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English Education Act 1835
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/26/24

-- Lord William Bentinck, by Wikipedia
-- Thomas Babington Macaulay, by Wikipedia
-- The Whig Interpretation of History, by Herbert Butterfield, M.A., 1965
-- Report of the Indian Education Commission, Appointed by the Resolution of the Government of India dated 3rd February 1882, Calcutta, Printed by the Superintendent of Government Printing, India, 1883
-- William Wilson Hunter, by Wikipedia
-- Indian Education Commission (1882-83), by YourArticleLibrary
-- First Indian Education Commission or the Hunter Commission, by YourArticleLibrary
-- Minute by the Hon'ble T. B. Macaulay, by Thomas Babington Macaulay

English Education Act 1835
Council of India
Enacted by: Council of India
Status: Repealed

The English Education Act 1835 was a legislative Act of the Council of India, gave effect to a decision in 1835 by Lord William Bentinck, then Governor-General of the British East India Company, to reallocate funds it was required by the British Parliament to spend on education and literature in India. Previously, they had given limited support to traditional Muslim and Hindu education and the publication of literature in the then traditional languages of education in India (Sanskrit and Persian); henceforward they were to support establishments teaching a Western curriculum with English as the language of instruction. Together with other measures promoting English as the language of administration and of the higher law courts (instead of Persian, as under the Mughal Empire), this led eventually to English becoming one of the languages of India, rather than simply the native tongue of its foreign rulers.

In discussions leading up to the Act Thomas Babington Macaulay produced his famous Memorandum on (Indian) Education which was scathing on the inferiority (as he saw it) of native (particularly Hindu) culture and learning. He argued that Western learning was superior, and currently could only be taught through the medium of English. There was therefore a need to produce—by English-language higher education—"a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect" who could in their turn develop the tools to transmit Western learning in the vernacular languages of India. Among Macaulay's recommendations were the immediate stopping of the printing by the East India Company of Arabic and Sanskrit books and that the company should not continue to support traditional education beyond "the Sanskrit College at Benares and the Mahometan College at Delhi" (which he considered adequate to maintain traditional learning).

The act itself, however, took a less negative attitude to traditional education and was soon succeeded by further measures based upon the provision of adequate funding for both approaches. Vernacular language education, however, continued to receive little funding, although it had not been much supported before 1835 in any case.

British support for Indian learning

When the Parliament had renewed the charter of the East India Company for 20 years in 1813, it had required the company to apply 100,000 rupees per year[1] "for the revival and promotion of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories."[2]

This lac of rupees is set apart, not only for "reviving literature in India," the phrase on which their whole interpretation is founded, but also for "the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories...."

-- Minute by the Hon'ble T. B. Macaulay, by Thomas Babington Macaulay

This had gone to support traditional forms (and content) of education, which (like their contemporary equivalents in England) were firmly non-utilitarian. [non-utilitarian: decorative and not designed to be useful (Cambridge Dictionary] In 1813, by the request of Colonel John Munro, the then British Resident of Travancore and Pulikkottil Dionysius II, a learned monk of Orthodox Syrian Church, Gowri Parvati Bayi, the Queen of Travancore granted permission to start a Theological college in Kottayam, Travancore. The queen granted the tax free 16 acre property, ₹ 20,000, and the necessary timber for construction. The foundation stone was laid on 18 February 1813 and the construction completed by 1815. The structure of the Old Seminary Building is called Naalukettu translated into English as central-quadrangle. The early missionaries who worked here – Norton, Henry Baker, Benjamin Bailey and Fenn – rendered remarkable service. Initially called Cottayam College, the Seminary was not exclusively meant for priest training. It was a seat of English general education in the State of Travancore and is regarded as the "first locale to start English education" in Kerala and the first to have Englishmen as teachers in 1815 itself. In course of time it even came to be known as Syrian College. The students were taught English, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Syriac and Sanskrit over and above Malayalam along with Theological subjects.

By the early 1820s, some administrators within the East India Company were questioning if this was a sensible use of the money. James Mill noted that the declared purpose of the Madrassa (Mohammedan College) and the Hindu College in Calcutta set up by the company had been "to make a favourable impression, by our encouragement of their literature, upon the minds of the natives" but took the view that the [plan] of the company should have been to further not Oriental learning but "useful learning". Indeed, private enterprise colleges had begun to spring up in Bengal teaching Western knowledge in English ("English education"), to serve a native clientele which felt it would be more important that their sons learnt to understand the English than that they were taught to appreciate classic poetry.

Broadly similar issues ('classical education' vs 'liberal education') had already arisen for education in England with existing grammar schools being unwilling (or legally unable) to give instruction in subjects other than Latin or Greek and were to end in an expansion of their curriculum to include modern subjects. In the Indian situation a complicating factor was that the 'classical education' reflected the attitudes and beliefs of the various traditions in the sub-continent, 'English education' clearly did not, and there was felt to be a danger of an adverse reaction among the existing learned classes of India to any withdrawal of support for them.

This led to divided counsels within the Committee of Public Instruction. Macaulay, who was Legal Member of the Council of India, and was to be President of the committee, refused to take up the post until the matter was resolved, and sought a clear directive from the Governor-General on the strategy to be adopted.

It should have been clear what answer Macaulay was seeking, given his past comments. In 1833 in the House of Commons Macaulay (then MP for Leeds),[3] had spoken in favour of renewal of the company's charter, in terms which make his own views on the culture and society of the sub-continent adequately clear:

I see a government[4] anxiously bent on the public good. Even in its errors I recognize a paternal feeling towards the great people committed to its charge. I see toleration strictly maintained. Yet I see bloody and degrading superstitions gradually losing their power. I see the morality, the philosophy, the taste of Europe, beginning to produce a salutary effect on the hearts and understandings of our subjects. I see the public mind of India, that public mind which we found debased and contracted by the worst forms of political and religious tyranny, expanding itself to just and noble views of the ends of government and of the social duties of man.

In the peroration, he emphasized the moral imperative of educating Indians in English ways, not to keep them submissive but to give them the potential eventually to claim the same rights as the English:

What is that power worth which is founded on vice, on ignorance, and on misery—which we can hold only by violating the most sacred duties which as governors we owe to the governed—which as a people blessed with far more than an ordinary measure of political liberty and of intellectual light—we owe to a race debased by three thousand years of despotism and priest craft? We are free, we are civilized, to little purpose, if we grudge to any portion of the human race an equal measure of freedom and civilization.

Are we to keep the people of India ignorant in order that we may keep them submissive? Or do we think that we can give them knowledge without awakening ambition? Or do we mean to awaken ambition and to provide it with no legitimate vent? Who will answer any of these questions in the affirmative? Yet one of them must be answered in the affirmative, by every person who maintains that we ought permanently to exclude the natives from high office. I have no fears. The path of duty is plain before us: and it is also the path of wisdom, of national prosperity, of national honour.

The destinies of our Indian empire are covered with thick darkness. It is difficult to form any conjecture as to the fate reserved for a state which resembles no other in history, and which forms by itself a separate class of political phenomena. The laws which regulate its growth and its decay are still unknown to us. It may be that the public mind of India may expand under our system till it has outgrown that system; that by good government we may educate our subjects into a capacity for better government, that, having become instructed in European knowledge, they may, in some future age, demand European institutions. Whether such a day will ever come I know not. But never will I attempt to avert or to retard it. Whenever it comes, it will be the proudest day in English history. To have found a great people sunk in the lowest depths of slavery and superstition, to have so ruled them as to have made them desirous and capable of all the privileges of citizens would indeed be a title to glory all our own.[5] The sceptre may pass away from us. Unforeseen accidents may derange our most profound schemes of policy. Victory may be inconstant to our arms. But there are triumphs which are followed by no reverses. There is an empire exempt from all natural causes of decay. Those triumphs are the pacific triumphs of reason over barbarism; that empire is the imperishable empire of our arts and our morals, our literature and our laws.

Macaulay's "Minute Upon Indian Education"

To remove all doubt, however, Macaulay produced and circulated a Minute on the subject. Macaulay argued that support for the publication of books in Sanskrit and Arabic should be withdrawn, support for traditional education should be reduced to funding for the Madrassa at Delhi and the Hindu College at Benares, but students should no longer be paid to study at these establishments.[6] The money released by these steps should instead go to fund education in Western subjects, with English as the language of instruction. He summarised his argument

To sum up what I have said, I think it is clear that we are not fettered by the Act of Parliament of 1813; that we are not fettered by any pledge expressed or implied; that we are free to employ our funds as we choose; that we ought to employ them in teaching what is best worth knowing; that English is better worth knowing than Sanskrit or Arabic; that the natives are desirous to be taught English, and are not desirous to be taught Sanskrit or Arabic; that neither as the languages of law, nor as the languages of religion, have the Sanskrit and Arabic any peculiar claim to our engagement; that it is possible to make natives of this country thoroughly good English scholars, and that to this end our efforts ought to be directed.

