Part 1 of 3
Notes
1. Germany Reverts to the Dark Ages: Nazi Clarity and Grassroots American Protest, 1933-1934
1. Jewish Advocate, March 7, 1933.
2. New York Times, March 13, 1933.
3. Ibid., March 20, 1933.
4. Manchester Guardian, March 10, 1933.
5. New York Times, March 21, 1933.
6. Ibid., March 20, 1933.
7. Jewish Chronicle [London], May 19, 1933.
8. Manchester Guardian, March 25, 1933. American journalists reporting from Germany "who understood the true nature of Nazism and its fanatical hatred of Jews" included H. R. Knickerbocker of the New York Evening Post, Edgar Ansel Mowrer of the Chicago Daily News, Sigrid Schultz of the Chicago Tribune, Otto Tolischus of the New York Times, Ralph Barnes of the New York Herald Tribune, Pierre van Paassen of the New York World, and William Shirer of CBS radio. Deborah Lipstadt, Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933-1945 (New York: Free Press, 1986), 28. The Manchester Guardian from Britain provided extensive coverage of Nazi atrocities.
9. Manchester Guardian, March 27 and April 4, 1933.
10. Ibid., April 8, 1933.
11. New York Evening Post, April 1, 1933.
12. John Haynes Holmes to H. R. Knickerbocker, April 6, 1933, box I, H. R. Knickerbocker Papers, Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library [hereafter CURBML], Butler Library, New York, N.Y.
13. New York Evening Post, April I, 1933, and Manchester Guardian, April I, 1933.
14. Richard Breitman, Barbara McDonald Stewart, and Severin Hochberg, eds., Advocate for the Doomed: The Diaries and Papers of James G. McDonald, 1932-1935 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 33.
15. New York Times, April 2, 1933.
16. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14-15.
17. Martha Dodd, Through Embassy Eyes (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1939), 294-97.
18. New York Times, April 24, 1933.
19. Ibid., May 12, 1933.
20. Ibid., May 8 and September 23, 1933.
21. Ibid., March 16, 1933; Manchester Guardian, April 1 and 12, 1933.
22. Manchester Guardian, April 12, 1933.
23. Breitman, Stewart, and Hochberg, eds., Advocate for the Doomed, 30, 38.
24. Ibid., 48, 65.
25. Manchester Guardian, May 17, 1933.
26. New York Times, September 22, 1933.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid., June 14, 1933; Ismar Elbogen, A Century of Jewish Life (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1944), 645.
29. New York Times, June 19, 1933.
30. Gulie Ne'eman Arad, America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 111, 113.
31. Boston Herald, October 9, 1933.
32. New York Times, September 10, 1933.
33. Ibid., March 28 and April 6, 1933.
34. Ibid., March 17, April 2, and November 21, 1933; Fritz Stern, Einstein's German World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), 153- 54; John Stachel, "Albert Einstein" in Stephen H. Norwood and Eunice G. Pollack, eds., Encyclopedia of American Jewish History (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2008), vol. 2, 744.
35. Stachel, "Einstein" in Norwood and Pollack, eds., Encyclopedia of American Jewish History, vol. 2,744; Jamie Sayen, Einstein in America: The Scientist's Conscience in the Age of Hitler and Hiroshima (New York: Crown Publishers, 1985), 10.
36. Sayen, Einstein in America, 7,57-59, 61; New York Times, June 8, 1930, and October 6, 1940.
37. New York Times, October 27, 28, and 30 and November 2, 1933; Washington Post, October 30, 1933.
38. New York Times, October 28 and 30, November 2, 3, and 6, 1933; Washington Post, October 30, 1933; London Times, October 27, 1933.
39. New York Times, December 24, 1933.
40. Ibid.
41. Boston Herald, October 9, 1933.
42. Pierre van Paassen, "Silence Is Criminal," Opinion, November 1933, 8-9.
43. Dorothy Thompson, "Germany Is a Prison," Opinion, March 1934, 16; New York Evening Post, May 6, 1933.
44. Pierre van Paassen and James Waterman Wise, eds., Nazism: An Assault on Civilization (New York: Harrison Smith & Robert Haas, 1934), 310.
45. Robert Dell, Germany Unmasked (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1934), 13.
46. Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1934; London Times, May 2, 10, and 11, 1934.
47. London Times, May 10, 1934.
48. Ibid., May 11, 1934.
49. London Times, May 11, 1934; New York Times, May 12, 1934.
50. "Report from Nuremberg," Easter 1934, folder H2, James G. McDonald Papers, Herbert Lehman Suite, CURBML.
51. New York Times, May 20, 1934.
52. London Times, May 22, 1934; New York Times, May 29, 1934.
53. New York Times, March 20, 1933.
54. Boston Herald, March 22, 1933.
55. New York Evening Post, March 22, 1933.
56. New York Times, March 24, 1933.
57. Boston Herald, March 27, 1933.
58. Hitlerism and the American Jewish Congress: A Confidential Report of Activities (New York: American Jewish Congress, 1934), 2-3, container 43, William E. Dodd Papers, Library of Congress [hereafter LC], Washington, D.C.; Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1933; New York Times, March 28, 1933; Chicago Tribune, March 28, 1933.
