The Invisible Government, by David Wise and Thomas B. Ross

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Conclusion

THE PRIMARY CONCERN of the men who drafted the Declaration of Independence was the consent of the governed. By the mid-twentieth century, under the pressures of the Cold War, the primary concern of the nation's leaders had become the survival of the governed.

The Invisible Government emerged in the aftermath of World War II as one of the instruments designed to insure national survival. But because it was hidden, because it operated outside of the normal Constitutional checks and balances, it posed a potential threat to the very system it was designed to protect.

President Truman created the nucleus of the Invisible Government when he signed the National Security Act of 1947, giving birth to the CIA. He has asserted that he conceived of the CIA primarily as a coordinating and intelligence-gathering aid to a modern President who needed concise, centralized information on which to base national policy. But by 1963 the intelligence apparatus had taken on dimensions which Truman said he had never anticipated.

"With all the nonsense put out by Communist propaganda ... in their name-calling assault on the West," he wrote, "the last thing we needed was for the CIA to be seized upon as something akin to a subverting influence in the affairs of other people ...

"There are now some searching questions that need to be answered. I ... would like to see the CIA be restored to its original assignment as the intelligence arm of the President, and whatever else it can properly perform in that special field -- and that its operational duties be terminated or properly used elsewhere.

"We have grown up as a nation, respected for our free institutions and for our ability to maintain a free and open society. There is something about the way the CIA has been functioning that is casting a shadow over our historic position and I feel that we need to correct it." [1]

In effect, Truman was lamenting the damage to national prestige caused by such special operations as the U-2 affair of 1960, the Bay of Pigs, and the episodes in Indonesia, Burma, Laos, Vietnam and elsewhere.

Yet the Plans Division, which conducts the CIA's special operations, was established in 1951 under President Truman. And it was under Truman that Allen Dulles came to Washington to be the first director of that division. Since Truman could not have been unaware of these events, the real question is whether the operational activities of the CIA have grown to a size and shape that Truman had not intended when he signed the 1947 Act.

Has the dagger, in short, become more important than the cloak? Certainly, in the years since 1951, secret operations have grown greatly in size and number. When they have gone awry -- and some have gone sensationally awry -- they have brought notoriety to the CIA.

Nevertheless, CIA officials have insisted that the majority of these operations have been successful. However, there have been a large number of known failures. There is only one logical conclusion, if one is to accept the CIA's claim to a high percentage of success: that the total number of secret operations has been much greater than is supposed even in knowledgeable circles.

As in the case of the Bay of Pigs, some of these operations have become so big that they cannot be practicably concealed or plausibly denied. In other instances, clandestine activity has turned loose forces which have proved uncontrollable. Around the world, the CIA has trained and supported elite corps designed to maintain internal security in pro-Western countries. But these police units have sometimes become a source of acute embarrassment to the United States, notably in Vietnam, where CIA-financed special forces raided the Buddhist pagodas.

Despite these wide-ranging clandestine activities, and despite the importance, the power and the vast sums at the disposal of the CIA and the other agencies of the Invisible Government, there has not been enough intelligent public discussion of the role of this secret machinery.

In general, critics of the CIA have been hobbled by a lack of sure knowledge about its activities. By and large, their criticism falls into three categories: that the CIA conducts foreign policy on its own, that it runs its affairs outside of presidential and Congressional control, and that it warps intelligence to justify its special operations.

There is a sophisticated notion that the problems raised by a hidden bureaucracy operating within a free society can be resolved by limiting the CIA to intelligence gathering and setting up a separate organization to conduct special operations. The argument is that when the two functions are joined, as they are now, the intelligence gatherers inevitably become special pleaders for the operations in which they are engaged.

There is little question that this has happened in the past and that it poses a continuing, basic problem. But the difficulty is that an agent who is running a secret operation often is in the best position to gather secret information. A CIA man involved in intrigues with the political opposition in a given country will very likely know much more about that opposition than an analyst at Langley or even the ambassador on the scene.

If the CIA were to be prohibited from carrying out secret operational activity and that task were to be turned over to another agency, it might be necessary to create another set of secret operatives in addition to the large number of CIA men already at work overseas. Such a situation would probably reduce efficiency, raise costs and increase the dangers of exposure. The Taylor committee grappled with the problem after the Bay of Pigs and came to the conclusion that the present arrangement is the lesser of two evils.

This problem, as important and complex as it may be, is secondary to the larger question of whether the CIA sets its own policy, outside of presidential control. While this accusation contains some truth, it, too, is oversimplified.

There are procedures which call for the approval of any major special operation at a high level in the executive branch of the government. The public comments of Eisenhower on Guatemala and Kennedy on the Bay of Pigs demonstrated that they not only approved these operations, but took part in the planning for them.

However, many important decisions appear to have been delegated to the Special Group, a small and shadowy directorate nowhere specifically provided for by law. But because the Special Group is composed of men with heavy responsibilities in other areas, it obviously can give no more than general approval and guidance to a course of action. The CIA and the other agencies of the Invisible Government are free to shape events in the field. They can influence policy and chart their own course within the flexible framework laid down by Washington.

In Costa Rica, for example, CIA officers did not see fit to inform the State Department when they planted a fake Communist document in a local newspaper. In Cairo, "Mr. X" slipped in to see Nasser ahead of the State Department's special emissary. In the Bay of Pigs planning, the CIA men selected the political leadership of the Cuban exiles.

Yet because of the existence of the Special Group and a generalized mechanism for approving operations, intelligence men have been able to claim that they have never acted outside of policy set at the highest level of the government. In short, even when a clear policy has been established, a President may find it difficult to enforce. Presidential power, despite the popular conception of it, is diffuse and limited. The various departments and agencies under his authority have entrenched sources of strength. They cannot always be molded to his will.

In his relations with the Invisible Government, the President's problems are compounded. He cannot deal with it openly and publicly. He cannot bring to bear against it the normal political tools at his disposal. He cannot go over the heads of the leaders of the Intelligence community and appeal to the people.

A President operates under a constant awareness of the capacity of disgruntled members of the Invisible Government to undercut his purposes by leaking information to Congress and the press. During the deliberations leading to the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy obviously realized the political dangers of canceling a plan to overthrow Castro which had been brought to an advanced stage by a Republican administration. Similarly, during the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, White House officials suspected that someone high in the CIA was attempting to undermine the President by providing the Republicans with information.

This suspicion reflected the fact that the Invisible Government has achieved a quasi-independent status and a power of its own. Under these conditions, and given the necessity for secret activities to remain secret, can the Invisible Government ever be made fully compatible with the democratic system?

The answer is no. It cannot be made fully compatible. But, on the other hand, it seems inescapable that some form of Invisible Government is essential to national security in a time of Cold War. Therefore, the urgent necessity in such a national dilemma is to make the Invisible Government as reconcilable as possible with the democratic system, aware that no more than a tenuous compromise can be achieved.

What, then, is to be done?

Most important, the public, the President and the Congress must support steps to control the intelligence establishment, to place checks on its power and to make it truly accountable, particularly in the area of special operations.

The danger of special operations does not lie in tables of organization or questions of technique, but in embarking upon them too readily and without effective presidential control. Special operations pose dangers not only to the nations against which they are directed, but to ourselves. They raise the question of how far a free society, in attempting to preserve itself, can emulate a closed society without becoming indistinguishable from it.

The moral and practical justification for secret operations has been stated simply by Allen Dulles, who said the government felt compelled to "fight fire with fire." The implication was that the CIA could justifiably respond in kind to the unscrupulous practices of the Soviet espionage machine. It could mirror the opposition.

"Today," Dulles has observed, "the Soviet State Security Service (KGB) is the eyes and ears of the Soviet State abroad as well as at home. It is a multi-purpose, clandestine arm of power that can in the last analysis carry out almost any act that the Soviet leadership assigns to it. It is more than a secret police organization, more than an intelligence and counter-intelligence organization. It is an instrument for subversion, manipulation and violence, for secret intervention in the affairs of other countries. It is an aggressive arm of Soviet ambitions in the Cold War." [2]

A free society has difficulty in adopting such practices because of its moral tradition that the end does not justify the means. It must proceed with caution, alert to the danger of succumbing to the enemy's morality by too eagerly embracing his methods.

Special operations should be launched only after the most sober deliberation by the President, acting upon the broadest possible advice. This counsel should come not only from those within the intelligence community, but from responsible officials with a wider viewpoint. Operations such as those at the Bay of Pigs and in Indonesia involved the potential overthrow of a foreign government. They amount to undeclared war. They should be launched only when the alternative of inaction carries with it the gravest risk to national security.