With Macaulay’s Minute – notes that are recorded during a meeting, highlighting key issues that are discussed, motions proposed or voted on, and certain activities that may need to be acted upon – his efforts were not always perceived in the kindest of light. The proposed “Minute on Education” has had its importance questioned by hundreds of scholars throughout the years, especially Warren Hastings. From 1780 to 1835, the British government in India had followed the educational policy that was in place under Warren Hastings. He wanted to maintain the British East India Company’s stance that they had to do more than the pre-British Muslim governments had done to encourage classes of Muslim and Hindu society. However, Macaulay demotes this policy through his Minute, using it as a final, yet successful, attack upon the Hastings educational policy, speaking to how completing an education should not be rewarded with payment or how the educated should ‘expect any remunerative employment by which they might put their specialized learning to work’. The conflicting viewpoint gathered Macaulay's disdain in the public eye, even to the present day.

Macaulay's comparison of Arabic and Sanskrit literature to what was available in English is forceful, colourful, and nowadays often quoted against him.

I have conversed both here and at home with men distinguished by their proficiency in the Eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the oriental learning at the valuation of the Orientalists themselves. I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.[7] [...] And I certainly never met with any Orientalist who ventured to maintain that the Arabic and Sanscrit poetry could be compared to that of the great European nations. But when we pass from works of imagination to works in which facts are recorded, and general principles investigated, the superiority of the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable. It is, I believe, no exaggeration to say, that all the historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanscrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used at preparatory schools in England. In every branch of physical or moral philosophy, the relative position of the two nations is nearly the same.

In 1937 and 1938, writers Edward Thompson and Percival Spear argued how Macaulay’s Minute was more “secondhand nonsense” and how the “decisive consideration was financial economy… it was cheaper to teach people to read in English than to subsidize translations in a variety of Indian languages….” With this came the idea of a divide in Indian society on how to approach this new way of thinking. The incorporation of English and Westernized education into traditional education in India was not perceived in the best light by most natives. With there being already a lack of formal education in India, the intrusiveness of incorporating Western concepts made many natives feel that receiving an ‘English education’ in India is entirely different than a ‘desire to learn English’ [?].

There had already been an implementation of English and Western society in India at the time, primarily focused on the East India Company, where speaking English was embedded into everyday use. These native ‘elite’ group of English speakers in India worked in offices, factories, and warehouses of the East India Company, with their numbers increasing rapidly, giving Macaulay more reason to impose the Minutes upon the natives. However, despite the increasing numbers of English speakers and learners in India, there came the ‘Downward Filtration Theory’, where many of the wealthy class – mainly those who studied and practiced English – failed to help improve the lives of those in the lower class. This was largely due to the amount of the lower class that tried to receive a better education, but there were only some ‘students who learned English were [able] to pay’. The more financial stability one had equated to how much of a Western education they received, with the elite and wealthy gaining most of the knowledge. Despite some doing better off in a game of winners and losers, most natives were detrimentally affected by the Minutes, with many being impacted by this drastic shift into ‘westernizing’ of ‘Indian’ cultures.

He returned to the comparison later:

Whoever knows [English] has ready access to all the vast intellectual wealth, which all the wisest nations of the earth have created and hoarded in the course of ninety generations. It may be safely said, that the literature now extant in that language is of far greater value than all the literature which three hundred years ago was extant in all the languages of the world together. [...] The question now before us is simply whether, when it is in our power to teach this language, we shall teach languages in which, by universal confession, there are no books on any subject which deserve to be compared to our own; whether, when we can teach European science, we shall teach systems which, by universal confession, whenever they differ from those of Europe, differ for the worse; and whether, when we can patronise sound Philosophy and true History, we shall countenance, at the public expense, medical doctrines, which would disgrace an English farrier,—Astronomy, which would move laughter in girls at an English boarding school,—History, abounding with kings thirty feet high, and reigns thirty thousand years long,—and Geography, made up of seas of treacle and seas of butter.

Mass education would be (in the fullness of time) by the class of Anglicised Indians the new policy should produce, and by the means of vernacular dialects [?? ] :

[...] it is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population.

What came along with the ‘Westernization of Indian cultures’ was an abandonment of culture and religion. In a letter to his father, Zachary Macaulay detailed the ‘success’ of the Minute, and the impact it had on Indian culture and livelihood since its enactment. He details how “the effect of this education on the Hindoos is prodigious… no Hindoo who has received an English education ever continues to be sincerely attached to his religion….” The shift to Western education, although favored by a majority of the general committee, was not the results that India had expected. The abandonment of some of their religion, changing over to implementing was to fulfill ‘serving the colonial bureaucracy’. Relaying [Relating?] back to how only the elite could receive higher English education, this created the divide that resulted in the major religious and cultural shifts throughout India. [?]

The Act

[url-http://survivorbb.rapeutation.com/viewtopic.php?f=60&t=4204&start=172]Bentinck[/url] wrote that he was in full agreement with the sentiments expressed.[8] However, students at the Calcutta Madrassa raised a petition against its closure; this quickly got considerable support and the Madrassa and its Hindu equivalent were therefore retained. Otherwise the Act endorsed and implemented the policy Macaulay had argued for.

The Governor-General of India in Council has attentively considered the two letters from the Secretary to the Committee of Public Instruction,[9] dated the 21st and 22nd January last, and the papers referred to in them.

First, His Lordship in Council is of opinion that the great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of European literature and science among the natives of India; and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed on English education alone.

Second, But it is not the intention of His Lordship in Council to abolish any College or School of native learning, while the native population shall appear to be inclined to avail themselves of the advantages which it affords, and His Lordship in Council directs that all the existing professors and students at all the institutions under the superintendence of the Committee shall continue to receive their stipends. But his lordship in Council decidedly objects to the practice which has hitherto prevailed of supporting the students during the period of their education. He conceives that the only effect of such a system can be to give artificial encouragement to branches of learning which, in the natural course of things, would be superseded by more useful studies and he directs that no stipend shall be given to any student that may hereafter enter at any of these institutions; and that when any professor of Oriental learning shall vacate his situation, the Committee shall report to the Government the number and state of the class in order that the Government may be able to decide upon the expediency of appointing a successor.

Third, It has come to the knowledge of the Governor-General in Council that a large sum has been expended by the Committee on the printing of Oriental works; his Lordship in Council directs that no portion of the funds shall hereafter be so employed.

Fourth, His Lordship in Council directs that all the funds which these reforms will leave at the disposal of the Committee be henceforth employed in imparting to the native population a knowledge of English literature and science through the medium of the English language; and His lordship.

Opposition in London suppressed

On the news of the Act reaching England, a despatch giving the official response of the company's Court of Directors was drafted within India House (the company's London office). James Mill was a leading figure within the India House (as well as being a leading utilitarian philosopher). Although he was known to favour education in the vernacular languages of India, otherwise he might have been expected to be broadly in favour of the Act. However, he was by then a dying man, and the task of drafting the response fell to his son John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was thought to hold similar views to his father, but his draft despatch turned out to be quite critical of the Act.

Mill argued that students seeking an 'English education' in order to prosper could simply acquire enough of the requisite practical accomplishments (facility in English etc.) to prosper without bothering to acquire the cultural attitudes; for example it did not follow that at the same time they would also free themselves from superstition. Even if they did the current learned classes of India commanded widespread respect in Indian culture, and that one of the reasons they did so was the lack of practical uses for their learning; they were pursuing learning as an end in itself, rather than as a means to advancement. The same could not reliably said of those seeking an 'English education', and therefore it was doubtful how they would be regarded by Indian society and therefore how far they would be able to influence it for the better. It would have been a better policy to continue to conciliate the existing learned classes, and to attempt to introduce European knowledge and disciplines into their studies and thus make them the desired interpreter class. This analysis was acceptable to East India Company's Court of Directors but unacceptable to their political masters (because it effectively endorsed the previous policy of 'engraftment')[?] and John Cam Hobhouse insisted on the despatch being redrafted to be a mere holding statement noting the Act but venturing no opinion upon it. [?]

Aftermath

Reversion to favouring traditional colleges

By 1839 Lord Auckland had succeeded Bentinck as Governor-General, and Macaulay had returned to England. Auckland contrived to find sufficient funds to support the English Colleges set up by Bentinck's Act without continuing to run down the traditional Oriental colleges. He wrote a Minute (of 24 November 1839) giving effect to this; both Oriental and English colleges were to be adequately funded. The East India Company directors responded with a despatch in 1841 endorsing the twin-track approach and suggesting a third:

We forbear at present from expressing an opinion regarding the most efficient mode of communicating and disseminating European Knowledge. Experience does not yet warrant the adoption of any exclusive system. We wish a fair trial to be given to the experiment of engrafting European Knowledge on the studies of the existing learned Classes, encouraged as it will be by giving to the Seminaries in which those studies are prosecuted, the aid of able and efficient European Superintendence. At the same time we authorise you to give all suitable encouragement to translators of European works into the vernacular languages and also to provide for the compilation of a proper series of Vernacular Class books according to the plan which Lord Auckland has proposed.