59. New York Times, March 28, 1933.
60. New York Evening Post, March 28, 1933.
61. New York Times, March 29 and 30, 1933.
62. Baltimore Sun, March 31, 1933.
63. Edgar E. Siskin to President James Rowland Angell, March 24, 1933, and James Rowland Angell to Rabbi Edgar E. Siskin, March 25, 1933, box 116, President's Office: James Rowland Angell Papers, Sterling Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
64. Tech, March 31, 1933; Boston Herald, March 31, 1933.
65. Boston Herald, April 4, 1933; Jewish Advocate, April 4, 1933.
66. Boston Herald, April 5, 1933; Boston Globe, April 7, 1933.
67. Boston Globe, April 6, 1933.
68. New York Evening Post, April 15, 1933.
69. Ibid., April 15, 1933.
70. New York Times, May 8,15, and 16, 1933; Richard A. Hawkins, "Hitler's Bitterest Foe: Samuel Untermyer and the Boycott of Nazi Germany, 1933- 1938," American Jewish History 93 (March 2007): 23, 26.
71. Non-Sectarian Anti- Nazi League to Champion Human Rights, "Visit Germany This Year and See," n.d., Addenda I, box 108, Robert Maynard Hutchins Papers, Special Collections Research Center [hereafter SCRC], Regenstein Library [hereafter RL], University of Chicago [hereafter UC], Chicago, Ill.
72. Hawkins, "Hitler's Bitterest Foe," 41; New York Times, March 30, April 7, and July 14, 1934.
73. G. E. Harriman, "Anti- Nazi Boycott Circular Letter," 1933 in Robert H. Abzug, ed., America Views the Holocaust, 1933-1945: A Brief Documentary History (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999), 34.
74. New York Times, May 16, 1933.
75. Ibid., May 13, 1933; Leo F. Wormser to Hon. William E. Dodd, April 27, 1934, container 45, Dodd Papers, LC.
76. New York Times, July 7, 1934; Chicago Tribune, August 29, 1937.
77. Harvard Crimson, May 22, 1935.
78. Daily Maroon, March 12, 1936. For a similar advertisement, see Yale Daily News, April 23, 1938.
79. Hitlerism and the American Jewish Congress, 3, container 43, Dodd Papers, LC; New York Times, May 10-11, 1933; New York Evening Post, May 10, 1933; "Items of Interest," The Jewish Veteran, 22, May 1933, Julius Klein Archives of the National Museum of American Jewish Military History, Washington, D.C.
80. Chicago Tribune, May 11, 1933; Philadelphia Inquirer, May 11, 1933.
81. Richard E. Gurstadt, circular letter, June 8, 1933, reel 35, Franz Boas Papers, microfilm edition, LC.
82. New York Evening Post, March 24, 1933; New York Times, June 6 and 8, 1933; "American Hebrew Medal to Toscanini," American Hebrew, February 4, 1938, 5, 24.
83. "Hail Toscanini!," American Hebrew, August 7, 1936, n.p.; "Toscanini's Artistic Integrity Calls Attention to Nazi 'Gleichschaltung,'" American Hebrew, January 8, 1937,746; "American Hebrew Medal," 5, 24.
84. New York Times, June 11, 1933.
85. Everett R. Clinchy to President Marion Edwards Park, and attached untitled statement, June 8, 1933, Marion Edwards Park Papers, Bryn Mawr College Archives, Bryn Mawr, Pa.; New York Times, July 5, 1933.
86. Chicago Tribune, July 2 and 4, 1933; New York Times, July 2 and September 10 and 11, 1933.
87. Chicago Tribune, July 2,4, and 6, 1933; New York Times, September 10, 1933.
88. New York Times, September II, 14, and 16 and October 4, 17, and 19, 1933.
89. Philadelphia Public Ledger, February 20, 1934.
90. New York Times, March 6, 1934.
91. Ibid., September 2 and 8, 1934.
92. Ibid., July 21, 1933; London Times, July 21, 1933.
93. New York Times, August 14, 1933.
94. Chicago Tribune, August 12, 1933.
95. San Francisco Chronicle, September 28, 1933.
96. New York Times, October 14 and 22, 1933.
97. Ibid., December 14, 1933.
98. Boston Evening Transcript, November 23, 1933; Boston Globe, April 3, 1944.
99. New York Times, October 25, 1933.
100. Frank W. Buxton to Ambassador William E. Dodd, July 6, 1933, container 40, Dodd Papers, LC.
101. Boston Herald, November 27, 1933; Boston Globe, November 27, 1933; Boston Post, November 27, 1933.
102. Boston Herald, November 27, 1933; Boston Globe, November 27, 1933; Boston Post, November 27, 1933.
103. Boston Herald, November 27, 1933; Boston Post, November 27, 1933, Boston Globe, November 27, 1933; New York Times, November 27, 1933.
104. American Committee Against Fascist Oppression in Germany, "International Inquiry into Hitler Oppression," Addenda I, box 5, Hutchins Papers, SCRC, RL, UC; New York Times, July 3 and 4, 1934; Washington Post, July 3, 1934.
105. Lewis S. Feuer, "The Stages in the Social History of Jewish Professors in American Colleges and Universities," American Jewish History 71 (June 1982): 455, 462; Leonard Dinnerstein, Anti-Semitism in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 88.
106. R. M. Hutchins to Mr. (Alvin] Johnson, May 25, 1933, Addenda I, box 105, Hutchins Papers, SCRC, RL, UC; Chicago Tribune, May 28, 1933.