If, nonetheless, it becomes necessary to undertake a secret operation, it is imperative that the long- range repercussions be weighed fully in advance. The consequences of failure must be faced. Was it worth running the risk of national humiliation in attempting to overthrow Castro? Was it worth running the risk of permanently alienating Sukarno by supporting his enemies?

Equal consideration must be given to the problems that would result from the success of a special operation. Is the United States prepared to assume responsibility for the economic and political conditions growing out of a successful CIA-supported revolt? How much is really accomplished, in such cases as Guatemala and Iran, if a pro-Communist government is removed, but the conditions which permitted Communism to make inroads in the first place are restored?

It is a delusion to think that the problems of United States foreign policy in a complex world can be resolved by the quick surgery of a palace coup. The intelligence and espionage technicians, who have a natural affinity for such activist solutions, should never be allowed to dominate the deliberations leading to secret operations. Nor should they be permitted exclusive control of the conduct of operations in the field.

Both Eisenhower and Kennedy directed that the ambassador be in charge of all United States activities in a foreign country. It is essential that this theoretical supremacy become a reality. An ambassador should never be put in the position of a William Sebald in Burma. If he is to maintain the respect of the government leaders with whom he is dealing, he must be kept informed about American clandestine activity. If circumstances dictate a covert policy that conflicts with the avowed policy of Washington toward a given country, the ambassador must know about it.

Congress should also be kept informed. Under the Constitution, Congress is supposed to act as a check upon the activities of the executive branch. Traditionally, the Senate has given its "advice and consent" to major commitments in the sphere of foreign affairs. But in its relations with the Invisible Government, Congress has all but voted away its rights. It knows relatively little about what goes on in the $4,000,000,000-a-year intelligence complex for which it appropriates the money.

The CIA subcommittees in the House and Senate are controlled by the most conservative elements in Congress, men who are close personally and philosophically to those who run the Invisible Government. These subcommittees are now heavily weighted with legislators whose field of competence is military affairs. They should be reorganized to encompass men with a wider view and expert knowledge of foreign affairs. Men such as Senator Fulbright (who foresaw the perils of the Bay of Pigs with such clarity) should not be purposely excluded from Congressional surveillance of the intelligence apparatus.

The shadowy subcommittees should be replaced by a joint committee, including men from both the House and Senate. There is no reason why secrets should leak in any greater degree from one formal committee than from the present group of informal subcommittees. There has not been any leak of classified data from the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy.

Although the need for greater Congressional control is apparent, both President Eisenhower and President Kennedy resisted it as an infringement upon their executive power. They established a veneer of outside control by creating advisory boards of private citizens. This produced an anomalous situation. Selected private citizens are privy to secrets of the Invisible Government, but the elected representatives of the people are denied any meaningful knowledge of the intelligence machinery.

Congress is not only ignorant of operations overseas, but it has been denied information about the increasing involvement of the Invisible Government in domestic activities. The mandate to gather and analyze intelligence has been broadened into a justification for clandestine activities in the United States.

Clearly, some foreign intelligence can be gathered at home, but no rationale has been offered for a broad spectrum of domestic operations: maintenance of a score of CIA offices in major cities; the control of private businesses serving as CIA covers (such as the Gibraltar Steamship Corporation and Zenith Technical Enterprises, Incorporated); academic programs (such as the Center for International Studies at MIT); and the financing and control of freedom radio stations, publishing ventures and of exile and ethnic groups.

There should be a thorough reappraisal by private organizations and by the universities of the wisdom of their ties to the Invisible Government. There is a real danger that the academic community may find itself so closely allied with the Invisible Government that it will have lost its ability to function as an independent critic of our government and society. The academic world should re-examine its acceptance of hidden money from the CIA.

These unseen domestic activities of the CIA have become disturbingly complex and widespread. To the extent that they can be perceived, they appear to be outside the spirit and perhaps the letter of the National Security Act. No outsider can tell whether this activity is necessary or even legal. No outsider is in a position to determine whether or not, in time, these activities might become an internal danger to a free society. Both Congress and the Executive ought to give urgent attention to this problem.

In a free society attention should be given as well to the increasing tendency of the American Government to mislead the American people in order to protect secret operations. For example:

U-2: "There was absolutely no-N-O-no deliberate attempt to violate Soviet airspace. There never has been." -- Lincoln White. State Department spokesman.

Bay of Pigs: "The American people are entitled to know whether we are intervening in Cuba or intend to do so in the future. The answer to that question is no." -- Secretary of State Dean Rusk.

Indonesia: "Our policy is one of careful neutrality and proper deportment all the way through so as not to be taking sides where it is none of our business." -- President Eisenhower.

Missile crisis: "The Pentagon has no information indicating the presence of offensive weapons in Cuba." -- Department of Defense.

Guatemala: "The situation is being cured by the Guatemalans themselves."-- Secretary of State John Foster Dulles.

Bay of Pigs fliers: "Unfortunately, at present neither CIA nor any other government agency possesses the slightest pertinent information on your son's disappearance." The White House.

Misleading statements related to covert operations have even distorted the electoral process, as was demonstrated in the presidential campaign of 1960.

It seems reasonable to suggest that there be fewer righteous declarations and less public misinformation by the government and, perhaps, more discreet silence in difficult circumstances.

The secret intelligence machinery of the government can never be totally reconciled with the traditions of a free republic. But in a time of Cold War, the solution lies not in dismantling this machinery but in bringing it under greater control. The resultant danger of exposure is far less than the danger of secret power. If we err as a society, let it be on the side of control.

"It should be remembered," Thomas Jefferson wrote in 1819, "that whatever power in any government is independent, is absolute also."

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Notes:

1. The Invisible Government

1. Speech by Allen W. Dulles at Yale University, February 3, 1958.

3. Build-Up

1. The entire text of the memorandum was published for the first time in Fulbright of Arkansas, a collection of speeches and papers by Senator J. W. Fulbright. Robert B. Luce, Inc., Washington, 1963.

5. The Case of the Birmingham Widows

1. Interview with Robert F. Kennedy, in U.S. News & World Report, January 28, 1963.

6. A History

1. Article by Harry S. Truman, syndicated by North American Newspaper Alliance, in the Washington Post, December 22, 1963.
2. Memorandum by Allen W. Dulles, contained in Hearings, National Defense Establishment, PP. 525-28; Senate Committee on Armed Services, 80th Congress, 1st Session on S. 758, 1947.
3. New York Times, May 28, 1949.
4. Interview with Allen Dulles, "Meet the Press," National Broadcasting Company, December 31, 1961.
5. New York Herald Tribune, April 16, 1948. See also New York Times of the same date.
6. New York Herald Tribune, June 27, 1950.
7. Truman, Harry S., Memoirs, Vol. II, p. 331. Doubleday & Company, Inc., New York, 1956.
8. Ibid., p. 372.
9. Dulles. Allen W., The Craft of Intelligence, p. 166. Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963.
10. Interview by Eric Sevareid, "CBS Reports: The Hot and Cold Wars of Allen Dulles," Columbia Broadcasting System, April 26, 1962.
11. Dulles, Allen W., The Craft of Intelligence, p. 224. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963.
12. Hearings, The President's Proposal on the Middle East, p. 446; joint meeting of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and Senate Committee on Armed Services, 85th Congress, 1st Session, February 1, 1957. See also pp. 174-75. January 15, 1957.
13. Dulles, Allen W., "The Craft of Intelligence," article in Britannica Book of the Year, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, 1963.
14. The report cited by Mansfield had appeared in an editorial in the Washington Post, January 9, 1953.
15. Hearings, Events Incident to the Summit Conference, p. 124; Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 86th Congress, 2nd Session, testimony by Secretary of Defense Thomas S. Gates, June 2, 1960.
16. Television interview with Allen Dulles by David Schoenbrun, Columbia Broadcasting System, August 18, 1963.
17. Hearing, Francis G. Powers, U-2 Pilot, Senate Committee on Armed Services, 87th Congress, 2nd Session, March 6, 1962. The interview cited in the footnote was taped by Mr. Clarke on March 12, 1962, during the home-town reception for the U-2 pilot in Pound, Virginia.
18. Statement Concerning Francis Gary Powers, Central Intelligence Agency, March 6, 1962. This document was made public by Representative Carl Vinson, D., Ga., chairman of the House Committee on Armed Services, in advance of Powers' public testimony the same day before the Senate Committee on Armed Services.
19. Dispatch by Walter Sullivan, New York Times, July 23, 1954

10. Vietnam: The Secret War

1. State Department situation paper, April 11, 1963.
2. White House statement, October 2, 1963.
3. Fifth Report, Senate Study Mission, February 24, 1963.