The East India Company also resumed subsidising the publication of Sanscrit and Arabic works, but now by a grant to the Asiatic Society rather than by undertaking publication under their own auspices.[10]

Mill's later views

In 1861, Mill in the last chapter ('On the Government of Dependencies') of his 'Considerations on Representative Government' restated the doctrine Macaulay had advanced a quarter of a century earlier – the moral imperative to improve subject peoples, which justified reforms by the rulers of which the ruled were as yet unaware of the need for,

"There are ... [conditions of society] in which, there being no spring of spontaneous improvement in the people themselves, their almost only hope of making any steps in advance [to 'a higher civilisation'] depends on the chances of a good despot. Under a native despotism, a good despot is a rare and transitory accident: but when the dominion they are under is that of a more civilised people, that people ought to be able to supply it constantly. The ruling country ought to be able to do for its subjects all that could be done by a succession of absolute monarchs guaranteed by irresistible force against the precariousness of tenure attendant on barbarous despotisms, and qualified by their genius to anticipate all that experience has taught to the more advanced nation. Such is the ideal rule of a free people over a barbarous or semi-barbarous one. We need not expect to see that ideal realised; but unless some approach to it is, the rulers are guilty of a dereliction of the highest moral trust which can devolve upon a nation: and if they do not even aim at it, they are selfish usurpers, on a par in criminality with any of those whose ambition and rapacity have sported from age to age with the destiny of masses of mankind"

but Mill went on to warn of the difficulties this posed in practice; difficulties which whatever the merits of the Act of 1835 do not seem to have suggested themselves to Macaulay:[11]

It is always under great difficulties, and very imperfectly, that a country can be governed by foreigners; even when there is no disparity, in habits and ideas, between the rulers and the ruled. Foreigners do not feel with the people. They cannot judge, by the light in which a thing appears to their own minds, or the manner in which it affects their feelings, how it will affect the feelings or appear to the minds of the subject population. What a native of the country, of average practical ability, knows as it were by instinct, they have to learn slowly, and after all imperfectly, by study and experience. The laws, the customs, the social relations, for which they have to legislate, instead of being familiar to them from childhood, are all strange to them. For most of their detailed knowledge they must depend on the information of natives; and it is difficult for them to know whom to trust. They are feared, suspected, probably disliked by the population; seldom sought by them except for interested purposes; and they are prone to think the servilely submissive are the trustworthy. Their danger is of despising the natives; that of the natives is of disbelieving that anything the strangers do can be intended for their good.[12]

See also

• Education in India
• Indianisation
• Timeline of Hindu texts

References

1. The rupee was then worth about two shillings, so roughly £10,000 (equivalent current purchasing power clearly considerably more)
2. quoted in Macaulay's Minute
3. subsequent financial difficulties had led him to go out to India to rebuild his fortunes
4. that of the East India Company
5. But in an essay of 1825, Macaulay had defended the politics of Milton (objected to by Johnson's Lives of the Poets) on very different lines
Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to go into the water till he had learnt to swim. If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery, they might indeed wait forever. "Milton", Edinburgh Review, August 1825 ; included in T. B. Macaulay 'Critical and Historical Essays, Vol 1', J M Dent, London, 1910 [Everyman's Library, volume 225]
6. Macaulay described it as unheard of that students should have to be paid to study, but later had to concede that scholarships were routinely awarded at English universities
7. Indeed, a response to the Minute circulated by Henry Thoby Prinsep (also to be found in Sharp, H. (ed.). 1920. Selections from Educational Records, Part I (1781–1839). Superintendent, Govt. Printing, Calcutta) whilst disagreeing strongly with the proposed course of action agreed with this verdict: "It is laid down that the vernacular dialects are not fit to be made the vehicle of instruction in science or literature, that the choice is therefore between English on one hand and Sanskrit and Arabic on the other – the latter are dismissed on the ground that their literature is worthless and the superiority of that of England is set forth in all animated description of the treasures of science and of intelligence it contains and of the stores of intellectual enjoyment it opens. There is no body acquainted with both literatures that will not subscribe to all that is said in the minute of the superiority of that of England.
8. most likely because he had held them before the Minute was written; the Minute should therefore be read as a rumbustious justification of a foregone conclusion, not as an exercise in persuasive analysis. Perhaps the point was made to Macaulay at the time; in an essay published in the Edinburgh Review in July 1835 (and therefore roughly contemporaneous with the Minute), he wrote of Charles James Fox's History of James the Second: ..those more serious improprieties of manner into which a great orator who undertakes to write history is in danger of falling. There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, replying manner. Almost every argument is put in the form of an interrogation, an ejaculation or a sarcasm. The writer seems to be addressing himself to some imaginary audience
"Sir James Mackintosh", Edinburgh Review, August 1825; included in T. B. Macaulay 'Critical and Historical Essays, Vol 1', J M Dent, London, 1910 [Everyman's Library, volume 225]
9. Prinsep, who was given a hard time on 2 different counts
• procedurally he should have waited to be asked before giving his views
• there was some suspicion that he had leaked news of the likely new policy to the Calcutta Madrassa students
10. Stephen Evans,"Macaulay’s Minute Revisited: Colonial Language Policy in Nineteenth-century India", Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development Vol. 23, No. 4, 2002
11. of whom Lord Melbourne is said to have remarked "I wish I was as cocksure of anything as Tom Macaulay is of everything" – see Oxford Dictionary of Quotations
12. 'Of the Government of Dependencies by a Free State' Chapter XVIII of 'Considerations on Representative Government' pages 382–384 of "Utilitarianism, Liberty & Representative Government", J S Mill, J M Dent & Sons Ltd, London (1910) [no 482 of 'Everyman's Library']

Further reading

• Caton, Alissa. "Indian in Colour, British in Taste: William Bentinck, Thomas Macaulay, and the Indian Education Debate, 1834-1835." Voces Novae 3.1 (2011): pp 39–60 online.
• Evans, Stephen. "Macaulay's minute revisited: Colonial language policy in nineteenth-century India." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 23.4 (2002): 260–281.
• Ghosh, Suresh Chandra. "Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India." History of Education 24.1 (1995): 17–24.
• Kathiresan, B., and G. Sathurappasamy, "The People’s English." Asia Pacific Journal of Research 1#33 (2015) online.
• O'Dell, Benjamin D. "Beyond Bengal: Gender, Education, and the Writing of Colonial Indian History" Victorian Literature and Culture 42#3 (2014), pp. 535–551 online
• Spear, Percival. "Bentinck and Education" Cambridge Historical Journal 6#1 (1938), pp. 78–101 online
• Whitehead, Clive. "The historiography of British imperial education policy, Part I: India." History of Education 34.3 (2005): 315–329.

Primary sources

• Moir, Martin and Lynn Zastoupil, eds. The Great Indian Education Debate: Documents Relating to the Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy, 1781-1843 ( 1999 ) excerpts
• Elmer H. Cutts. “The Background of Macaulay’s Minute.” The American Historical Review 58, no. 4 (1953): 824–53. https://doi.org/10.2307/1842459.
• “The Letters of Thomas Babington Macaulay”, ed. by Thomas Pinney, vol. 3 (January 1834-August 1841). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. https://franpritchett.com/00generallink ... sourceinfo.
• Sharp, Henry. “Selections from Educational Records (1840-59) Pt.2 : Richey, J. A. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive, 1922. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dl ... Beducation.

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John Munro, 9th of Teaninich
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/26/24

Major-General John Munro, 9th of Teaninich

Calotype portrait of John Munro by David Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson, 1843.
Born: February 1775, Glasgow, Scotland, Kingdom of Great Britain
Died: 25 January 1858 (aged 82)
Buried: Saint George CSI Church, Pallikkunnu
Rank: Adjutant; Private Secretary to the Commander in Chief; Quartermaster-General of the Madras army 1807; Lieutenant Colonel 1818; Colonel 1829; Major General 1837; Resident of the English East India Company; Diwan of Travancore
Spouse(s): Charlotte Blacker

General John Munro (June 1778 – 25 January 1858) of the H.E.I.C.S was a Scottish soldier and administrator who served as Resident and Diwan [Diwan: a powerful government official, minister, or ruler.] of the States of Travancore and Cochin between 1810 and 1819.[1]

Early life

John Munro, fourth son of Captain James Munro, 7th of Teaninich (Royal Navy), was baptised in Alness on 11 February 1775.[2] The Munros of Teaninich were a cadet branch of the Scottish Highland Clan Munro and their family home was at Teaninich Castle in Ross-shire.[1]

Teaninich Castle, front

Military career

John Munro enlisted as a cadet in the East India Company's Madras Army in April 1791, aged 16,[2] and was appointed Lieutenant in August 1794.[3] He took part in the Battle of Seringapatam in 1799, and was shortly afterwards promoted to Captain[3] and appointed Adjutant of his regiment, in which office he displayed a thorough acquaintance with military duties.[1] John Munro was an accomplished linguist, being able to speak and write in French, German, Italian, Arabic, Persian and several Indian language.[1]