107. Peter M. Rutkoff and William B. Scott, New School: A History of the New School for Social Research (New York: Free Press, 1986), 84, 92; Claus- Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile: Refugee Scholars and the New School for Social Research (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), 62, 69; New York Times, May 13, 1933.
108. Alvin Johnson to President Hutchins, May 27, 1933, Addenda I, box 105, Hutchins Papers, SCRC, RL, UC.
109. New York Times, August 19, 1933.
110. Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 69, 71.
111. New York Times, September 2, 1933.
112. Dan A. Oren, Joining the Club: A History of Jews and Yale (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), 125.
113. Statement by Isaiah Bowman concerning his correspondence with Alvin Johnson, n.d. Series 2, box 2.23, Isaiah Bowman Papers, Records of Office of the President [hereafter ROP], Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University [hereafter JHU], Baltimore, Md.
114. Alvin Johnson to President Isaiah Bowman, November 18, 1935, Bowman Papers, Series 2, box 2.23, ROP, JHU.
115. Marjorie Lamberti, "The Reception of Refugee Scholars from Nazi Germany in America: Philanthropy and Social Change in Higher Education," Jewish Social Studies 12 (Spring/Summer 2006): 164-66; Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 27-28. The EC's major donors were the New York Foundation, the Nathan Hofheimer Foundation, the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Jewish philanthropist Felix Warburg, financier Henry Ittleson, and the family of Jewish philanthropist Julius Rosenwald. Lamberti, "Reception of Refugee Scholars," 167.
116. Lamberti, "Reception of Refugee Scholars," 167; Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile, 29; Rutkoff and Scott, New School, 94.
117. James M. Stifler to Alexander Brin, December 31, 1934, Addenda I, box 59, Hutchins Papers, SCRC, UC.
118. Stifler to Morton M. Berman, January 29, 1938, Addenda I, box 59, Hutchins Papers, SCRC, UC.
119. Oren, joining the Club, 124.
120. Brooks Mather Kelley, Yale: A History (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), 416.
121. Stephen Duggan to Felix Frankfurter, July 18, 1933, and Harlow Shapley to E. R. Murrow, August 7, 1933, box 113, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars Papers [hereafter ECADFS Papers], Manuscripts and Archives Division [hereafter MAD], New York Public Library [hereafter NYPL], New York, N. Y.; Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller, Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 153-54.
122. Breitman, Stewart, and Hochberg, eds., Advocate for the Doomed, 327.
123. Keller and Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 154; New York Times, January 30, 1934.
124. President Conant to E. R. Murrow, February 12, 1934, box 113, ECADFS Papers, MAD, YPL.
125. James Waterman Wise, Swastika: The Nazi Terror (New York: Harrison Smith and Robert Haas, 1933), 114.
2. Legitimating Nazism: Harvard University and the Hitler Regime, 1933-1937
An earlier version of this chapter was published as Stephen H. Norwood, "Legitimating Nazism: Harvard University and the Hitler Regime, 1933- 1937," American Jewish History 92 (June 2004): 189-223.
1. William M. Tuttle Jr., "American Higher Education and the Nazis: The Case of James B. Conant and Harvard University's 'Diplomatic Relations' with Germany," American Studies 20 (Spring 1979): 54, 61, 66; Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller, Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America's University (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 49, 153-55. Claus- Dieter Krohn noted that the New School for Social Research, which hired many anti-fascist refugee scholars, served as an excuse for many American universities' "inaction," and that that was "especially true of Harvard." Claus-Dieter Krohn, Intellectuals in Exile: Refugee Scholars and the New School for Social Research (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), 76.
2. James G. Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 86.
3. Ibid., 96-97.
4. Washington Post, August 22, 1936; New York Times, December 20, 1937.
5. New York Times, June 17, 1922.
6. Hershberg, James B. Conant, 58; Marcia Graham Synnott, The Half- Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, 1900-1970 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979), 202; Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 168-73. Karabel notes that "[e]ven at the height of a war against a fanatically racist, anti-Semitic enemy, it seemed that nothing - not even the reports of the extermination of European Jews already making their way into the newspapers - could dislodge Harvard's policy of restricting Jewish enrollment." Karabel, The Chosen, 18o.
7. Harriet Zuckerman points to chemistry's "longstanding inhospitality to Jews." Harvard chemistry professor Albert Sprague Coolidge testified to a Massachusetts legislative committee in 1945 that his department did not award scholarships to Jews because "there were no jobs for Jews in chemistry." Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1977), 76. Dan A. Oren, Joining the Club: A History of Jews and Yale (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), 357; Alan D. Beyerchen, Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 49. Harvard's chemistry department had no "self-identified Jewish professors" during Conant's presidency, which lasted until 1953. Keller and Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 97.
8. E. K. Bolton to Dr. James B. Conant, September 8, 1933, and James B. Conant to Dr. E. K. Bolton, September 13, 1933, box 31, James B. Conant Presidential Papers [hereafter JBCPP), Harvard University Archives [hereafter HUA), Pusey Library, Cambridge.
9. Obituary of Max Bergmann, New York Times, November 8, 1944.
10. Sir William J. Pope to President Conant, October 2, 1933, and Conant to Pope, October 18, 1933, box 31, JBCPP, HUA. Fritz Haber had converted to Christianity more than forty years before, in 1892. Fritz Stern, Einstein's German World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), 73.