11. Guatemala: CIA's Banana Revolt

1. From a speech to the American Booksellers Association, Washington, D.C., June 10, 1963. The former President later related the incident in the first volume of his presidential memoirs. See Eisenhower, Dwight D., Mandate for Change, Vol. I, The White House Years, PP. 420-27. Doubleday & Company, Inc., New York, 1963.
2. Hearings, Part 13, pp. 865-66; Senate Internal Security Sub. committee, Committee on the Judiciary, 87th Congress, 1st Session, testimony by Whiting Willauer, July 27, 1961.
3. Ydigoras, Miguel y Fuentes, with Mario Rosenthal, My War with Communism, PP. 49-50. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963.
4. Speech to the nation by John Foster Dulles, June 30, 1954. New York Herald Tribune, July 1, 1954. 382. 1.

12. The Kennedy Shake-Up

1. Interview with Robert F. Kennedy, in U.S. News 6 World Report, January 28, 1963.
2. Interview with Robert F. Kennedy by David Kraslow, in Miami Herald, January 21, 1963.
3. Ibid.
4. Interview with Robert F. Kennedy, in U.S. News 6 World Report, January 28, 1963.

13. The Secret Elite

1. Senate Committee on Armed Services, Hearings on the nomination of John A. McCone, January 18, 1962.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Congressional Record; January 30, 1962.
5. House Subcommittee on Appropriations, testimony by J. Edgar Hoover, January 24, 1962.

15. The Defense Intelligence Agency

1. Dulles, Allen W., The Craft of Intelligence, p. 47. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963.

16. CIA: "It's Well Hidden"

1. "Issues and Answers," American Broadcasting Company, June 30, 1963.

17. CIA: The Inner Workings

1. Kirkpatrick, Lyman, Military Review, May, 1961.
2. Memorandum by Allen W. Dulles, contained in Hearings, National Defense Establishment, pp. 525-28; Senate Committee on Armed Services, 80th Congress, 1st Session on S. 758, 1947. Television interview with Allen Dulles by David Schoenbrun, Columbia Broadcasting System, August 18, 1963.

18. The Search for Control

1. Dulles, Allen W., The Craft of Intelligence, p. 189. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963.
2. Intelligence Activities, A Report to the Congress by the Commission on Organization of the Executive Blanch of the Government, June 29, 1955.
3. National Security Organization, A Report to the Congress by the Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, January, 1949.
4. Report to President Eisenhower by a special study group, October 19, 1954. The group included William D. Franke, Assistant Secretary of the Navy; Morris Hadley, New York attorney; William D. Pawley, former Ambassador to Brazil.
5. Congressional Record, March 10, 1954.
6. Ibid., April 11, 1956.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., April 9, 1956.
10. Dulles, Allen W., The Craft of Intelligence, p. 261. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963.
11. Compilation of Studies on United States Foreign Policy, 86th Congress, 2nd Session, prepared under the direction of the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate.

23. Black Radio

1. Speech by John Richardson, Jr., the president of the Free Europe Committee, to the New York State Publishers Association, Albany, N.Y., January 30, 1963.
2. Dulles, Allen W., The Craft of Intelligence, p. 155. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963.
3. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 23, 1958.
4. Associated Press dispatch filed by Relman Morin in Cairo, in the Washington Post, August 15, 1958.
5. Broadcast by Miklos Ajtay, by Radio Free Europe to Hungary, November 3, 1956. This is one of several scripts of broadcasts during the Hungarian revolt made available to the authors by RFE.
6. Michener, James A., The Bridge at Andau, p. 257. Random House, Inc., New York, 1957.
7. All of these excerpts are from The Revolt in Hungary, A Documentary Chronology of Events Based Exclusively on Internal Broadcasts by Central and Provincial Radios. Pamphlet published by Free Europe Committee, New York.

24. CIA's Guano Paradise

1. Mrs. Crowell's account, from which this and the following quotations are taken, appeared in the Falmouth Enterprise, July 6, 1962.

25. The 1960 Campaign -- and Now

1. New York Herald Tribune, July 19, 1960.
2. Freedom of Communications, Part Ill, p. 432; The Joint Appearances of Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice-President Richard M. Nixon, Presidential Campaign of 1960, Senate Committee on Commerce, 87th Congress, 1st Session.
3. Freedom of Communications, Part I, p. 515; The Speeches of Senator John F. Kennedy, Presidential Campaign of 1960, Senate Committee on Commerce, 87th Congress, 1st Session.
4. Ibid., p. 681.
5. Nixon, Richard M., Six Crises; PP. 354-55. Doubleday & Company, Inc., New York, 1962.
6. Freedom of Communications, Part I, pp. 710-11; The Speeches of Vice-President Richard M. Nixon, Presidentia1 Campaign of 1960, Senate Committee on Commerce, 87th Congress, 1st session.
7. Both the Salinger and Dulles quotes are from the New York Herald Tribune, March 21, 1962.
8. New York Herald Tribune, March 25, 1962.

26. A Conclusion

1. Article by Harry S. Truman, syndicated by North American Newspaper Alliance, in the Washington Post, December 22, 1963.
2. Dulles, Allen W., The Craft of Intelligence, p. 86. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963.

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Index

American Broadcasting Company (ABC), 243, 272, 366
"Abel, Mrs. Hellen," 308
Abel, Rudolph I., 154, 211n., 257, 271, 271n., 272, 298, 308
Abril, Mario, 8, 37, 51, 55, 56, 63, 64, 67, 68, 75, 76
Acheson, Dean, 110, 314
Adenauer, Konrad, 136, 346, 347
Adzhubei, Alexei, 333
Afont, Tomas, 66
African Pilot, 303, 304
Agency for International Development, 172, 209, 210, 251, 259, 294, 307
Agony of Modern Music, 134
Agriculture Department, 251, 305, 306
Ahrens, Edward, 11, 17
Air Force Intelligence (A-2), 1, 209, 213, 214
Aldrich, Stephen, 302
Alejos, Carlos, 22, 70
Alejos, Roberto, 22-24, 26, 27, 41, 70
Alfhem, M/S, 187
Allen, George V., 121-125
Ambon Island, 152
American Committee for Liberation, 340
American Red Cross, 301, 302, 305-308
"American Sales Company" of San Francisco, 151
"Amory, John Forth," 245
Amory, Robert, 20, 107, 140, 199, 254
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, 117, 119, 120
Annikeef, N. M., 247
Antonio Maceo Airport, 10
Aragon, Ernesto, 54
Aral Sea, 331
Arbenz Guzman, Jacobo, 23, 177, 179, 181-187, 189-196, 339
Arevalo, Juan Jose, 181
Army Intelligence (G-2), 1, 212
Around the Edge of War, 245n.
Artime Buesa, Manuel, 25, 26, 26n., 42
Ashraf, Princess, 119, 120
Asociacion Montecristi, 26n.
Associated Press, 16, 64
Atlantico, 46
Atlas-Agena rocket, 324, 328
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 1, 212, 214, 218
Attwood, William, 364, 365
Aviation Week, 331

