VARDHAMANA, 294.
Varendra, 271, 277.
Varga, see Barga.
Varhaspatya school, 298.
Varsha, 127.
Vartica, 166, 190.
Vartica taparya parisuddhi, 166.
Vartica tatparya tica, 166.
VARU, 11.
VARUNA, 15, 16, 18, 32, 33, 45, 85, 131, 134, 137, 235.
Varuni upanishad, 45, 59.
Vasa, 20.
Vasanabhashya, 298, 301.
Vasanta, 126, 127.
Vasisht'ha, 10, 14, &c. 22, &c. 32, 121, 129.
VASUDEVA, 266.
Vasudevas, 297.
VASUMANAS, 11, 12.
Vasus, 16, 44, 131.
VATSA, 277.
Vedas, 1, &c. Consisting of parts written at various times, 64, 297, 198. Peculiarities of Dialect, 202. Portions liable to the suspicion of modern origin, 67, 196. Genuineness and antiquity of the Vedas generally, 59, &c. Four Vedas alluded to in some Upanishads, 39, 57. The Vedas maintained to be primeval, 196, 223. Prayers on beginning a lecture of the several Vedas, 88, 118. Vedas, their antiquity, 284, 285, 289. The Vedas rejected by the Bauddhas and Jainas, 281.
Vedadipa, 10, 31, 34.
VEDAGARVA, 277.
VEDAMITRA, 5.
Vedana scandha, 254.
Vedaniya, 247.
Vedanta, 60, 143, 208, 237, &c. 281, 284.
Vedanta calpa latica, 216.
Vedanta calpataru, 213.
Vedanta calpataru manjari, 213.
Vedanta calpataru parimala, 213.
Vedanta paribhasha, 215.
Vedanta sara, 56, 215.
Vedanta sic'hamani, 194, 215.
Vedanta siddhanta vindu, 210.
Vedanta sutras, 203.
Vedanta sutra muctavali, 214.
Vedanta sutra vyac'hya chandrica, 214.
VEDAVYASA, See VYASA.
Vega, 181.
Vegana, 49.
Vencatadri, 191.
Vencatagiri, 191.
Venus, the planet, 96.
Verman, 278.
VIBHINDU, 11.
Vibhuti, 148.
Vidagd'ha, 41.
Vidarbha, 25.
Videhas, 40.
Videha mucti, 237.
Vid'hatri, 120.
Vidhi, 262, 263.
Vidriti, 28.
Vidwan mano ranjini, 215.
Vidyanagara, 192.
Vidyanat'ha Bhatta, 213.
VIDYARANYA, 30 . 37, 46, 47, 58.
Vigana arna, 49.
Vijeya vilasa, 4, 10.
Vijnyana, 252, 255, 263.
VIJNYANA BHICSHU, 144, 145, 146, 148.
Vijnyana maya, 238.
Vijnyana scandha, 254.
VIJNYANAYOGI, OF VIJNYANESWARA, 62.
Vipra, 74.
Virdj, 20, 29, 36, 37, 38, 40, 104.
Virati (metre), 18.
VIROCHANA, 22.
Virya, 267.
Visac'ha, 126.
VISALA, 26.
Visesha, 182.
Vishaya, 184.
VISHNU. 46, 137. No trace of the worship of his incarnation in the Vedas, 68. His three strides, 85, 94.
VISHNU, his nine foes, 297.
Vishnu purana, 4, 5, 63, 83, 149.
VISWACARMAN, 21.
Viswadevas, 16, 20, 113, &c.
Viswajit, 204.
VISWAMITRA. 10, 14, 32, &c. 107.
Viswanat'ha, 166.
Viswantara, 25.
Visweswarananda, 216.
Vitasta, 85.
Vivadarnava setu, 270.
Vivasanas, 245.
Vivaswat, 32.
Vivaha, 119.
VOPADEVA, 123.
Vrata, 263.
Vriddhi sradd'ha, 117.
Vrihad aranyaca, 5, 16. 30, 35-43, 55, 61, 208, &c., 231, 281.
Vrihad dharma purana, 63, 270.
Vrihadrat'ha, 47.
Vrihaduct'ha, 23.
Vrihangir, 10.
Vrihan narayana upanishad, 45, 59.
VRIHASPATI, 11, 18, 32, 46, 74, 96, 134.
Vrihati (metre), 18.
Vrihat parasara, 66.
Vrisha, 126, 127.
VRISHABHA, 291.
VRITRA. 13.
VRITRAGHNA, 23.
VTITRAHAN, 13.
Vritti, 212, 246.
Vritticara, 189.
VUDILA, 50, 52.
VYAGHRAPAD, 52.
Vyahritis, 12, 19.
Vyana, 122.
VYASA, 1, 10, 40, 63, 74, 143, &c.
Vyasasrama, 213.
Vyasa sutra vritti, 214.
VYASA Tirt'ha, 49.
Vyatipata, 117.
Vyavaharici, 240.

W.

Waters, prayers to them, 77, 85, 86.
White Yajur veda, 5, 6, 31, &c.
Widow, 70, &c.
Worlds, seven, 80.

Y

Yaya, 203.
Yajnya, 17.
Yajnya, 4, 31, 35, 54, 68.
Yajnyadeva, 35.
Yajnyatantra sudhanidhi, 48.
YAJNYAWALCYA, 5, 32, 36, 39, &c. 62, 78. &c.
Vajur veda, 2, 5, 31, &c.
Yajush, 5, 31, 197, 198.
YAMA, 16, 58, 90, 135, 137, 241.
YAMUNA, 16.
Yamuna, 23, 85, 98.
Yasca, 5, 6.
Yati, 72.
Yatis, 282.
Yatna, 181.
Yava, 114.
Yavana language, 201.
Yavanas, 275.
Year, 33, 65.
Yoga, 143, &c. 262, 263.
Yogacharas, 252.
Yoga sastra, 145, 148, 155, 158.
Yoga school, 297.
Vogasicsha upanishad, 58.
Yogasiddha, 245.
Yoga sutras, 148.
Yoga tattwa upanishad, 58.
Yoga vartica, 146, 148, 214.
Yoga vasisht'ha, 209.
Yogi, 158.
Yojana, 300.
Yoni grant'ha, 197.
Yudhansraushti, 21.
Yudhisht'hira, 284.
Yuga, 65, &c.
Ygadyas, 117.
YUVANASWA, 11.
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