Munro held various appointments on the Staff, and was private secretary and interpreter to successive Commanders in Chief in India.[1][4] He was personally acquainted and in regular correspondence with Colonel Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, during the Mahratta War.[1] He also served alongside his distinguished namesake Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet (of Lindertis). John Munro assisted in quelling the Vellore Mutiny and was soon afterwards appointed Quartermaster-General of the Madras army, directly from the rank of captain, at the early age of 27 years.[1]

As Quartermaster-General, Munro was asked in 1807 by the then commander-in-chief Sir John Craddock to compile a confidential report on the Tent Contract, an allowance to Madras Army officers to be paid equally in peace and war and regarded by them as part of their emoluments. Munro's report pointed out that the contract gave officers "strong inducements to neglect their most important duties".[5] Craddock agreed with Munro's recommendation that it be discontinued and replaced by enhanced batta. The implementation of these changes added to the discontent simmering amongst officers of the Madras Army, already resentful at being less well rewarded than those of the Bengal Army. Moreover, the report was leaked; fellow officers who read it inferred that their honour had been impugned, and charged Munro with conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman.[6] The episode occurred during a period of dispute between the Madras civil government and the new commander-in-chief, Lieut-General Hay Macdowall, who, no longer ex-officio a member of the governing council, had given notice of his resignation. On 20 January 1809, some months after the appeal from his officers, and despite his impending departure, Macdowall had Munro arrested, leaving the supposed court martial to be heard by his successor. A week later, on the eve of departure Macdowall was reluctantly compelled to release Munro from arrest on the orders of the Governor Sir George Barlow. Together with his Adjutant-General, Col. Francis Capper (who was probably responsible for leaking Munro's report), Macdowall boarded the East Indiaman Lady Jane Dundas for England, issuing as he did so a General Order which reprimanded Munro for making a direct appeal to the Governor. Capper's deputy Major Thomas Boles, who had signed the order on behalf of the departing commander-in-chief, was suspended for doing so. The perceived unfair treatment of Boles, who was only acting on a superior's order, was the subject of a memorial by officers led by Arthur St Leger (soldier), who was then also dismissed; the continuing repercussions of these events led to the 1809 "White Mutiny" by officers of the Madras Army. The Lady Jane Dundas, with Macdowall and Capper aboard, was lost off the Cape of Good Hope in March 1809.

Shortly after these events, Munro was appointed Resident in Travancore; his successor as Quarter-Master General was his deputy, Valentine Blacker, who had recently become his brother-in-law.

Administrative career

John Munro was a major figure in the development of the states of Travancore and Cochin.[4][8][9] In the aftermath of the attack by Velu Thampi Dalawa on the East India Company, he was appointed Resident of the company for these kingdoms in 1810. Col. Munro also served as Diwan (Prime Minister) to the queens Rani Gowri Lakshmi Bayi and Rani Gowri Parvati Bayi of Travancore and Raja Kerala Varma of Cochin from 1812 to 1814.[10] With his freedom of action, he won such confidence of the rulers and the people as to be able to introduce the practice, in the administration of justice, of having a Christian sitting on the bench as judge beside a Brahmin.[4]


British Residency in Kollam city built by Col. John Munro

He influenced these rulers to introduce many progressive reforms.[11] During his tenure as Diwan, he reformed the judicial system, improved the revenue of the states, prevented corruption and mismanagement and started the process of abolishing slavery. Slavery was abolished in Munroe Island on 8 March 1835 and finally by Royal proclamation of the maharajah of Travancore in 1853 and 1855. Munro removed many taxes levied on the poorer sections of the community. With deep Christian convictions, he persuaded the Rani of Travancore to donate land in Kottayam as well as the money and timber, in-order to build the Orthodox Pazhaya Seminary and also petitioned the Church Missionary Society to send missionaries on a Help Mission, to educate and train the clergy of the Malankara Church.[12][13][14][15] In 1816, the Church Missionary Society sent Benjamin Bailey, Henry Baker senior, and Joseph Fenn, who established what became CMS College Kottayam. Bailey was the first principal. With Munro's support, Bailey had the bible translated into Malayalam.[16] About the same time, Thomas Norton established a CMS School at Alleppy. The network of schools established by missionaries, and also their wives, meant Travancore led the world in primary education for girls as well as boys, and laid the foundations for the high levels of literacy in Kerala.[17]


Munro Light at Pullam, Kottayam

Later life

John Munro came home on leave in 1819, when he bought Teaninich Castle from his brother Hugh.[18] He returned briefly to India in 1823–4, before ill-health compelled his retirement. As an evangelical Christian, he supported the Great Disruption of 1843. His calotype portrait by David Octavius Hill was the model for his inclusion in the Hill's famous painting of the signing of the Deed of Separation at the First Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland. He provided land for the Free Church in Alness, of which he became an elder. On Hugh's death in 1846, he inherited the Teaninich distillery which the latter had founded in 1817.

Major-General John Munro, 9th of Teaninich, died on 25 January 1858, and was buried in the Teaninich family vault in Alness Old Parish Church.

Legacy

Munro is remembered as one of the most brilliant and popular administrators of the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore.[8] The Travancore State Manual of 1906 said of him, "He has left an imperishable name in the hearts of the Travancore population for justice and probity. The most ignorant peasant or cooly in Travancore knows the name of Munrole Sahib... He worked with a single-handed devotion to the interests of the state."[10] Canon Horace Monroe claimed "He lived to see Muslims and high caste Hindus appreciate the integrity and fairness of Christian judges, and he paved the way for those who since his day have tried to interpret Western Christianity to the Eastern people."[4]

An archipelago of eight islands located in the Ashtamudi Lake of Kollam (Quilon), called Munroe Island,[19] was named in his honour. On his death, a series of lights to guide travellers in the lakes and backwaters of the State were called ‘Munro Lights’ in his honor by the Travancore Government.[10]

Family

John Munro had four children while serving in Madras, probably by native mother(s).[2]
1. Urban Vigors Munro (baptised 1801 Madras d. Travancore 1844) was in 1827 appointed first Conservator of Forests of Travancore, to manage the state monopoly of teak, and later also cardamom, ebony and sandalwood. His son John Daniel Munro was first a coffee planter, but headed the newly separate Cardamom Department from 1869. He built paths to open up the area round Peermade and Munnar, enabling the founding of tea industry in the Kan(n)an Devan Hills.[20] His short book The High Ranges of Travancore describes these hills.[21]
2. James Munro (baptised 1805 died 1805).
3. Margaret Munro (died 1807).
4. Theodosia (born 1805, baptised 1807, probably also died young). Her mother's name is given as Chauby.

John Munro was married in Madras in 1808 to Charlotte, sister of Valentine Blacker. Their children were:[4][22]

1. Charlotte Munro (1810 - 1875, who married George Augustus Spencer)
2. James St. John Munro (baptised December 1811 in Padanilam, Travancore). He disposed of his succession to Teaninich to his brother Stuart Caradoc Munro, and became British Consul in Montevideo, Uruguay, where he died in 1878.
3. John Munro (1820 - 1845, served as captain in the 10th Light Cavalry of the Bengal army and as Aide de Camp to Lord Hardinge. After being promoted to major, he was wounded at the Battle of Moodkee in Dec 1845 and died two days later)
4. Stuart Caradoc Munro (1826 - 1911), a tea-planter in Ceylon, who left no issue.
5. Maxwell William Munro (1827 - 1854, died at sea).

See also

• Vyavahāramālā

***********************

John Munro and the History of Munroe Island, Kollam Kerala
by Manish Jaishree
Accessed: 8/28/24
https://manishjaishree.com/john-daniel- ... oe-island/

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO READ THE COPYRIGHT NOTICE AT THIS LINK BEFORE YOU READ THE FOLLOWING WORK, THAT IS AVAILABLE SOLELY FOR PRIVATE STUDY, SCHOLARSHIP OR RESEARCH PURSUANT TO 17 U.S.C. SECTION 107 AND 108. IN THE EVENT THAT THE LIBRARY DETERMINES THAT UNLAWFUL COPYING OF THIS WORK HAS OCCURRED, THE LIBRARY HAS THE RIGHT TO BLOCK THE I.P. ADDRESS AT WHICH THE UNLAWFUL COPYING APPEARED TO HAVE OCCURRED. THANK YOU FOR RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF COPYRIGHT OWNERS.

A visit to the Munroe Island and a desire to know more about the history of the Munroe island takes me to John Munro, a famous Scot, who left his indelible marks on the affairs of Travancore.

The History Of Munroe Island And Its Association With John Munro

Munroe Island is 13.54 square kilometre strip of land surrounded by the backwaters of Ashtamudi Lake and the Kallada River. It is named after John Munro, the British Resident and the Deewan of Travancore. I dig into the history to know more about John Munro and it takes me to the Travancore at the end of the eighteenth century.