Baghdad, 119, 338
Bahia de Cochinos, see Bay of Pigs
Baker, Mrs. Catherine Walker, 82, 83, 88
Baker, Leo Francis, 72-74, 78-86, 94
Baker, Dr. William O., 200n.
Baldwin, Hanson, 330
Ball, George, 313
Bangkok, 116, 140
Bank of America, 302
Bankers Trust Company of New York, 88, 95
Bao Dai, Emperor, 166, 169
Barbara J., 46
Barea Guinea, Eduardo, 66
Barkley, Alben W., 283
Barnes, Tracy, 15, 44, 247
Batista, Fulgencio, 25, 26, 32, 40, 46, 266
Bay of Pigs, 7, 20, 41, 48, 52, 55n., 56, 59, 60, 67, 71-75, 78, 177, 197, 276, 297 ff., 351, 356, 372-375; Eisenhower approves training, 24, 24n., 79, 198, 363; Guatemala training camps, 22-28, 31-35, 38-41, 80, 267; frente formed, 25, 26, 374; Trinidad site chosen, 36, 37; landing site chosen, 41,48; secret navy, 8, 9, 45, 46; April 15 air strike, 7, 8, 10 ff., 13-16, 50, 51, 81, 82; April 17 air strike canceled, 19-21, 54-56, 201-205; air drops, 30-32, 57, 82; invasion, 5, 6-21, 32, 33, 53-77, 356; air cover 18, 19, 39, 40, 201; pilots killed, 10, 11, 17, 18, 60-63, 66, 74, 75, 78;
American pilots, 31, 33, 40, 69, 72-75, 78-95, 379, 380; and 1960 campaign, 30, 361-370; white paper, 202n.; postmortem, 197 ff.
Beam, Jacob D., 344
Beaulac, Willard L., 108
Beirut, 338
Belair, Felix, 175
Belgian Congo, 337
Belgrade, 129
Bell, Leo Francis, see Baker, Leo Francis
Bender, Frank, 25, 26, 64
"Belt, Billy," 40
Bennett, Harvey C., 256
Berle, Adolf A., 44, 76, 342
"Berlin tunnel," 273, 274
Berliss, Leo Francis, see Baker, Leo Francis
Biblis, West Germany, 342
Bigart, Homer, 191, 192
Binh Xuyen, 168, 169
Biographic Register, 267
Birmingham, 40, 78
Bissell, Richard Mervin, Jr., 9, 18-21, 24, 25, 30-33, 37, 49, 55, 71-74, 84, 107, 130, 184, 199, 248, 255
Black, Cyril, 261
"black," defined, 9, 334, 334n., 335
"black chamber," 225
Blagar, 46
BMEWS (Ballistic Missile Early Warning System), 326, 332
Board of National Estimates (BNE), 252, 311, 312n.
Bobby Cay, 351
Boca Chica Naval Air Station, 11, 13
Bogota, 107, 108, 108n., 109, 110, 112, 137
Bohlen, Charles E. (Chip), 311
Boland, Frederick H., 14
Bombing Encyclopedia, 214
Bonsal, Philip W., 275
Boun Oum, Prince, 161
Bovo Caras, Esteban, 66
Bowles, Chester A., 44, 45, 140, 288
Bridge at Andau, The, 348
Brinkley, David, 272
Britain, 125,126, 265
Brooke, James, 362
Brown, Winthrop G., 157-160, 159n., 163
Bukittingi, 149-151
Bump, Almyr, 191
Bundesnachrichtendienst, 136
Bundy, McGeorge, 4, 19, 64, 202n., 253, 255, 278, 313, 321
Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), 1, 21, 98, 212, 217, 218
Burke, Admiral Arleigh, 21, 37n., 49, 50, 71-74, 199, 200, 202
Burma, 138-144, 372, 377
Butts, Roger, 357-360
Byrnes, James F., 98, 182
Byroade, Henry A., 123, 124

Caballero, AIfredo, 8, 11, 18n.
Cabell, General Charles P., 19-21, 56, 107, 184, 191, 199, 203, 284, 367, 369
Cabot, Thomas Dudley, 352
Cairo, 121-124, 339, 374
Calderon-Guardia, Dr. Rafael, 186
Camaguey, 54
Cambodia, 161, 170n.
Campbell, Joseph, 286
Campo Libertad, 10, 12; airfield, 8,55
Cannon, Representative Clarence, 284, 285
Caracas, 187
"Caravan of Sorrow," 29, 30
Cardona, Dr. Jose Miro, 13-16, 42, 46, 53, 54
Carey, George B., 246
Caribe, 46
Carlson, Alex E., 79, 86-89, 92-95, 156
Carlson, Rodney W., 268
"Carpenter, Colonel Billy," 31, 40
Carrillo, Justo, 26n.
Carro, Migue1 A., 66
Carroll, Lieutenant. General Joseph F., 229, 313, 320
Carswell, Daniel L., 275, 276
Carter, Major General Marshall Sylvester, 90. 199, 211, 212, 313
Casey, Ralph E., 206, 207
Castro, Fidel, 6-21, 23-26, 34-37, 42-46, 46n., 51, 53, 56, 57, 58n., 65, 69, 69n., 75n., 76, 86, 108n., 181, 182, 295, 297-309, 310, 362, 363, 364n., 375
Castillo-Armas, Carlos, 23, 43, 177, 178, 182, 184-195, 339
Caught in the Act, 267, 273
Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 260
Central Intelligence Agency The, 242
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 1, 99-101, 211, 212, 219, 232-276; in Cuba, see Bay of Pigs; in Burma, Costa Rica, Communist China, Formosa, Germany, Guatemala, Indonesia, Iran, Korea, Laos, Suez, Vietnam, see name of country; activities in U.S., 3, 28-30, 78 ff., 255-259, 261-264, 302, 303, 334 ff., 378, 379; budget, 101, 102, 277, 278; codes and communications, 3, 9, 108, 109, 238, 239, 287; and Congress, 3, 103, 280-283, 283n., 284, 284n., 377-379; cover, 7, 8, 12, 15, 17n., 45, 46, 100, 116, 241, 261-270; history, 96-103, 232, 233, 371, 372; Langley headquarters, 221, 232-239, 249, 255; organization, 9, 100, 211, 212, 227, 249-255; recruitment, 79, 80, 112, 113, 241-243; size, 237, 237n., 238, 239, 263n., 278n.; and Khrushchev speech, 128-130, 130n., 273; and policy making, 2, 3, 279, 373, 374, 377, 378; and universities, 112, 113, 242, 244, 259-261
Central Intelligence Agency Act, 101
Central Intelligence Bulletin, 230
Central Intelligence Group, 98
Chamoun, President Camille, 337, 338
Chiang Kai-shek, 116, 143
Chicago Daily News, 346n.
Chiquimula, 194
Choate, Judge Emett C., 47
Church, Senator Frank, 249
CIAR, 242
Cienfuegos, 54, 75, 266
Ciphers, 224
Ciszek, Reverend Walter, 257n.
Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), 302, 305
Civil Air Transport (CAT), 146, 152
Clandestine Services, 241
Clark, Captain Charles R., Jr., 265, 266
Clark, Senator Joseph, 207
Clark, General Mark W., 280
Clarke, James, 132n.
Clay, General Lucius, 304, 342
Clemens, Hans, 133-137
Clifford, Clark. M., 197, 200n., 209
Clifton, Major General Chester V. (Ted), 253
Cline, Ray S., 199, 250, 251, 254, 312
Codes, 219, 223-225
Colby, William Egan, 267
Collins, General J. Lawton, 168
"Colonel Frank," 38, 39, 39n.
"Colonel Vallejo." 39n.
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), 120
Commerce Department, 251, 251n., 302, 305, 306
Committee of the American Steamship Lines, 303
Communist China, 111-114, 130, 137, 138-140, 151, 153
Connor, John T., 298
consortium of western oil companies, 119, 120
Continental Insurance Company, 302
Cordes, H.F., & Company, 185
Correa, Mathias F., 103n.
Cortina, Mario Alvarez, 63, 66
Cosme, Luis, 8, 10, 40, 69, 72, 74
COSMOS satellites, 323
Costa Rica, 127, 128, 137, 180, 186, 374
Council of Europe, 347
Counter Intelligence Corps, United States Army (CIC), 213, 344
Cox, Raymond W., 88, 95
Coyne, J. Patrick, 254
Craft of Intelligence, The, 49n., 120
Crespo, Jose, 8, 10, 11, 18n., 60, 63, 66
Crowell, Mr. and Mrs. Prince S., 357-359
Cuba, see Bay of Pigs; Missile Crisis
Cuban Families Committee for Liberation of Prisoners of War, Inc., 298, 302, 304-306
Cuban Red Cross, 303
Cuban Revolutionary Council, 13, 16, 26, 42, 49, 53, 54, 58, 58n., 69, 76
Cushing, Richard Cardinal, 304
Cyprus, 337, 338