11. Jewish Advocate, November 10 and 14, 1933.
12. New York Times, January 9, 1934; Washington Post, February 7, 1934; "Speech of Senator Millard E. Tydings," March 7, 1934, Series II, box 2, Millard E. Tydings Papers, Archives and Manuscripts Department, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland, College Park.
13. Tuttle, "American Higher Education," 66-67; New York Times, May 15, October 14 and 22, 1933; Jewish Advocate, November 14, 1933.
14. Harvard Crimson, October 25, 1934; William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960), 222-23; Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship (New York: Praeger, 1970), 239. Shirer notes that at the 1957 Munich trial of individuals accused of carrying out executions in the June 30 "Blood Purge" a figure of more than a thousand slain was presented. Former Social Democratic Reichstag deputy Gerhart Seger, who had escaped from the Oranienburg concentration camp in December 1933 and lectured in the United States about conditions inside Nazi Germany, charged in November 1934 that in excess of one thousand had been slaughtered in the June 30 Blood Purge. Chicago Tribune, November 22, 1934.
15. New York Times, March 7, 8, and 9, 1934; Harvard Crimson, October 11, 1934.
16. Harvard Crimson, March 11, 1936.
17. Boston Herald, May 12 and 13, 1934.
18. Ibid., May 12 and 13, 1934; Boston Post, May 12, 1934.
19. Boston Herald, May 12., 1934; Jewish Advocate, December 29, 1933.
20. Boston Herald, May 12, 1934. The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom also protested against the official celebration of the Karlsruhe's visit. Boston Evening Transcript, May 15, 1934.
21. Boston Herald, May 12 and 13, 1934; Boston Post, May 17 and 20, 1934.
22. Ferris Greenslet to Felix Frankfurter, November 10, 1933, reel 102, Felix Frankfurter Papers, Library of Congress [hereafter LC], Washington, D.C.; Boston Post, May 17 and 19, 1934; Harvard Crimson, November 26, 1934, and April 28, 1936.
23. Boston Evening Transcript, May 15, 1934; Harvard Crimson, June 6, 1934; Boston Herald, May 18, 1934.
24. Boston Post, May 18, 1934; Christian Science Monitor, May 18, 1934; Tech, May 18, 1934.
25. Boston Post, May 18, 1934.
26. Boston Post, May 18, 1934; Boston Globe, May 18, 1934; Boston Herald, May 18, 1934; Harvard Crimson, May 18, 1934.
27. Boston Post, May 21, 1934; Harvard Crimson, May 21, 1934. Several of those arrested charged that the police had severely beaten them after booking them at the station. Boston Post, May 25, 1934; Harvard Crimson, May 22, 1934.
28. Harvard Crimson, May 24 and June 11, 1934, and May 8, 1936. The MIT student newspaper agreed that a demonstration "aimed ... at the discomfort" of the Karlsruhe's crew was "out of place." Tech, May 18, 1934. Dartmouth College hosted a contingent of Karlsruhe officers and cadets, who journeyed to the Hanover, New Hampshire, campus at the invitation of the German Department. New York Times, May 20, 1934.
29. Boston Herald, May 30, 1934; Tech, June 5, 1934; Alfred H. Hirsch to James B. Conant, November 13, 1934, box 32, JBCPP, HUA.
30. James A. Wechsler, Revolt on the Campus (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973 [1935]),341; Tech, May 18, 1934.
31. Boston Post, May 18, 1934; Harvard Crimson, May 18 and 19, 1934. Boston College administrators invited the Karlsruhe crewmen to a track meet and baseball games on their campus. Boston Post, May 12., 1934.
32. Jewish Advocate, May 18, 1934; Boston Post, May 18, 1934; Boston Globe, May 18, 1934; obituaries of John Walz in New York Times, April 17, 1954, and Harvard Crimson, April 20, 1954.
33. Boston Post, May T7 and 20, 1934; Boston Evening Transcript, May 19, 1934.
34. Boston Evening Transcript, May 21, 1934; Harvard Crimson, May 22, 1934; Boston Globe, May 22, 1934.
35. New York Times, June 19, 1934.
36. Boston Post, May 23, 1934; New York Post, March 5, 1936.
37. Los Angeles Times, June 24, 1937, and April 11, 1940; New York Times, December 31, 1936, June 24, 1937, and April 13, 1940; Chicago Tribune, April 15, 1940; William L. Shirer, Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1941), 315; "Ships of the German Navy: Karlsruhe (Light Cruiser, 1929-1940)," Department of the Navy - Naval Historical Center, http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/shfornv/ germany/gersh-k/karlsru3.htm.
38. Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller state that Harvard Treasurer Henry L. Shattuck, "a Brahmin of Brahmins," was the most influential member of the Harvard Corporation, the university's major governing board, during the I930s, and that all of its members besides Conant himself "were part of or ... had close ties to the Boston Brahmin elite." Keller and Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 18.
39. Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933-1936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 11; Erika Mann and Klaus Mann, Escape to Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1939), 119. Ron Rosenbaum notes that Hanfstaengl "may have been as close to [Hitler) as anyone in the I920S." Ron Rosenbaum, Explaining Hitler (New York: HarperCollins, 1998), 125.