Munroe Island

The History Of Munroe Island, Kollam

The Rule Of Raja Balaram Varma And The Diverse Population Of Travancore

It is 1798. At a tender age of sixteen Raja Balaram Varma is ruling over Travancore. He is reigning over a diverse population of extremely old sects of Muslims and the Syrian Christians inhabiting the region since first millennium; low-caste fishermen, who got converted to Roman Catholicism; and a highly stratified Hindu Society.

Among Hindus the Brahmins are at the elitist position having major land holdings; at the middle strata of the society are the Nairs, the military caste, some of its members own land and some work as managers to the land owning Brahmins; at the lowest level are the enslaved agriculture workers, the Pariah, the Pulaya, the Ezhara and the Nadars.

Increasing British Influence

Around the same period of time, the British are also increasing their influence in South India. They are sensing an opportunity to establish their own rule by making local kings dependent on them.

They are coercing local kings into treaties with a promise to protect them from foreign invaders. Most feared among them is Tipu Sultan. The British cajole the kings into a treaty with a promise that after signing it they no longer need to maintain big armies, a huge financial burden for the cash-strapped states.

The Kingdom Of Travancore Entering Into An Alliance With British

The kingdom of Travancore is suffering an acute mismanagement in revenue collection; corruption is rampant and the royal coffers are empty. So the kingdom of Travancore along with Cochin decides to enter into a treaty with British. The treaty demands a fixed pay-out in return for the protection.

The Corrupt But Influential-Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri

Maharaja is under great influence of a corrupt nobleman, Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri.

Nampoothiri has murdered Raja Kesavadas, the previous Deewan, and has nominated himself as new Deewan. Maharaja is not happy with him, but he is not able to assert, himself and his kingdom is characterized by intrigue and corruption. Ruthless and arrogant Deewan has even started to behave as the virtual ruler.

Deewan Nampoothiri is not bothered about the bad financial condition of the state and instead of bringing expenditure under control he is busy enjoying the luxuries with increased tax on the subjects.

Velu Thampi - A Great Warrior And A Freedom Fighter

Velu Thampi, a Jagirdar, revolts against Nampoothiri and after a bloody civil war manages to get him exiled.

Velu is now the new Deewan.

However, he is also not able to improve the state of revenue collections and to meet the demand of money in lieu of British support. He realizes that as the kingdom is completely dependent on British army, the pay-out has been increased manifolds.

Maharaja is now a mere puppets with no sovereign control over his own kingdom. Velu is a fighter and decides to fight against the British and to get rid of them. The bad luck looms over the kingdom. Velu Thampi's revolution is curtailed and in 1809 he kills himself, dying as a martyr.


Velu Thampi (courtesy Amar Chitra Katha)

King Balaram Varma Convinces British About His Innocence In Velu Thampi's Revolt

The king Balaram Varma convinces the British that he had no role in the revolt and Velu acted on his own. The British allows him to continue, though now with much lesser army under his direct command, and further increase in the pay-outs to them.

Gowri Lakshmi Bai And Her Deewan Ummini Thampi

Maharaja Balaram Varma dies in 1810 and is succeeded by Gowri Lakshmi Bai, daughter of his adopted sister.

She is facing several conspirators, most notable among them is Kerala Varma, a distant cousin of Maharaja Balaram Varma. She also realizes that her Deewan Ummini Thampi is acting independent, and is unanswerable to her.

Appointment Of John Munro As Deewan. The royal treasure is reducing at an alarming rate. All this alerted Rani, and one day, within one year of her occupying the throne, she sacks U.Thampi and appoints the British Resident Col John Munro, her new Deewan. A master-stroke from a political novice.

His goal is to balance the Government’s books and ensure the company receives regular tribute.


Maharani Lakshmi Bayi, as painted by Raja Ravi Varma, she was the elder sister of Raja Ravi Varma's wife.

Personality Of John Munro

John Munro has a forceful and shrewd personality. He is also an accomplished linguist, being able to speak and write fluently in French, German, Italian, Arabic, Persian and several of the Indian dialects.

The twin appointments make him the most powerful person in Travancore. However, instead of indulging in royal luxuries, he carries a number of reforms that change the history of Travancore.


Quaint water-alleys of Munroe Island

John Munro - The Reformist

Munro realizes soon that many of the district and village officials responsible for collecting tax revenues are corrupt. So to rein them in and to bring the much-needed administrative reforms, he limits their power only to the tax collection.

In case of misconduct or corruption these officials can now be subjected to judicial trials. For judicial system he selects officers among the natives, the most respectable Brahmins, the Nairs and the Syrian Christians, maintaining a balance among these powerful sects of the society. Travancore thus becomes the first kingdom where the judicial system of 20th century is introduced.

He re-organizes and re-energizes the police department. He is also taking initiative to fight the deadly smallpox disease and in order to eradicate it from Travancore he starts India's first vaccination department.

However, he realizes soon that the vaccination department and the team supporting the program has aroused suspicion among locals.

He requests Maharani Gowri Laxmi Bai to get vaccinated. Maharani whole-heartedly agrees to the cause. She is so convinced that she gets all her family members vaccinated as well. This complete faith in vaccination alleviates fear and misconceptions of many.


A solitary boat@Munroe Island

John Munro And Gowri Lakshmi Bai - Relationship Of Mutual Respect

John Munro respects the queen and has a soft corner for her. It is a common belief that he is discharging his duties with honesty. Time and again he also argues against the British on behalf of the Travancore state he represents.

The Oppressive Tax Regiment Of Travancore

Travancore has an oppressive caste system and an equally oppressive tax regiments for the downtrodden. Each strata in the society is oppressed by its upper strata and in turn oppresses its lower strata with equal vehemence. The social rule and the tax levied on lower castes are weird. Here is a list of a few of them.

The women of lower caste are required to pay "Mulakkaram - The breast tax" to cover their bosoms in public and the tax amount is calculated according to the size of the breast.

The lower castes people are also subject to Oozhiyam where they can be involved in any business that involves strenuous work without paying any wage for the same. The people of lower castes are taxed for marriages, childbirth, and even for any death occurring in their family.

The country boats, ploughs, carts, umbrellas, head-scarves, palm leaf, jaggery, the dry leaves used as fuel, huts the lower caste people live in, and even their moustaches are taxed.

There are taxes on oil mills, bows, iron and forges, exchanges, palanquins, hunting and on even on keeping a civet cat. There is also an important tax called 'purushantaram', a tax of twenty-five percent normally levied on all hereditary property.

Munro convinces Maharani and she forbade slavery except in agriculture that is completely dependent on it.


Munroe Island

John Munroe, The Shrewd Scotsman

Munro is also a shrewd Scot, well aware of the English interests. He believes that engaging local Christian population in state jobs will help him in garnering their support for the British interests in the region.

Till this time, the foreign Christian invaders, be it the Portuguese, or the Dutch, treated the Syrian Christians with suspicion and persecuted them similar to the other natives. Munro supports Syrian Christians. As a Christian Philanthropist, he also wishes to revive the Syrian Church.

He rescues Christians from compulsory services on Sunday and also from the temple taxes. He shows special interest in getting the Syrian scriptures translated to Malayalam. And as soon as the translation is ready, he gets its copies printed and places them in all churches of the region.

Connection Of John Munro With The History Of The Munroe Island

During this time, a senior priest Pulikkottil Joseph Kathavar of the Malankara Church, expresses his desire to establish a seminary for training priests and a place to settle the newly converts. This piece of land provided by Col Munro is later named as Munro-Thuruth (Munro Island) in his remembrance.


A path into Munroe Island

Grey Shades Of John Munro

Not everyone is happy with Munro though. In the name of revenue reforms he has seized sizable Hindu temple properties with no compensation and is blamed for jumbling and mixing of the land records in such a manner that even when he retires, it becomes impossible to catalog temple land from the Government land.

Some people believe that in this manner he single-handedly annihilated the temples of the region by reducing their revenues drastically.

In 1814, John Munro resigns from his Deewanship and returns to his birth place Teaninich Ross-Shire in Scotland. He lived there until his death in 1858. Today he is remembered as one of the Greatest British administrators of Travancore and Cochin, in one hundred fifty years of British domination.

For further reading on Travancore history, read the book "Ivory Throne: Chronicles of the house of Travancore” by Manu S. Pillai.  

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The little-known mutiny by British officers in Madras: Almost 50 years before the 1857 rebellion, British officers of the Madras Presidency mutinied against their superior officers and plunged southern India into turmoil for three months [White Mutiny of 1809]
by Ferdinand Mount
Last Updated : Mar 14 2015 | 3:51 PM IST


The Governor Sir George Barlow


Lt-General Hay Macdowall

It was an inglorious start to a military career. The first shots that John Low's battalion had fired with deadly intent since his arrival in India had been aimed at their mutinous comrades….

What came next was, if anything, even more inglorious, still more bizarre, and very nearly as bloody….