Daily Digest, 230
Dahlgren, Virginia, 332
Danbrunt, Eustace H., 275, 276
Davis, Robert Kendall, 22, 23, 26, 27n., 267
Davison, Captain Alexis H., 268
Decker, General George H., 37n.
Declaration of Independence, 4, 371
Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), 1, 102, 212, 213, 218, 226-231, 250, 277
Delano, William, 292
Democratic Revolutionary Front, 87; see also frente
DeLarm, Jerry Fred, 178, 186-188, 190, 193
Dewey, Thomas E., 361
Diaz, Colonel Carlos Enrique, 192, 193
Diaz, Higinio ("Nino"), 28
Diaz Lanz, Pedro Luis, 12
Dienbienphu, 146, 153, 167, 171n.
Diem, Ngo Dinh, 170n., 176-176
Dillon, Douglas, 313
Director of Central Intelligence, 101, 102, 232, 253
Director of Central Intelligence Agency, 101, 211, 212
Dirksen, Senator Everett McKinley, 91-93
Donovan, James B., 257, 275, 276, 297-309, 310
Donovan, General William J. ("Wild Bill"), 97, 98, 106, 142
Doolittle, Lieutenant General James H., 200n., 281
Doster, General G. Reid, 40, 72, 80, 83, 84, 85n.
Double-Check Corporation, see Double-Chek Corporation
Double-Chek Corporation, 79, 80, 86-89, 93-95, 156, 263
Douglas, Senator Paul H., 123n.
Downey, Mrs. Claudia Edwards, 240
Downey, John Thomas, 112-115, 242
Dulles, Allen Welsh, 2, 9, 19, 24, 33, 41, 49n., 50, 59, 60, 66, 100-107, 105n., 111, 119, 120, 125, 128, 129, 130n., 132, 169, 178-180, 183, 184, 189, 191, 199-203, 209, 210, 219, 223, 226-231, 232, 236, 237, 243, 246-248, 248n., 250, 252, 269-273, 279, 281, 284, 285, 291, 293, 338, 362, 368, 368n., 369, 372, 376
Dulles, John Foster, 103-105, 105n., 121, 122, 125, 126, 140, 143, 149-152, 156, 169, 187-189, 194, 209, 379
Dunlap, Sergeant Jack E., 223
Dwiggins, Don, 34
Dynamics of Soviet Society, The, 260

East Berlin, 133, 135
East Europe, 134
Eberstadt, Ferdinand, 281
Echols, Emmet, 246
Edmundson, Charles, 115
Egorov, Alexsandra, 257n.
Egorov, Ivan D., 257n.
Egypt, 121-126, 137, 338
Eisenhower, Dwight David, 5, 17, 24, 24n., 33, 36, 49, 79, 103, 124, 126, 128n., 130, 131, 145, 146, 154, 161, 167, 167n., 168, 175, 176, 177-179, 182-184, 189, 191, 198, 199, 209, 214, 219, 223, 233, 234, 248, 280, 287, 301, 317n., 324, 336, 338, 342, 361-363, 368n., 374, 377, 378
Eisenhower, Dr. Milton S., 184, 233
El Salvador, 183, 185, 188, 193
El Tamarindo, 185
ELINT missions, 225
Escambray, 31, 32, 34, 36, 76
Esquipulas, 189, 192
Essex, aircraft carrier, 71
Executive Committee (Excomm), of National Security Council, 313-318

Falmouth (Massachusetts) Enterprise, 357
Farias, Matias, 60
Fatalibey, Abo, 341
Fecteau, Richard George, 112-115
Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), 85, 355
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 1, 3, 212, 214-217, 218, 264, 265
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 353, 360
Feisal II, King, 337, 338
Felfe, Heinz, 133-137
Felt, Admiral Harry D., 173
Fernandez, Jose A., 60, 66
Fernandez Mon, Daniel, 8, 10, 66
54/12 Group, see Special Group
Figueres, Jose (Pepe), 127, 128, 128n., 186
Folres, Lieutenant Fernando, 275
Ford, Representative Gerald, 285n.
Ford Motor Company Fund, 304
Foreign Aid Act, 1951 Amendment, 259
Formosa, see Nationalist China
Forrestal, James V., 98, 100, 103n.
Fort Matamoros, 193
Fort Meade, Maryland, 220
France, 125, 126
Frankel, Rear Admiral Samuel B., 229
Free China Relief Association, 143
Free Europe Committee, Inc., 336, 342n.
"Free Guatemala" radio station, 339
Freies Wort, 346
frente, 26, 26n., 29, 42; see also Democratic Revolutionary Front
Fubini, Dr. Eugene G., 220
Fuerza Aerea Revolucionaria (FAR), 6, 7, 15
Fulbright, Senator J. William, 43, 44, 211n., 378

Gaitan, Jorge Eliecer, 107, 108
Galo, Lieutenant Alvara, 12
"Gar," 40, 74
Garcia, Alfredo, 45, 46n.
Garcia, Crispin L., 60, 66
Garcia, Eduardo, 45
Garcia, Rene, 8, 63, 69
Garcia, Sergio, 30, 31, 57, 58, 77
Garcia Line Corporation, 45, 46
Gardner, Trevor, 130
Gates, Thomas S., Jr., 161, 227
Gehlen, Reinhard, 133-136
General Accounting Office (GAO), 285, 286
Geneva, 162-164
Geneva Accords, 164, 171, 171n.
Georgiev, Ivan-Assen Khristov, 261
German, Robert K., 268n.
Ghana,295
Ghanaian Times, 295
Gibraltar Steamship Corporation, 263, 351-357, 359, 360
Gifford, Paul, 47
Gill, Representative Thomas P., 222
Gillingham, George O., 360
Gilpatric, Roswell, 220, 278, 313
Giron Beach, 52, 58, 60, 67-69, 75
Glen Ora, 8, 16,20, 21
Glidden, Captain Donald E., 358
Gliddenville, 355
Gloria, Portugal, 343
Goldwater, Senator Barry M., 198, 331
Gomez, Fausto, 57, 58
Gonzalez, Benito R. ("Campesino"), 60, 61
Gonzalez, Eddy, 60, 66
Gonzalez Romero, Juan M., 60, 66
Goodpaster, Brigadier General
Andrew J., 368
Grand Cayman Island, 11, 18, 18n., 60, 63
Gray, Gordon, 200n.
Gray, Mrs. Violet, 84, 87
Gray, Wade Carroll, 72-74, 78, 84, 85, 85n., 94
Great Swan Island, 350-359
"Greenland, Joseph," 81, 82, 84
Greenlee, Richard S., 360
"Gridnev, Vladimir," 215, 216
Grogan, Colonel Stanley, 233
Gromyko, Andrei, 65
GRU (Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravlenie), 265, 270
Guano Act of 1856, 354
Guantanamo, United States Naval Base, 51, 62n.
Guatemala, 9, 14, 22-52, 70, 83, 84, 177-196, 339, 375, 377, 379
Guatemala City, 22, 23, 27, 27n., 28, 178

Hamilton, Fowler, 209, 210
Hamilton, John, 354
Hamilton, Victor Norris, 223
Hamilton Bros., Inc., 351n.
Hamlett, General Barksdale, 294
Happy Valley, 7, 9, 11, 18, 18n., 20, 40, 45, 50-63, 66, 68, 69, 71-77; 84, 85n.
Harriman, Averell, 143, 144, 161n., 162-164
Harrison & Abramovitz, 239
Harvard University, 259
Hatcher, Andrew T., 92
Havana, 8, 10, 16, 17, 31, 45
"Havana Rose," 339
Hayden, Senator Carl, 283n.
Hayes International Corporation, 80-87, 90, 90n.
Hayhanen, Reino, 271, 272
Hazey, Jack, 159, 163, 163n.
Health, Education and Welfare, Department of, 305-307
Heath, Horton H., 352, 354
Hebert, Representative F. Edward, 285n.
Heinz, Rear Admiral Luther C. (Pickles), 171
Helms, Richard M., 199, 247, 250, 255
Helvetia, 24, 26, 27, 27n.
Herrera, Gonzalo, 8, 63, 66, 73, 74
Herter, Christian A., 44, 344
Hevia, Carlos, 53, 54, 58
Hialeah-Miami Springs Bank, 88, 95
Hill, Robert, 180
Hillenkoetter, Rear Admiral Roscoe H., 98, 99, 103, 108-111
Hilsman, Roger, 20, 202n., 217
Hilton, Ronald, 33
Hirsch, Robert, 151
Hispanic American Report, 33
Ho Chi Minh, 167, 167n.
Holland, Henry F., 178, 179n., 184, 187, 191, 193
Holland, Miller, 264
Hollingsworth, James, 360
Holzkirchen, West Germany, 342
Homestead Air Force Base, 304, 305
Honduras, 177, 180, 185, 189, 350-355
Hoover Commission, 96, 106, 280, 281
Hoover, Herbert, Jr., 121
Hoover, J. Edgar, 135, 214, 215, 264, 265
Horbaly, William, 268n.
House Appropriations Committee, 233, 236, 239; subcommittee on CIA, 284, 285, 285n., 318, 377
House Armed Services Committee, 242, 246; subcommittee on CIA, 284n., 285n., 318, 377
House Foreign Affairs Committee, 251n., 305
House Information Subcommittee, 332
House Un-American Activities Committee, 221-224
Houston, 8, 9, 37, 46, 50, 55, 57, 59, 63, 67, 76
Houston, Lawrence R., 300, 308
Hoy, 295
Hsinhua, Communist Chinese news agency, in Havana, 274, 275
Hue, 174
Hughes, John, 320
Hungarian revolt, 125, 128, 338, 343-345
Hungary, 338
Hurwitch, Robert A., 276, 300
Hussein, King, 337, 338
Hutchinson, Major General David W., 80, 80n.
Hyde, H. Montgomery, 339