40. Bracher, German Dictatorship, 117; Peter Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player: The Rise and Fall of Ernst Hanfstaengl, Confidant of Hitler, Ally of FDR (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2004), 45, 63,
41. Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player, 44; Harvard Crimson, December 12, 1978; William E. Dodd and Martha Dodd, Ambassador Dodd's Diary, 1933-1938 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1941), 360.
42. Richard Breitman, Barbara McDonald Stewart, and Severin Hochberg, eds., Advocate for the Doomed: The Diaries and Papers of James G. McDonald, 1932-1935 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 27-28, 69; New York Times, April 22, 2004. Edgar Ansel Mowrer, Berlin correspondent for the Chicago Daily News and a non-Jew, recalled that Hanfstaengl tried to discredit his reports of antisemitic outrages in the early months of Nazi rule by accusing him of being a "secret Jew." Edgar Ansel Mowrer, Triumph and Turmoil: A Personal History of Our Time (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1968), 219. James G. McDonald noted in his diary on April 3, 1933, that Hanfstaengl insisted to him that both Mowrer and H. R. Knickerbocker of the New York Evening Post, another American journalist in Berlin critical of the Nazis, were Jewish. Breitman, Stewart, and Hochberg, eds., Advocate for the Doomed, 28.
43. Harvard College 25th Anniversary Class Report, Class of 1909, 277-78, HUA.
44. New York Times, September 11, 1933; February 4, March 29, and May 28, 1934; Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player, 135; Erika Mann, School for Barbarians: Education Under the Nazis (New York: Modern Age Books, 1938), 65; Boston Evening Transcript, March 30, 1934; Jewish Advocate, March 30, 1934. Because of the Jews' lack of familiarity with the Communist salute, the bent arm and clenched fist, the parade scene had to be rehearsed repeatedly. New York Times, September 11, 1933.
45. Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player, 144-45; Harvard College 25th Anniversary Class Report, Class of 1909, n.p., HUA; Jewish Advocate, April 6, 1934.
46. Boston Evening Transcript, March 30, 1934; Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player, 145. Halpern's protest deeply impressed Golda Meyerson [Meir], who proposed that he be appointed secretary general of Hechalutz, "the world organization of Jewish youth for pioneering work in Palestine." Marie Syrkin, "Ben: A Personal Appreciation," in Frances Malino and Phyllis Cohen Albert, eds., Essays in Modern Jewish History (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982), 10-11.
47. William Leland Holt to Dr. James B. Conant, March 30, 1934, box 32, JBCPP, HUA.
48. Secretary to Dr. William L. Holt, April 3, 1934, box 32, JBCPP, HUA; Boston Post, June 12, 1934.
49. Harvard Crimson, May 8, 1934; Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player, 145; Boston Evening Transcript, March 30, 1934.
50. Harvard Crimson, June 13, 1934; New York Times, June 13, 1934; Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player, 149. Morton and Phyllis Keller describe the Harvard Crimson as "fashionably antisemitic in its recruitment until after" World War II. Keller and Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 300.
51. Baltimore Sun, June 18, 1934.
52. Conradi, Hitler's Piano Player, 145; New York World-Telegram, June 15 and 16, 1934.
53. Boston Globe, June 18 and 19, 1934; Boston Herald, June 18 and 19, 1934.
54. Boston Globe, June 19, 1934; Boston Herald, June 19, 1934; Boston Post, June 19, 1934; James B. Conant, My Several Lives: Memoirs of a Social Inventor (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), 141.
55. Boston Globe, June 20, 1934; Boston Post, June 19, 1934.
56. Boston Post, June 20, 1934.
57. Boston Herald, June 20, 1934; obituary of Frederick H. Prince, New York Times, February 3, 1953.
58. Boston Evening Transcript, June 18, 1934; Boston Evening Globe, June 18, 1934; The Day, June 24, 1934.
59. Boston Globe, June 19 and 20, 1934.
60. Ibid., June 19, 1934; Boston Post, June 19, 1934.
61. Boston Herald, June 22, 1934; Boston Globe, June 22, 1934; Boston Post, June 22, 1934.
62. The Day, June 24, 1934.
63. Boston Herald, June 22, 1934; Boston Post, June 22, 1934; Boston Globe, June 22, 1934. One demonstrator chained to the fence, Alice Stearns Ansara, narrowly escaped arrest. Merri Ansara, her daughter, noted, "In the family story the demonstration covered all of Harvard Square, with people perched even atop the Out of Town News Kiosk." When the police "ran to get blowtorches to cur [my mother] down ... her comrades rushed to her side with the key and bustled her away across the street to their apartment ... where they watched the continuing melee." Ansara emphasized that her "mother and father always considered this demonstration a success in helping to bring attention to ... the Nazi threat." Merri Ansara to Stephen Norwood, November 14, 2004.
64. Eugene D. Bronstein, et al., "An Open Letter to President Conant," n.d., James B. Conant to Professor H. M. Sheffer, November 7, 1934, and Mrs. Joseph Dauber to Dr. James B. Conant, November 14, 1934, box 32,JBCPP, HUA; Harvard Crimson, October 24, 1934.
65. H. M. Sheffer to President James B. Conant, November 6, 1934, and James B. Conant to Professor H. M. Sheffer, November 7, 1934, box 32, JBCPP, HUA.