Three years later, it was not the Indian sepoys but their European commanders who mutinied almost to a man. Out of 1,300 officers commanding native troops in the Madras Presidency, 90 per cent refused to obey the orders of their superior officers. Only 150, most of them lieutenant-colonels and above, signed the test of loyalty imposed by the Governor, Sir George Barlow. The rest locked up their colonels, broke open the nearest Treasury and took out thousands of pagodas to pay their native troops, whom they then marched off wherever the fancy took them.

From the beginning of July to the middle of September 1809, the whole of southern India was in a state of lawlessness …. Never before and never since had a mutiny by British officers swept through an entire army.

The mutiny of the Madras Officers in 1809 remains a unique event. Yet the affair has remained strangely obscured, glossed over if not actually omitted in most histories of the British Empire and the Indian Army. … So why was there a White Mutiny? Why on earth did the handpicked guardians of the new master race in India turn on their commanders and plunge the bottom half of the country into giddy internal strife?

There were not one but two British armies in India. There was the King's Army, those of His Majesty's Regiments which had been seconded to India for a period …. And then there was the army of the East India Company, which was raised in India, trained in India, fought in India….In all three British regions, or Presidencies as they were called - Madras, Bombay and Bengal - not only did the Company's Army soon come to outnumber the King's Regiments, the Company's Army was soon predominantly made up of Indian troops. British rule depended on the fidelity of the sepoys [native soldiers], and on that alone. And that fidelity could be earned and kept only if the British officers who commanded the native regiments were up to the job. …

On the European side, the growing corps of young British officers in the native infantry and cavalry were growing disillusioned. … Most of them arrived in India without a penny and soon fell into debt. A subaltern on arrival had to find between 1,500 and 1,800 rupees for equipment and uniform. He would need to borrow this money and then insure his life as security for the debt. Even if he did not drink or gamble, his debt was likely to have doubled by the time he became a captain, up to six or seven thousand rupees -£35-40,000 in today's money. He was unlikely to be able to clear his debts until and unless he became a major, which might be years off, because promotion was so slow….

Grimmer still, an officer who joined the Company's Army at the end of the eighteenth century had little reason to hope that he would ever see England or his family again. The annual returns of the Bengal Army showed that between 1796 and 1820 only 201 officers lived to retire to Europe on pension, while 1,243 were killed or died on service….

The officers of the Coast Army had another source of grievance, too.… The officers of Bombay and Bengal were entitled to higher pay and allowances. From the beginning of 1807, if not from an earlier date, a spirit of discontent was fermenting among the Madras officers. …

The first reform that tickled up the existing resentments was the affair of the bazaar duties. From time immemorial… officers commanding districts and stations all over India had been entitled to take a cut on the goods sold in the military bazaars which straggled along the back of cantonments, where everybody did their shopping. This had been a nice earner to supplement those wretched salaries. The Court now pronounced that levying such duties was contrary to the Articles of War and 'has an evident tendency to make the soldiers discontented with their officers, by feeling themselves taxed for the benefit of those who command them'. Worse still, 'the amount of the collections in military bazaars has always depended, principally, on the extension of spirituous liquors to the troops.' Not only were the officers exploiting the poor sepoys and their families, they were encouraging them to drink - something which particularly horrified the Court, where strong Evangelical tendencies were taking hold. …

In July 1807, the bazaar duties were duly abolished.

The next scam to be tidied up… was the so-called 'tent contract'…. Under the existing system, which was only five years old (it had begun in 1802), the CO of a regiment held the contract for everything required to fit it out for movement in the field - tents, carts, bullocks, drivers and labourers etc.…[I]n May 1808 (these things always took time) the tent contract, too, was abolished.

By now [Lieutenant-General] Hay Macdowall was in post, and he was already in a steaming rage. What had first detonated his umbrage was…characteristically, a question of his own pay and perquisites. Previous Commanders-in-Chief had always enjoyed an ex officio seat on the Governor's Council, with a handsome additional allowance to go with it. But Bentinck… appealed to the Court of Directors to curb the excessive power of the military in India. The Court had responded by removing the C-in-C's automatic right to a seat in Council.

When he found out, [Macdowell] …soon gathered a noisy and indignant following throughout the Coast Army for his campaign against what he called 'these disgusting measures'.

On Christmas Eve, he reviewed the Madras European regiment at Masulipatam. He told them that they had been overlooked and neglected in their remote station. …. Then he took ship for England, firing off reprimands and protests in all directions. …

Instead of pausing to reflect that his greatest enemy had now disappeared from the scene and it might be possible to begin mending his fences with the Army, Sir George in his feverish pet cast around for someone else to punish. Major Thomas Boles was the Deputy Adjutant-General. His signature appeared on Macdowall's parting sally, but only as a formality because all such orders had to be transmitted through the Adjutant…. Barlow suspended both Boles and Capper…. Not unnaturally, Major Boles protested that he had done nothing wrong and refused to apologize.

In no time, yet another petition was circulating through the cantonments, this time addressed to the Governor-General in Calcutta, demanding that Barlow be sacked…. But …on May 1, 1809, [Barlow] had half a dozen colonels and another half-dozen majors and captains suspended or removed from their commands. Finally, provoked and inflamed, the officers of the Madras Army broke into open mutiny. …

The first outbreak took place within a European regiment, the first division Madras, which was stationed at Masulipatam. These were the very men to whom Hay Macdowall had delivered his inflammatory farewell address on Christmas Eve …. Macdowall's remarks could not help having an impact, and the new commanding officer had been warned to expect trouble.

Colonel James Innes, well-known to be not the sharpest knife in the box, arrived in a mood to detect 'sedition in every word and mutiny in every gesture'. …

By sheer bad luck, at this very moment, Admiral Drury, the naval commander at Madras, ran short of European troops to serve as marines on his coast squadron. Under recent regulations, King's soldiers were no longer to be detached for such purposes except in an emergency, which this was not, so the Government lighted on the 1st Madras European regiment to fill the complement that Drury desired - 100 men and three officers. This was the last thing anyone in Masulipatam wanted, service at sea being even more dangerous and unhealthy than service on land…

A deputation of officers went to Innes and begged Innes to suspend the embarkation until they had referred their protest to HQ. No dice. …

Tumult broke out across the barracks. Major Joseph Storey of the 1st/19th Native Infantry, the officer next in seniority to the Colonel, led a posse to Innes's bungalow, demanding he recall his orders. Innes refused… The men were with Storey. Innes was confined in his bungalow under armed guard. The embarkation orders were cancelled.

Major Storey wrote to Madras explaining what he had done. He also wrote urgent messages to the disaffected officers in other garrisons, appealing for their support. Joseph Storey was the first white mutineer.

The officers at Masulipatam had formed a committee. So had the officers at most other stations in the Coast Army. These committees now began to pledge each other to support their brother officers to the last drop of their blood. At Secunderabad, Jalna and Ellore, plans were speedily formed to march to the aid of the Masulipatam officers, if they were attacked by Government forces….

The next move for the more determined mutineers was to march off and join forces with other rebellious garrisons. They needed to pay and feed their sepoys to keep them loyal. So in station after station the mutineer officers took to armed robbery. They went to the nearest Treasury, overpowered the guards, broke open the chests and took whatever they found inside.

Upon the scene now comes Lieutenant-Colonel Samuel Gibbs of HM 59th Regiment. … [He] ordered his Dragoons to attack the startled sepoys from Chittledroog.…The official tally was nine dead and 281 missing…. A realistic estimate might be around 300 dead. The British had no casualties to speak of….

So the great White Mutiny came to its inglorious end. And several hundred sepoys lay dead in the ditches of Seringapatam, gunned down by Dragoons who were supposed to be their comrades-in-arms. The sepoys had never had any quarrel with the Honourable Company. In marching, they were simply obeying the commands of their discontented officers.

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Disruption of 1843
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/26/24


The Disruption Assembly by David Octavius Hill


Disruption brooch showing the graves of Andrew Melville, John Knox, David Welsh, James Renwick, and Alexander Henderson. Chalmers, Dunlop and Candlish are also mentioned.[1]

The Disruption of 1843, also known as the Great Disruption,[2] was a schism in 1843[3][4] in which 450 evangelical ministers broke away from the Church of Scotland[5] to form the Free Church of Scotland.[6] The main conflict was over whether the Church of Scotland or the British Government had the power to control clerical positions and benefits. The Disruption came at the end of a bitter conflict within the Church of Scotland, and had major effects in the church and upon Scottish civic life.[7]

The patronage issue

"The Church of Scotland was recognised by Acts of the Parliament as the national church of the Scottish people". Particularly under John Knox and later Andrew Melville, the Church of Scotland had always claimed an inherent right to exercise independent spiritual jurisdiction over its own affairs. To some extent, this right was recognised by the Claim of Right of 1689, which ended royal and parliamentary interference in the order and worship of the church. It was ratified by the Act of Union in 1707.

The brooch was made for the wives of the ministers who supported the Disruption to wear as a token of their support.


Disruption Brooch. Back side.