ICBM, 226, 227, 326, 330
Idlewild International Airport, 299
"illegals," Soviet, 216
India, 140
Indonesia, 145-156, 372, 379
INR, see Bureau of Intelligence and Research
Institute for the Study of the USSR, 340
Intelligence Advisory Committee, 102
Intelligence Articles, 244, 245
Intellofax, 239
Inter-American Conference, 187
Internal Revenue Service, 300, 305, 307n.
International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), 210, 239
International Railways of Central America, 183
International Science and Technology, 325
Interstate Commerce Commission, 302, 305
Invisible Government, components of, 1, 102, 378; expenditures, 2, 277, 278, 278n.; size, 2, 278, 278n.
Iran, 116-121, 137, 377
Iraq, 337
Irons, Evelyn, 192
Irwin, John N., 160
Ismailov, Mikhail, 341
Israel, 125-127
Issues and Answers, ABC, 272, 273
Izvestia, 333, 341

Jackson, C. D., 342
Jackson, Senator Henry M., 126
Jackson, William H., 103n.
Jacob, Richard C., 268
Jakarta, 145ff.
James, Campbell ("Zup"), 115, 116
Jarvinen, Harry A., 264
Javits, Senator Jacob K., 299, 300
Jefferson, Thomas, quoted, 4, 5, 380
Jepeway, Louis M., 155
John, Dr. Otto, 135, 136, 136n.
Johnson, U. Alexis, 278,313
Johnson, Clarence L. (Kelly), 130
Johnson, Lyndon B., 3, 5, 70, 170, 219, 230, 278, 280, 291, 313, 361, 362
Johnston, Eric H., 123
Joint Chiefs of Staff, 7, 21, 36, 37, 41, 48, 49,71, 72, 92, 98, 162, 184, 197, 199, 230
Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 214, 378
Joint Congressional Committee on Foreign Intelligence, proposed, 280
Joint Study Group, 227
Jones, Howard P., 145, 155
Jones, Lem, 29, 30, 42, 53, 54, 58, 58n., 65,69, 76
Jones, William C., III, 268
Jordan, 337
Jorgensen, Gordon L., 160
J-2, 230
Jupiter IRBM, 314-316
Justice, Department of, 215, 223, 305

KGB (Soviet Committee for State Security), 13, 133, 215, 234, 235, 265, 270, 271, 341, 376
Kalman, Captain Stephan, 244, 245
Kaminsky, Mark I., 256, 257
Karas, Leonid, 341
Karim el-Kassim, Brigadier General Abdul, 337
Karo, H. Arnold, Rear Admiral, 353
Kartawidjaja, Djuanda, 150
Katz, Amrom H., 325
Katzenbach, Nicholas, 300-303
Keating, Senator Kenneth B., 312, 313, 319
Keeler, Christine, 272
Kennedy, Jacqueline, 70
Kennedy, John Fitzgerald, 3-5, 9, 10, 14-17, 20, 30, 33, 35, 36, 41-50, 55, 154, 161-163, 170, 174, 197-205, 206, 209-211, 214, 219, 230, 248, 254, 278, 279n., 280, 287, 288, 291, 299, 308, 310-321, 323, 328, 361, 365-370, 374, 377, 378
Kennedy, Joseph P., 200
Kennedy, Paul P., 34
Kennedy, Robert F., 47, 47n., 91-94, 154, 199-202, 202n., 204, 209, 234, 271, 271n., 276, 298, 300, 300n., 301, 394, 305, 314, 365
Kent, Sherman, 252, 312n.
Kenya, 338
Kethly, Anna, 346
Key West, 11, 13, 18, 60
Khrushchev, Nikita S., 69, 70, 128-131, 130n., 162, 164, 223, 314-317, 320, 323, 328, 333, 338, 348
Khrushchev speech, 65, 128-130
Killian, James R., Jr., 200, 200n.
Kirkpatrick, Lyman, 227, 252, 254
Klein, Herbert G., 363, 364
Knight, John S., 34
Komitat Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti, see KGB
Kong Le, 157-159, 161
Korea, 109-112, 114, 115, 137, 153
Kraslow, David, 91
Kudryavtsev, Sergei M., 13

Lahey, Edwin A., 346n.
La Hora, 33
Lake Charles, 46
Lampertheim, West Germany, 340
Land, Dr. Edwin H., 200n.
Langer, Dr. William L., 200n.
Langley, Virginia, see Central Intelligence Agency
Lansdale, Edward, 167-169
Laos, 116, 157-165, 171n., 372
Lattimore, Owen, 263, 264
Leahy, Admiral William D., 98
Lebanon, 335, 337, 338
Leipzig, 308
Leiter, Joseph, 238
Lemmon, Walter S., 355
Lemnitzer, General Lyman L., 21, 37, 37n:, 71
Lennox, Mrs. Marjorie, 274, 275
Li Mi, General, 138, 141, 142
Libert, Orion J., 108, 109
Life, 364, 367
Lindberg, Judge William J., 264
Literary Gazette, 273
Little Swan Island, 351, 353
Lloyd, Gates, 362
Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, 130, 240n., 324, 326
Lodge, Henry Cabot, 174-176, 190, 348
Lohr, Walter G., 352
London Evening Standard, 192
Lopez, Angel, 66
Losher, Paul, 247
Lott, Fred, 246
"Lou," 40
Lovett, Robert, 314
Lowenfeld, Andreas F., 260, 261

MacArthur, General Douglas, 109-112
McCarthy, Senator Joseph R., 263
McCone, John Alex, 4, 90, 163, 199, 206-212, 229, 232, 249, 252-254, 258, 259, 278, 291, 293, 310-312, 312n., 313, 319-321
McCone, Mrs. Theiline McGee Pigott, 311
McDowell, Thomas F., 86, 89
McElroy, Rear Admiral Rhodam Y.,13
McHugh, Brigadier General Godfrey T., 91,92
Macmillan, Harold, 130
McNamara, Robert, 171, 220, 227-229, 278, 312, 313, 319-321, 330
Magsaysay, Ramon, 167
Mahon, Representative George, 285n.
Maki, Eugene, see Hayhanen Reino
Makinen, Marvin William, 256, 257, 257n.
Managua, 55, 185, 189
Mandate for Change, 167n.
Mann, Thomas C., 44
Mansfield, Senator Mike, 92, 93, 125-127, 173, 264, 281, 282, 284
Marroquin Rojas, Clemente, 33
Marshall, Secretary of State George C., 107-109
Martin, Edwin M., 313
Martin, William H., 221, 222, 224
Masferrer, Rolando, 46-48
Maury, John M., Jr., 247
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 260
Maza, Alfredo, 11
Mekong River valley, 161, 164
Mendoza, Azurdia, Colonel Rodolfo, 188, 192
Menshikov, Mikhail A., 70
Merck, Sharp & Dohme, 298
Mexico, 128, 350
Miami, 7, 8, 16-18, 18n., 25-31, 51,57, 63, 63n.
Miami Herald, 34, 35, 201, 352
Miami International Airport, 6, 11, 156
Miami Springs, 79
Michelman, Frank, 303
Michener, James A., 348
MIDAS (Missile Defense Alarm System), 326, 327
Middleburg, Virginia, 9, 10, 16
Midthun, Kermit S., 269n.
Miller, William E., 201
Milliken, Max F ., 260
Miralles, Salvador, 66
Miramar, 10,297
missile crisis, Cuban, 310-322, 375, 379
"Mr. Karr," 23
"Mr. X," 121-124, 374
Mitchell, Bernon F., 221, 222, 224
Molina, Francisco (The Hook), 276
Moluccas, 145
Momotombito, 185
Montagnards, 172
Montevideo, 273, 274
Montgomery, Hugh, 268
Monzon, Colonel Elfego, 193, 194
Morgan Guaranty Trust Company, The, 302
Morozov, Platon D., 328
Morse, Captain Luis, 59
Morton, Thruston B., 179, 184, 188, 189
Moss, Representative John E., 332
Mossadegh, Mohammed, 116-120
Movimiento Democratico Cristiano, 26n.
Movimiento de Recuperacion Revolucionario (MRR), 26, 26n., 28
Movimiento de Rescate Revolucionario, 26n.
Movimiento Revolucionario del Pueblo (MRP) , 42
Muccio, John J., 27n.
Muhlenberg College, 366
Munich, 135, 340, 348, 349
Murphy, Robert D., 200n.
Murray, U.S.S., 62