66. Mrs. Dauber to Conant, November 14, 1934, box 32, JBCPP, HUA; Conant, My Several Lives, 142. The seven demonstrators were released after they had served thirty-six days of their sentences. Boston Evening Transcript, November 28, 1934.
67. Washington Post, September 5, 1934.
68. New York Times, September 18 and October 4, 1934; Conant, My Several Lives, 141, 144.
69. H. B. Peirce to President James B. Conant, October 15, 1934, box 12, Translation from Berliner Boersen Zeitung, October 13, 1934, box 32, Dr. K. O. Bertling to President James B. Conant, October 9, 1934, box 32, and J. C White to Hon. Secretary of State, October 12, 1934, box 32, JBCPP, HUA; New York Times, October 13, 1934; Chicago Tribune, October 13, 1934.
70. Translation from Deutsches Nachrichtenburo, October 9, 1934, box 32, JBCPP, HUA.
71. Dallas Morning News, October 9, 1934. Roscoe Pound, Diary, Part II, entry for September 17, 1934, reel 41, Roscoe Pound Papers, microfilm edition, LC; Boston Evening Transcript, September 17, 1934.
72. "Memorandum of Conversation with Pound and President Conant regarding an invitation from Pound," September 14, 1934, reel 55, Felix Frankfurter Papers, LC.
73. Roscoe Pound, Diary, Part II, entry for July 11, 1934, reel 41, Roscoe Pound Papers, microfilm edition, LC.
74. Paris Herald, August 4, 1934, clipping, reel 55, Frankfurter Papers, LC.
75. "Memorandum of Conversation," reel 55, Frankfurter Papers, LC.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.; Invitation from the German Ambassador to Professor Felix Frankfurter, reel 55, Frankfurter Papers, LC.
78. Harvard Crimson, October 1 and 6, 1934. President Angell was delighted to welcome the Italian delegation to Yale and to "salute the young Fascisti," as he put it. James R. Angell to Mr. Lohmann, September 25, 1934, box 116, James R. Angell Presidential Papers [hereafter JRAPP], Sterling Library [hereafter SLj, Yale University [hereafter YU], New Haven, Conn. After the welcome, the Italian students gave President Angell the Fascist salute and shouted, "Viva Mussolini!" Yale Daily News, October I1, 1934. The Yale administration invited the Fascist students to be its guests at the Yale- Columbia football game, and to parade in their college uniforms into and around the stadium, giving the Fascist salute. The Yale band serenaded the Italian Fascist students with "a tumultuous rendition of the Fascisti anthem Giovinezza." C. Lohmann to Mr. President, September 15, 1934, and David L. Clendenin to Dr. James R. Angell, October 8, 1934, box 116, JRAPP, SL, YU; Yale Daily News, October 6, 1934; New Haven Evening Register, October 7, 1934.
79. Harvard Crimson, October 1, 1934; Boston Herald, October 6, 1934.
80. Harvard Crimson, October 1 and 3, 1934; Tech, October 5, 1934.
81. Boston Post, March 18, 1935; Harvard Crimson, March 19, 1935. When Harvard built the chapel in 1931, it had not included the names of its alumni killed fighting for Germany on a plaque honoring the university's war dead. The Harvard Crimson led a campaign to add the names of the Germans to the plaque. As a compromise, the university placed a separate tablet for the German soldiers in the chapel. There was no such controversy after World War II. The name of the Harvard Divinity student killed fighting in the Nazi army was included on the plaque honoring Harvard men slain during World War II. It remains there today. Harvard Crimson, November 23, 1951, and November 6, 2003.
82. Harvard Crimson, May 1, 1935.
83. Boston Globe, May 1, 1936; Stephen Duggan to Professor Walter F. Willcox, September 24, 1937, box 1 L8, Records of the Office of the President [hereafter ROP], Milton S. Eisenhower Library [hereafter MSEL], Johns Hopkins University [hereafter JHU], Baltimore.
84. New York Times, April 25, 1936, and August 27, 1937; "Nazis: Exchange Students End Training for Foreign Service," Newsweek, September 6, 1937, clipping in box 118, ROP, MSEL, JHU.
85. Duggan to Willcox, September 24, 1937, box 118, Rap, MSEL, JHU.
86. New York Times, July 24, 1935; Weinberg, Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany, 239-40, 253-61.
87. Stephen H. Stackpole to Walter M. Hinkle, April 6, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA; James R. Angell to James E. G. Fravell, March 7, 1936, JRAPP, box 100, SL, YU.
88. Nicholas Murray Butler to President James R. Angell, April 9, 1936, box 100, JRAPP, SL; Keller and Keller, Making Harvard Modem, 106, 156.
89. Steven P. Remy, The Heidelberg Myth: The Nazification and Denazification of a German University (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), 1, 3; Max Weinreich, Hitler's Professors: The Part of Scholarship in Germany's Crimes Agdinst the Jewish People (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999 [1946]), 9.
90. Michael Stephen Steinberg, Sabers and Brown Shirts: The German Students' Path to National Socialism, 1918-1935 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 138-40; New York Times, May 11 and 19, 1933.