On the other hand, the right of patronage, in which the patron of a parish had the right to install a minister of his choice, became a point of contention. Many church members believed that this right infringed on the spiritual independence of the church. Others felt that this right was a property of the state. As early as 1712 the right of patronage had been restored in Scotland, amid remonstrances from the church. For many years afterwards, the church's General Assembly tried to reform this practice. However the dominant Moderate Party in the church blocked reform out of fear of conflict with the British Government.[8]

The "Ten Years' Conflict"

Veto Act


Parishioners walk out of church in protest at the unpopular appointment of a minister in the parish of Marnoch, Strathbogie in 1841

In 1834, the evangelical party attained a majority in the General Assembly for the first time in 100 years. One of their actions was to pass the Veto Act, which gave parishioners the right to reject a minister nominated by their patron.[9] The Veto Act was to prevent the intrusion of ministers on unwilling parishioners, and to restore the importance of the congregational "call". However, it served to polarise positions in the church, and set it on a collision course with the government.

The first test of the Veto Act came with the Auchterarder case of 1834. The parish of Auchterarder unanimously rejected the patron's nominee – and the Presbytery refused to proceed with his ordination and induction. The nominee, Robert Young, appealed to the Court of Session. In 1838, by an 8–5 majority, the court held that in passing the Veto Act, the church had acted ultra vires, and had infringed the statutory rights of patrons. It also ruled Church of Scotland was a creation of the state and derived its legitimacy from act of Parliament.

The Auchterarder ruling contradicted the Scottish church's Confession of Faith. As Burleigh puts it: "The notion of the Church as an independent community governed by its own officers and capable of entering into a compact with the state was repudiated" (p. 342). An appeal to the House of Lords was rejected.

Further conflicts


Mr Dunlop and David Welsh by Hill & Adamson. Dunlop wrote a memoir of Welsh.

In a second case, the Court of Session summoned the Presbytery of Dunkeld for proceeding with an ordination despite a court interdict. In 1839, the General Assembly suspended seven ministers from Strathbogie for proceeding with an induction in Marnoch in defiance of its orders. In 1841, the seven Strathbogie ministers were deposed for acknowledging the superiority of the secular court in spiritual matters.

The evangelical party later presented to parliament a Claim, Declaration and Protest Anent the Encroachments of the Court of Session. The claim recognised the jurisdiction of the civil courts over the endowments that the government gave to the Scottish church. This "The Claim of Right" was drawn up by Alexander Murray Dunlop.[10] However, the claim resolved that the church give up these endowments rather than see the 'Crown Rights of the Redeemer' (i.e. the spiritual independence of the church) compromised.[11] This claim was rejected by parliament in January 1843, leading to the Disruption in May.[12]

The Disruption


St Andrew's Church, Edinburgh, scene of the Disruption


The 1843 deed of demission

On 18 May 1843, 121 ministers and 73 elders led by David Welsh met at the Church of St Andrew in George Street, Edinburgh.[13] After Welsh read a Protest, the group left St. Andrews and walked down the hill to the Tanfield Hall at Canonmills. There they held the first meeting of the Free Church of Scotland, the Disruption Assembly. Thomas Chalmers was appointed the first Moderator. On 23 May, a second meeting was held for the signing of the Act of Separation by the ministers. Eventually, 474 of about 1,200 ministers left the Church of Scotland for the Free Church.[14]

In leaving the established church, however, they did not reject the principle of establishment. As Chalmers declared: "Though we quit the Establishment, we go out on the Establishment principle; we quit a vitiated Establishment but would rejoice in returning to a pure one. We are advocates for a national recognition of religion – and we are not voluntaries."

Perhaps a third of the evangelicals, the "middle party", remained within the established church – wishing to preserve its unity. However, for those who left, the issue was clear. It was not the democratising of the church (although concern with power for ordinary people was a movement sweeping Europe at the time), but whether the Church was sovereign within its own domain. The body of the church reflecting Jesus Christ, not the monarch nor Parliament, was to be its head. The Disruption was basically a spiritual phenomenon – and for its proponents it stood in a direct line with the Reformation and the National Covenants.

Splitting the church had major implications. Those who left forfeited livings, manses and pulpits, and had, without the aid of the establishment, to found and finance a national church from scratch. This was done with remarkable energy, zeal and sacrifice. Another implication was that the church they left was more tolerant of a wider range of doctrinal views.

There was also the issue of needing to train its clergy, resulting in the establishment of New College, with Chalmers appointed as its first principal. It was founded as an institution to educate future ministers and the Scottish leadership, who would in turn guide the moral and religious lives of the Scottish people. New College opened its doors to 168 students in November 1843, including about 100 students who had begun their theological studies before the Disruption.[15]

Most of the principles on which the protestors went out were conceded by Parliament by 1929, clearing the way for the re-union of that year, but the Church of Scotland never fully regained its position after the division.

Photographic portraiture

The painter David Octavius Hill was present at the Disruption Assembly and decided to record the scene. He received encouragement from another spectator, the physicist Sir David Brewster who suggested using the new invention, photography, to get likenesses of all the ministers present, and introduced Hill to the photographer Robert Adamson. Subsequently, a series of photographs were taken of those who had been present, and the 5-foot x 11-foot 4 inches (1.53 m x 3.45 m) painting was eventually completed in 1866. The partnership that developed between Hill and Adamson pioneered the art of photography in Scotland. The painting predominantly features the ministers involved in the Disruption but Hill also included many other men – and some women – who were involved in the establishment of the Free Church. The painting depicts 457 people of the 1500 or so who were present at the assembly on 23 May 1843.

Gallery


A minister and his family leaving their Church of Scotland manse during the Disruption (engraving J. M. Corner[8]) based on Quitting The Manse[9] [17] (oil painting G. Harvey) – featuring Tullibody Old Kirk


New College, on the Mound, designed by William Henry Playfair and built 1845–1850.[10][18]


Hill & Adamson took photographic portraits of all the clergymen who had been at the assembly.

In literature and the arts

The social tensions underlying the Disruption are the subject of William Alexander's novel, Johnny Gibb of Gushetneuk (1870).[19] David Octavius Hill's use of photography to record the ministers who participated in the schism of 1843 features in Ali Bacon's novel In the Blink of an Eye (2018).[20]

See also

• History of Scotland
• Religion in the United Kingdom

References

Citations

1. "Disruption Brooch". Retrieved 1 June 2019.
2. Buchanan 1854a.
3. Durham, James; Blair, Robert (preface) (1659). The dying man's testament to the Church of Scotland, or, A treatise concerning scandal. London: Company of Stationers. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
4. Macpherson, John (1903). McCrie, C.G. (ed.). The doctrine of the church in Scottish theology. Edinburgh: Macniven & Wallace. pp. 91–128.
5. Miller, Hugh (1871). The Headship of Christ (5th ed.). Edinburgh: William P. Nimmo. pp. 472–479. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
6. Walker 1895.
7. Bayne 1893.
8. Withrington, Donald J. (1993). The Disruption: a century and a half of historical interpretation. Scottish Church History Society. pp. 119–153. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
9. Lynch, Michael (1992). Scotland: A New History. Pimlico. p. 401. ISBN 0-7126-9893-0.
10. Johnston 1887, pp. 205–209.
11. Claim 1842.
12. Johnston 1887, p. 209.
13. Johnston 1887, p. 210.
14. Wylie 1881, p. cxii.
15. Brown, Stewart J. (1996). "The Disruption and the Dream: The Making of New College 1843–1861". In Wright, David F.; Badcock, Gary D. (eds.). Disruption to Diversity: Edinburgh Divinity 1846–1996. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 29–50. ISBN 978-0567085177.
16. Brown, Thomas (1893). Annals of the disruption. Edinburgh: Macniven & Wallace. pp. 132–143. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
17. Harvey, George. "Quitting the Manse". National Galleries of Scotland. Antonia Reeve. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
18. Goold, David (1 September 2022). "Free High Church and Free Church College". Dictionary of Scottish Architects. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
19. Alexander, William (1995), Johnny Gibb of Gushetneuk, Tuckwell Press, East Lothian, ISBN 9781898410447
20. Bacon, Ali (2018), In the Blink of an Eye, Linen Press,ISBN 9780993599736