Nam Tha, 163
NASA, 131, 240n., 327, 332
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 121-125, 337, 374
Nasution, General Abdul Haris, 148-150
Nation, 33, 34, 115
National Broadcasting Company (NBC), 271n., 272
National Intelligence Authority, 98
National Intelligence Estimates, 252, 253, 311
National Photo Center, 250
National Satellite Weather Center, 327n.
National Security Act of 1947, 2, 99-101, 219, 255, 263, 371, 372, 379
National Security Agency (NSA), 1, 102, 212, 218, 219-225, 277
National Security Council (NSC) , 1, 3, 99, 99n., 100, 173, 256, 278, 283, 315
Nationalist China, 115, 116, 137, 138-143, 150, 152, 251
NAVSPASUR (Naval Space Surveillance System), 332
Navy Intelligence (ONI), 1, 37, 212, 213, 213n.
Ne Win, General, 139, 140, 144
Near East Broadcasting Station, (NEBS), 337
Neel, Samuel E., 236
Neet, Robert L., 275
Nehru, Prime Minister Jawaharlal, 140, 223
New Delhi, 140
New Guinea, 147
New York Guano Company, 354, 355
New York Herald Tribune, 135n., 191, 300
New York Times, 16, 34, 35, 92, 93, 134, 136, 151, 175, 330, 343
Nhu, Madame, 174, 175
Nhu, Ngo Dinh, 169, 170n., 173-176
Nicaragua, 6, 7, 14, 18, 20, 45, 50, 54, 73, 74, 84, 180, 185-187, 191
NIE, see National Intelligence Estimates
Nixon, Richard, 30, 197, 361-370
Nkrumah, 295
Nolan, John E., Jr., 302-304
Nolting, Frederick E., Jr., 174
Norblad, Representative Walter, 284n.
Nordio, Mr. and Mrs. Mario, 275
North American Air Defense Command, 331
Notowidigdo, Dr. Mukarto, 152
Nueva Octopeque, 192
Nuri as-Said, Premier, 338

Oberdorfer, Louis F., 300, 300n., 301-303
Oberwiesenfeld, 340
OCB, see Operations Coordinating Board
Office of Emergency Planning, 315
Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI ), see Navy Intelligence
Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 97, 98, 106, 184, 212, 236, 250, 252, 260, 298
Office of Technical Services, see Commerce Department
Office of War Information (OWI), 97
Oliva, Emeido, 75
Opa-locka Airport, 28, 29, 38, 54, 64, 76, 302
Operation Blue Bat, 338
"Operation Prospero," 343
Operations Coordinating Board (OCB), 279n.
Organization of American States (OAS), 44, 269, 269n.
Oriente Province, 8
Ormerod, Major Sidney, 89

Pace, Frank, Jr., 200n.
Padang, 149, 150
Pakistan, 307
Palm Beach, 33, 43, 368
Pals, Spain, 340
Pao, General, 141
Parrott, Thomas, 247
Parsons, J. Graham, 160
Pathet Lao, 157-164
Patterson, Robert P., 98
Paula, Juan, 26
Peace Corps, 290-296
Peking, 112
Penkovsky, Oleg V., 267-269, 268n., 269n.
Pentagon, 14, 49, 50
Peralta, Colonel Enrique, 196
Perez, Demetrio, 61, 62, 62n., 63n.
Perez, Gaston, 11, 66
Perez, Lorenzo, 11, 18n., 60, 66
Perez Salvador, Manuel, 57, 59, 76
Perez San Roman, Captain Jose, 42
Perez Sordo, Alberto, 69
Perrine, 262, 263
Persons, Albert C., 85n.
Peten Province, 42
Petersen, Joseph Sydney, 222, 223
Peurifoy, John E., 177-184, 189, 192-194
Pfizer Company, Charles, 298, 299
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 301
Philippines, 147
Phillips, Ruby Hart, 16
Phoui Sananikone, 158
Phoumi Nosavan, General, 157
164
Piedra, "Chirrino," 8, 60, 66
Pieters, Lieutenant Colonel Herman, 152
Plain of Jars, 162, 164
Playa Baracoa, 13
Playa Larga, 51, 59, 66-68
Pleasants, Henry, 134, 135n., 267
Poland, 187
Ponzoa, Gustavo, 8, 69
Poole, Ralph, 246
Pope, Allen Lawrence, 145-155, 263
Pope, Mrs. Yvonne, 155
Pound, Virginia, 132n.
Powers, Mrs. Barbara, 240, 241
Powers, Francis Gary, 131, 132, 132n., 133, 154, 211n., 240, 240n., 257, 271n., 298, 308, 312, 317n., 320, 324, 328, 369
Prawiranegara, Dr. Sjafruddin, 149
President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities, 200, 280
President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 200, 210, 254, 280
Prettyman, E. Barrett, Jr., 301, 303, 304
Prio Socarras, Carlos, 26
Profumo, John D., 272
"Project X," 302
Pryor, Frederic L., 298
Pucinski, Representative Roman C., 355
Puerto Barrios, 33, 187
Puerto Cabezas, 6, 7, 45, 46, 51, 54, 61, 69, 185
Puerto Rico, 9, 19, 50, 59, 188, 202
Punte Patuca, Honduras, 351
Pushkin, Georgi M., 161n.

Quemoy and Matsu, 116, 369
Quiet American, The, 168
Quinn, Major General William W. (Buffalo Bill), 229

Radio Americas, 357-359
Radio Cairo, 337, 338
Radio Free Cuba, 355, 356
Radio Free Europe (RFE), 335, 342, 342n.ff.
Radio Free Rakoczi, 349
Radio Havana, 295
Radio Liberation, 339, 340
Radio Liberty, 339 ff.
Radio Mambi, 353
Radio Moscow, 291
Radio Peking, 295
Radio Swan, 56, 65, 67, 335, 339, 351 ff.
RAND Corporation, 325
Randolph, U.S.S., 62n.
Rangoon, 139, 140, 142
Rasco, Jose Ignacio, 26n.
Ray, Manolo, 42
Ray, Mrs. Margaret Hayden, 78-81, 84-86
Ray, Thomas Willard ("Pete"), 72-74, 78-81, 84, 85, 94
Reap, Joseph W., 64
"Reid," see Doster, General G. Reid
Retalhuleu, 18n., 24, 27-35, 38, 40, 45, 80
RIAS (Radio in the American Sector), 345
Richardson, John, Jr., 336
Richardson, John H. ("Jocko"), 174, 175, 267
Richardson, Wayne, 264
Riddleberger, James W., 129
Riera, Pepita, 355
Rio Escondido, 46, 51
Roa, Raul, 14,51, 64
Rockefeller, Nelson A., 199, 276
Rogers, Warren, Jr., 300
Rogovin, Mitchell, 307n.
Rojas, Ignacio, 66
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 97, 98, 361
Roosevelt, Kermit ("Kim"), 116-124
"Rosebinda," 187
Rostow, Walt Whitman, 260
Royal Bank of Canada, 302, 305
Rusk, Dean, 20, 21, 44-47, 56, 64,70, 164, 313, 379
Russell, Senator Richard B., 258, 282-284
Russia, 131, see Soviet Union
"Rutherford, Colonel," 186, 190