91. Beyerchen, Scientists Under Hitler, 15; Saul Friedlander, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1: The Years of Persecution, 1933-1939 (New York: Harper- Collins, 1997), 30; New York Times, April 26 and October 8, 1933, and February 11, 1934; Memorandum on Official Discrimination Against Jews in Germany, box 153, Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars Papers [hereafter ECADFS Papers], Manuscripts and Archives Division [hereafter MAD], New York Public Library [hereafter NYPL].
92. Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 15; Charles Singer to President Conant, May 27, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA. After the U.S. army occupied Heidelberg in 1945 "American investigators dismissed 70 percent of the faculty [of the university] for having Nazi ties, and kept a close watch on those who remained there." Victor Zarnowitz, Fleeing the Nazis, Surviving the Gulag, and Arriving in the Free World: My Life and Times (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2008), 91-92.
93. Friedlander, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. I, 51; Singer to Conant, March 24, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA; Charles Grant Robertson, "University of Heidelberg - Dismissal of Staff" in Heidelberg and the Universities of America (New York: Viking Press, 1936), 23.
94. Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 50; New York Times, June 28, 1936; Tuttle, "American Higher Education," 61.
95. New York Times, January 20, 1935; Weinreich, Hitler's Professors, 67- 68; Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 25, 34; L. G. Montefiore, "The Spirit of the German Universities" (London, n.d.), 5, enclosure in Singer to Conant, May 27, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA.
96. Weinreich, Hitler's Professors, 17, 38-39; Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 25, 34; Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power (New York: Penguin, 2005), 293, 315.
97. "Philipp-Lenard-Institut at Heidelberg," in Heidelberg and the Universities of America, 47; Weinreich, Hitler's Professors, II; Tech, March 3, 1936.
98. "Philipp-Lenard-Institut at Heidelberg," in Heidelberg and the Universities of America, 48-49; Montefiore, "Spirit," enclosure in Singer to Conant, May 27, 1936.
99. Montefiore, "Spirit," enclosure in Singer to Conant, May 27, 1936.
100. Correspondent, "Heidelberg, Spinoza and Academic Freedom," in Heidelberg and the Universities of America, 52.
101. Montefiore, "Spirit," enclosure in Singer to Conant, May 27, 1936.
102. Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 45, 72.
103. New York Times, February 23 and 28 and March 3, 1936; "U.S. Colleges Arouse Protests by Accepting Nazi Bid," The Anti- Nazi Economic Bulletin, March 1936, box 114, ECADFS Papers, MAD, NYPL; M. Gardiner, "Heidelberg, Spinoza, and Academic Freedom," in Heidelberg and the Universities of America, 53.
104. Singer to Conant, March 24, 1936. Amsterdam University almost immediately afterward announced it would not participate in the anniversary ceremony. The Universities of Stockholm and Oslo also refused their invitations. New York Times clipping, March 25, 1936, in box 114, ECADFS Papers, NYPL; Columbia Spectator, March 24, 1936; Tuttle, "American Higher Education," 6r. In Switzerland, the Basel canton government forbade students at Basel University from sending a delegation to Heidelberg. Manchester Guardian, June 8, 1936.
105. Ronald D. Hoffman and Arnold Hoffman to Dr. James B. Conant, March 3, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA.
106. New York World-Telegram, February 26, 1936; New York Times, February 5, 1936.
107. Shirer, Berlin Diary, 46-47; Richard D. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987 [1971]), 104-05; New Republic, March 18, 1936, 152.
108. G. E. Harriman to Frank E. Robbins, March 12, 1936, box 134, Non- Sectarian Anti-Nazi League Papers [hereafter SANL] Papers, Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library [hereafter CURBML], New York.
109. James B. Conant, press release, March 3, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA.
110. See, for example, Stephen H. Stackpole to Roger Baldwin, April 6, 1936, Stackpole to Hinkle, April 6, 1936, and Stackpole to Lewis Eldridge, April 6, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA; Harvard Crimson, March 3, 1936. The Yale Daily News agreed with the Harvard Crimson in an editorial: "To refuse stiffly such a well-meant gesture of international friendship might easily place Yale in an indefensible position of bigoted hostility to a friendly nation." Yale Daily News, March 5, 1936.
111. Alvin Johnson to G. E. Harriman, March 9, 1936, box 134, NSANL Papers, CURBML.
112. New York Times, May 27, 1936, and April 1, 1949; Dr. Friedrich Bergius to Professor Dr. James Bryant Conant, October 23, 1936, box 96, JBCPP, HUA.
113. Charles Singer to President Conant, May 27, 1936, and Conant to Singer, June 23, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA.
114. Nicholas Murray Butler to Hubert Park Beck, May 29, 1936, Central Files [hereafter CF], Columbia University Archives - Columbiana Library, Low Library [hereafter CUACL].
115. Tuttle, "American Higher Education," 64; Jamie Sayen, Einstein in America: The Scientist's Conscience in the Age of Hitler and Hiroshima (New York: Crown Publishers, 1985), 101-02.
116. John D. Lynch to President and Fellows, Harvard College, April 24, 1936, and Jerome D. Greene to Hon. John D. Lynch, April 28, 1936, box 70, JBCPP, HUA. In 1915, President Lowell had brushed aside Jewish objections when Harvard scheduled its entrance examinations on Yom Kippur. Complaints about Harvard's scheduling of important events on the Jewish High Holidays continued into the I950s. Synnott, Half-Opened Door, 45-46.