SA-2 Anti-Aircraft missile, 131n., 310, 312, 317
Saigon, 167, 267
SAINT (Satellite Intercept), 326
St. George, Andrew, 364, 365, 367
St. Lawrence, Lee, 294
Sakhalin Island 317n.
Salinger, Pierre, 13, 14, 64, 198, 202n., 315n., 368
Saltonstall, Senator Leverett, 258, 259, 283n., 284
SAMOS spy satellites, 323
Samsun, 331
San Antonio de los Banos, 8-12, 54, 55, 66, 304, 305
San Blas, 57, 77
San Diego Union, 363
San Jose, 189
San Jose Buena Vista, 27
San Roman, Captain Jose Perez, 42
Sanchez Arango, Aureliano, 26n.
Sanker, Paul, 341
Santa Clara, 55
Santiago de Cuba, 8, 10, 12
Sarit Thanarat, 160
Satellite and Missile Observation System (SAMOS), 323, 324, 324n.ff.
Satellite Situation Reports, 332, 333
Savannakhet, 159
Sayaxche, 42
Scheele, Dr. Leonard, 303
Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr., 76, 255
Schupp, Ferdinand F., 188
Schuyler, General Cortlandt Van Rensselaer, 254
Schwarzkopf, Brigadier General H. Norman, 118, 119
Scituate, Massachusetts, 355
Scoville, Herbert ("Pete"), 250
Scripps-Howard newspapers, 362
Sea Supply, 140
Seaton, Fred, 365, 366, 368
Seattle, 263, 264
Sebald, William J., 138-142, 377
Senate Appropriations Committee, 110; subcommittee on CIA, 283n., 284, 284n., 377
Senate Armed Services Committee, 126, 132, 207, 220, 256-258, 282; subcommittee on CIA, 283, 283n., 284, 284n., 377
Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 126
Senate Government Operations Committee, Subcommittee on National Security Staffing and
Operations, 288
Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, 260, 265, 266
Senate Preparedness Subcommittee, 311
Sevastyanov, Gennadiy, 216
Sevilla-Sacasa, Guillermo, 191
Sevin, 306
Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, 116-119
Shamburger, Mrs. Graves, 83-87
Shamburger, Mrs. Riley, Sr., 89-92, 94
Shamburger, Riley W., Jr., 72-74, 78, 83-85, 85n., 90, 92, 94
Shelepin, Alexander N., 133, 278n.
Shoup, General David M., 37n.
Shriver, Sargent, Jr., 290-296
Sierra, Jose, 108
Sierra Maestra, 8, 30, 32
Silio, Antonio, 54, 58, 65
Sinop, 331
"Simpson, Seig," 40, 69, 73
Singer, Dr. S. Fred, 327n.
Six Crises, 365
Skachkov, Anato1i, 341
Smith, Earl E. T., 266
Smith, Senator Margaret Chase, 258
Smith, Commander Raymond D., 268n., 269n.
Smith, Sumner, 352 ff.
Smith, General Walter Bedell ("Beedle"), 103, 111, 171n., 236
Snow, C.P., 280
Somoza, Anastasio ("Tacho"), 185-187, 189, 190
Soraya, 119
Sorensen, Theodore C., 313
Soto, Antonio, 60, 61, 69
Souers, Rear Admiral Sidney W., 98
Sourwine, J.G., 260, 265, 266
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 149, 162
Southern Air Transport, 156
Souvanna Phouma, Prince, 158, 162-164
Soviet State Committee for Foreign Cultural Relations, 339
Soviet Union, 2, 111, 118, 124, 125, 130-137, 265, 278, 295, 316-319, 325, 338
Spaak, Paul-Henri, quoted, 323
SPADATS (Space Detection and Tracking System), 331
Special Group, 3, 4, 278-280, 313, 374
Special Operations, history of, 100, 101
Stahr, Elvis J., 294
Stalin, 128, 129
Stanfield, Denman F., 89
State Department, 10, 89, 114, 305, 318, 355, 374
State Department Office of International Security Affairs, 352
State Institute for the Mentally Disturbed, 341
Stephenson, Sir, William, 339
Sterrett, Dr. H. Hatch, 235, 236
"Stevens," 40
Stevenson, Adlai, 14, 15, 51, 64, 70, 126, 313, 314, 361, 367
Stewart, Howard S., 325
Stimson, Henry L., 225
Strategic Air Command, 312, 313, 316
Struder, Colonel Carl T., 185
Suez, 124-127
Suez Canal, 122, 125
Sukarno, 145-154, 376
Sulfatos, 190
Sullivan, William C., 215
Sumatra, 148, 149
Summit Meeting, 131
Swan Islands, 15, 56, 350, 353, 353n., 354
Sylvester, Arthur, 318, 330
Symington, Senator Stuart, 207n., 209
Syria, 337, 338
Szulc, Tad, 16

Taipeh, 139, 140, 156, 340
Taiwan, see Nationalist China
Tampa, 351
Tapachula, Mexico, 190, 190n.
Taransky, Edmund K., 275, 276
Tass, 273, 274, 291, 295
Taylor, General Maxwell D., 63n., 170, 199, 200, 202, 203, 313
Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 184, 353-355
Teheran, 116-119
Thailand, 138-142, 163, 164
Thi, Colonel Nguyen Chanh, 170n.
Thompson, Llewellyn E. (Tommy), 311, 312
Thompson-Cornwall, Inc., 27
Thor-Agena rocket, 324
Thurmond, Senator Strom, 207, 220
Tiao Somsanith, 159
Tiebel Erwin, 133-136
"Tigers," 46
TIROS, 327
Tito, 129
Toriello, Guillermo, 187, 192
Toron, Jose, 339
Torpats, John, 246-248, 248n.
Tractors for Freedom Committee, 298
Trax Base, 24, 27, 38
Treasury Department, 251, 305
Trinidad (Cuba), 36, 37, 41, 48
Triple A, 26n.
Trujillo General Rafael L., 185
Truman, Harry S., 2, 5, 97-101, 103, 109-112, 212, 264, 281, 361, 371, 372
Turkey, 314, 331
Turnbull, Walter, 183

U Myint Thein, 141
U Nu, Premier, 143
Ubico, Jorge, 181, 183
Udall, Stewart L., 198
Ugly American, The, 168
Ulate, Otilio, 127, 186
UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, see United Nations
UN Space Registry, see United Nations
Union Carbide Company, 306
United Arab Republic, 337, 338
United Fruit Company, 180-183, 188, 191, 194, 352, 355
United Nations, 14, 18, 51, 64, 140, 190, 191, 223, 261, 269, 276, 327-329, 336, 347-349, 354, 366, 367
United Press International (UPI), 15, 18
United States Immigration and Naturalization Service, 11, 47
United States Information Agency (USIA), 251, 251n., 279n., 345; 352
United States Intelligence Board (USIB), 102, 211, 212, 218, 226-230, 252, 253, 278, 312
United States neutrality laws, 14, 15, 44, 47, 47n.
United States Weather Bureau, 352, 355
U.S. Government Organization Manual, 219
U.S. News & World Report, 91, 201
U-2, 25, 51, 130-132, 132n., 214, 225, 227, 228, 240n., 299, 310, 312, 317, 317n.ff., 369, 372, 379

Valdes, Ramiro, 12
Valerio, Joseph, 341
Vandenberg, General Hoyt S., 98
Vandenberg Air Force Base, 324
Vanguard Service Corporation, 263, 357-360
"Vaquero," 27
Varela, Joaquin, 60-63, 66
Varona, Manuel Antonio de, 26, 26n.
Vega Vera, Oscar, 63
Venezuela, 295
Vianello, Raul, 61, 62, 66
Vieques Island, 50
Vientiane, 157, 160-164
Vietnam, 166-176, 267, 372, 373
Vietcong, 169-172
Villafana Martinez, Manuel, 40, 69
Villoldo, Gustavo, 69
Vinson, Representative Carl, 285n.
Voice of America, 335, 338, 342, 345
"Voice of Iraq," 338
"Voice of Justice," 338
"Voice of the Arabs," 337
Von Broekhoven, Harold, 191

WRUL, 339, 355
Walker, Hank, 364, 367
WALNUT, 239, 240
Walz, Skip, 242
Washington Post, 235
"Wass, George," 357
Watson, Thomas J., Jr., 210
Webb, James E., 327
Weber, Judge Kurt, 134
West, William H., Jr., 360
West Berlin, 136, 136n.
West German Federal Intelligence Agency (FIA), 133, 136, 136n.
West Germany, 133-136, 343, 346
West Irian, 147, 150
Western Enterprises, Inc., 115
Wheelon, Dr. Albert D., 250
Whelan, Tom, 180
Where-to-Go Travel Agency, 264
White, L. K., 236
White, Lincoln, 34, 109, 149
White, General Thomas D., 37n., 71
Who's Who in the USSR, 340
Willauer, Whiting, 44, 179
Willis, Representative Edwin E., 222
Wilson, Donald M., 251n.
Wilson, Representative Bob, 285n., 317, 318
Wisner, Frank G., 100, 184, 193, 247, 250, 267
Woodbury, Mr. and Mrs. James A., 246
Woods, George D., 209
Woodward, Robert F., 128n.
World Wide Broadcasting System, Inc. (WRUL), 339, 355
Wynne, Greville M., 269
Wulfbrook, 188

Yalu River, 111, 111n.
Ydigoras Fuentes, Miguel, 22, 23, 28, 33, 35, 41, 183, 185, 189, 190, 195, 196
Ydigoras, Miguelito, 28
Your Money's Worth, 344
Yugoslavia, 129
Yunnan, 138
Yunnan Anti-Communist and National Salvation Army, 140, 142

Zahedi, Fazollah, General, 117, 117n., 118ff.
Zenith Technical Enterprises Inc., 262, 263
Zinchenko, Konstantin, 339
Zonguldak, 331
Zorin, Valerian, 14, 70
Zuniga, Mario, 6-21, 51, 63, 69, 73, 203, 204
Zyghi, 337