117. Nicholas Murray Butler to President James R. Angell, April 9, 1936, Butler to Conant, April 24 and 28, and May 11 and 14, 1936; Conant to Butler, April 27, May 4, 7, and 12, 1936; "Proposed Form of Statement in re Heidelberg," box 59, JBCPP, HUA; "Suggested Revision of Proposed Form of Statement in re Heidelberg To be Revised if Thought Necessary About June 30," CF, CUACL. The congratulatory greeting that Columbia sent to the University of Heidelberg praised "the notable achievements of Bunsen in the field of chemistry, of Kirchhoff in physics, of Helmholtz in physiology ... of Gervinus in literature, of Schlosser and Hausser in history, of Bluntschli in international law, of Rothe in theology, of Zeller and Fischer in philosophy." "Report of the President of Columbia University for the Year Ending June 30, 1936" in Annual Report of the President and Treasurer to the Trustees with Accompanying Documents for the Year Ending June 30, 1936, CUACL.
118. G. D. Birkhoff to James B. Conant, July I, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA; Arthur F. J. Remy, "A Report of the Celebration of the 550th Anniversary of Heidelberg University, June 27th to July 1st, 1936," CF, CUACL; New York Times, June 28 and 29, 1936; Keller and Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 65, 106, 238. Yale University was represented at Heidelberg by Dr. Hans Oertel, formerly dean of Yale Graduate School, who was then a professor at the University of Munich. James Rowland Angell to James Fravell, March 7, 1936, box 100, JRAPP, SL, YU.
119. Remy, "Report"; New York Times, June 29, 1936; Chicago Tribune, June 29, 1936; Columbia Spectator, April 29, 1936.
120. Remy, Heidelberg Myth, 58, 79; New York Times, June 30 and July 1 and 5, 1936.
121. James R. Angell to President James B. Conant, August 13, 1936; Conant to Angell, August 17, 1936, box 59, JBCPP, HUA.
122. Chicago Tribune, February 5, 1936.
123. New York Times, December 2, 1935.
124. Maxwell Steinhardt, letter to editor, Harvard Alumni Bulletin, September 27, 1935, 22; Chicago Tribune, November 6, 1935.
125. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics, 73.
126. Harvard Crimson, September 26 and November 26, 1935.
127. Ibid., October 24 and November 5, 1935.
128. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics, 73.
129. Yale Daily News, February 11 and 12, 1936.
130. New York Times, November 4 and 5, 1935.
131. Daily Princetonian, December 7, 1935.
132. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics, 280.
133. Stephen H. Stackpole to H. U. Brandenstein, April 21, 1937, box 83, JBCPP, HUA; New York Times, April 19, 1937; Beyerchen, Scientists Under Hitler, 15; Friedlander, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. I, 50; "Renowned Scientist Against the Enslavement of the Spiritual Life of Fascist Germany," Bulletin No. 6, November 1933, box 153, ECADFS Papers, NYPL; "American Scholars and Gottingen," New Republic, April 28, 1937, 346.
134. Non-Sectarian Anti- Nazi League to Champion Human Rights, "American Universities Snub Hitler," press release, March 30, 1937, Addenda I, box 108, Robert M. Hutchins Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
135. Harlow Shapley to Conant, April 16, 1937, box 83, JBCPP, HUA.
136. Ernest L. Meyer, "As the Crow Flies," box 83, JBCPP, HUA; New York Times, April 19 and 20, 1937; Chicago Tribune, April 2, 1937. The University of Durham decided not to participate at the last moment, leaving Glasgow the only British participant. New York Times, June 26, 1937.
137. New York Times, May 4, 1937; Tech, April 23 and 30, 1937.
138. Arthur Held to James B. Conant, May 5, 1937, box 83, JBCPP, HUA; Boston Evening Globe, May 5, 1937; Boston Globe, May 8, 1937; Dallas Morning News, May 5, 1937. See also The Day, April 30, 1937.
139. Boston Evening Transcript, May 14, 1937; Harvard Crimson, May 8, 1937.
140. Jerome D. Greene to John D. Merrill, May 18, 1937, box 83, JBCPP, HUA.
141. Greene to James B. Conant, June 1, 1937, box 83, JBCPP, HUA.
142. Greene to Conant, May 24, 1937, box 83, JBCPP, HUA.
143. New York Times, June 26, 27, and 28, 1937. The American schools represented included MIT, Haverford College, Temple University, University of Idaho, Wittenberg College, and the University of Alabama. New York Times, June 26, 1937. Clara Evans, representing Temple University, was the first American delegate at the ceremonies to return the Nazi salute. "Germany: The Goettingen Celebration," American Hebrew, July 2, 1937, 22.
144. New York Times, June 27 and 29, 1937.
145. Conant, My Several Lives, 209, 214, 222. On May 31, 1940, a Harvard Crimson editorial declared that "sober analysis throws much doubt" on President Conant's comment that the United States could not "live at peace with a victorious Germany." It asserted that U.S. entry into the European conflict "offers nothing but disaster for us." Harvard Crimson, May 31, 1940. A Harvard senior, John F. Kennedy, took sharp issue with the Crimson in a letter to the editor. He asserted that Britain's failure to build up armaments might well prove disastrous and concluded: "Are we in America to let that lesson go unlearned?" Harvard Crimson, June 9, 1940.
146. New York Times, July 24, 1935.