Sources

• Bayne, Peter (1893). The Free Church of Scotland : her origin, founders and testimony. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
• Brown, Thomas (1893). Annals of the disruption with extracts from the narratives of ministers who left the Scottish establishment in 1843 by Thomas Brown. Edinburgh: Macniven & Wallace.
• Bryce, James (1850a). Ten Years of the Church of Scotland from 1833 to 1843. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Blackwood.
• Bryce, James (1850b). Ten Years of the Church of Scotland from 1833 to 1843. Vol. 2. Edinburgh: Blackwood.
• Buchanan, Robert (1854a). The ten years' conflict : being the history of the disruption of the Church of Scotland. Vol. 1. Glasgow ; Edinburgh ; London ; New York: Blackie and Son.
• Buchanan, Robert (1854b). The ten years' conflict : being the history of the disruption of the Church of Scotland. Vol. 2. Glasgow ; Edinburgh ; London ; New York: Blackie and Son.
• Dunlop, Alexander Murray (1839). An answer to the dean of faculty's [J. Hope's] Letter to the lord chancellor on the claims of the Church of Scotland. Edinburgh: John Johnstone.
• Hanna, William (1849). Memoirs of the life and writings of Thomas Chalmers. Vol. 4. Edinburgh: Pub. for T. Constable.
• Johnston, John C. (1887). Treasury of the Scottish covenant. Edinburgh: Andrew Elliot. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
• MacGeorge, Andrew (1875). The statements in the claim of right : are they true?. Glasgow: James Maclehose.
• Macpherson, Hector C. (1905). Scotland's battles for spiritual independence. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. pp. 205–222.
• M'Crie, Charles Greig (1893). The Free Church of Scotland : her ancestry, her claims, and her conflicts. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
• Turner, Alexander (1859). The Scottish Secession of 1843 : being an examination of the principles, and narrative of the contest, which led to that remarkable event. Edinburgh: Paton and Ritchie.
• Walker, Norman L. (1895). Chapters from the History of the Free Church of Scotland. Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier.
• Welsh, David; Colquhoun-Stirling-Murray-Dunlop, Alexander (1846). Sermons by the Late Reverend David Welsh D.D. With a Memoir by A. Dunlop. Edinburgh: W. P. Kennedy.
• Wilson, William, minister of St. Paul's Free Church, Dundee (1880). Memorials of Robert Smith Candlish, D.D. : minister of St. George's Free Church, and principal of the New College, Edinburgh with a chapter on his position as a theologian by Robert Rainy. Edinburgh: A. and C. Black.
• Wylie, James Aitken, ed. (1881). Sketch of the Disruption Day from Disruption worthies : a memorial of 1843, with an historical sketch of the free church of Scotland from 1843 down to the present time. Edinburgh: T. C. Jack. pp. 131–136. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
• "ACT XIX. 1842 – Claim, Declaration and Protest, Anent the Encroachments of the Court of Session". Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Archived from the original on 2 May 2008. Retrieved 21 July 2008.

Further reading

• Cameron, N. et al. (eds.) Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993.
• Burleigh, J. H. S. A Church History of Scotland Edinburgh: Hope Trust 1988.

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Wood's dispatch
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/30/24

Wood's Despatch

Sir Charles Wood, G.C.B., 1st Viscount Halifax (1800-1885)
Created: 1854
Commissioned by: President of the Board of Control of India
Author(s): Sir Charles Wood
Signatories: Adish
Media type: Communiqué
Subject: Education
Purpose: To hasten the development of education in British India

Wood's dispatch is the informal name for a formal dispatch that was sent by Sir Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the British East India Company to Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India. Wood's communique suggested a major shift to popularising the use of English within India. As for the language of instruction, Wood recommended that primary schools adopt vernacular languages, for secondary schools to adopt both English and vernacular languages and for colleges to adopt English.

The letter played an important role in spreading English-language learning and female education in British India. One of the most favourable steps taken was to create an English-speaking class among the Indian people to be used as a workforce in the company's administration. Vocational and women's education also became more heavily emphasised.[1]

This period of time in the British Raj was part of a final phase in which the British government administration brought social reforms to India. The governing policies later tended to become more reactionary, notably in the wake of major social and political unrest surrounding the Indian Rebellion of 1857.[2]

Difference between conservative and reactionary
r/Socialism_101
Reddit.com
https://www.reddit.com/r/Socialism_101/ ... actionary/

AegonIConqueror
2y ago
It is important to emphasize that American 'conservatives' are reactionaries. But generally we would refer to conservatives as still desiring to uphold bourgeois democracy and 'free market' capitalism, but with even more emphasis on enabling the fullest exploitation of the workers and of deregulation. Along of course with the addition that they tend to emphasize more traditionalist and thus oppressive views on social morality, acting as 'softer' oppressors of groups such as our LGBT comrades. In short, they are in many regards like other liberals but with even more obvious contempt for the poor and a desire to enforce even more archaic moral structures.

Reactionary is a bit more complex than that, it has a distinctly socialist meaning in theory written in the later 1800s to mid 1900s. However in modern discourse, and in truth I find this most valuable as a way of grouping, you can consider them to be those ideological groups which propose effective autocracy for government and center themselves around the most militant and oppressive of social morality. Ultra nationalism, severe enforcement of religious fundamentalism, all usually enforced by dictatorship de facto or de jure, these are what link fascists, theocrats, monarchists, and other such groups to all be 'reactionaries'.

bigblindmax
2y ago
Conservatives are generally right-leaning liberals who uphold capitalism and liberal democracy. Most small-c conservatives would say that their preference is to maintain the status quo and that they are wary of rapid change or social progress.

Reactionaries actively want to take society backwards and return to some idealized past. They may consider themselves liberals, or they may reject liberal democracy entirely in favor of monarchism, fascism, etc. Most reactionaries are bigots, militarists, religious zealots or some combination of the three.

Both groups are our enemies, but reactionaries are typically the ones who actively want us dead. It’s also important to remember that a lot of people who claim to be conservatives are reactionaries, either to obscure their politics or (more commonly) because people genuinely confuse and conflate the two.

Someone that an American liberal would consider a conservative, we would typically consider a reactionary.

[deleted]
2y ago
Also generally worth noting is that conservatives and reactionary are relative terms, not absolute terms. They change with whatever the dominant ideology is. Compared to terms like socialist and liberal were are more consistent and less dependent on the society they find themselves in.

For example conservatives during the time of the French Revolution were monarchists and the radicals were liberal Republicans.

JudgeSabo
2y ago
Generally, I see reactionary as a broader category than conservatives. Fascists, for example, are reactionary because they oppose progressive reform, but are not conservative since they are focused on building this mass movement of radical nationalist militants, rather simply quietly maintaining the status quo.

Hawkatana0
2y ago
All conservatives are reactionaries, but not all reactionaries are conservatives.

NiceBrick4418
2y ago
The differences aren't so big, reactionary is the one that actively fights against social progress, while conservative is the one that tries to preserve the social status quo.

Most of the times these 2 go together, and almost always, conservatives tend to become reactionary and not the opposite.

ElEsDi_25
2y ago
It’s going to be blurry irl, but in broad strokes I think of it this way: worldview is based on your relationship to the capitalist status quo/social hierarchy.

So US liberals/conservatives generally think the status quo is fine. It’s just higher or lower taxes, more or less regulation to “make things [capitalism] run naturally/fair”

The left and right think the liberal status quo needs to change in some way. The right thinks the hierarchy needs to be bolstered (remove obstacles to allow the “true” elite to emerge or just straight up dictatorship to make the “natural” hierarchy more pronounced, protected.)

Reactionaries think society needs to be ordered in a way that allows a mythic/natural/true hierarchy/social order to be realized. They are “reacting” to the relative decline in hard caste. Conservatives in the US are basically just socially-conservative liberals.

Obviously (or it should be) the left wants no/less capitalist social hierarchy.

Hister333
2y ago
On paper, conservatives favor smaller government, and less spending. In reality, they spend the same amount of money on different things, and create a pseudo-religious nationalist smokescreen to distract their voters from it.

SirZacharia
2y ago
The two terms are not technically related. Being reactionary is a way of thinking, or rather choosing to not think and just react. You consider it the foil to critical thought. Critical thought being the act of questioning everything before making a conclusion.

“Conservative” is a political position of upholding the preservation of traditional institutions practices and values to try to keep society the same because they believe it is already good. The foil to this would “progressive” a political position of embracing change to try to improve society.

I would certainly argue that impedes critical thought to avoid change. Combatting change of all kinds because you refuse to believe that change is good is always reactionary imo.

FIELDSLAVE
2y ago
conservatives - preserve the status quo

reactionaries - go back to a previous status quo

A reactionary in the US would be somebody who wants to bring back chattel slavery or eliminate gay marriage.

Background

The East India Company (EIC) largely ignored development of education in India until the mid-19th century. Some of its members thought that they should transform India into a civilised society and convert the Indian mindset by making rapid changes. Others thought that it was best to educate Indians and recruit them in Indian Civil Services (ICS). By learning English, Indians would adopt British rule. Those were some of the reasons that the EIC wanted Indians to learn English. Lord Macaulay said, "We (Britishers) should try to create a class of people, who would work as translators between the people who we are ruling and us, even though they may look like Indians by color; but their likes and dislikes, morals and thinking will be like an Englishman".[1]

Recommendations

Wood's recommendations were the following:

1. English-language education would enhance the moral character of Indians and thus supply the East India Company with civil servants who could be trusted.
2. An separate education department should be set up in every province to run the schools properly and for the advancement of education system.
3. Universities on the model of the University of London be established in large cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
4. At least one government school should be opened in every district.
5. Affiliated private schools should be given grants in aid.
6. Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue as well.
7. Provision should be made for a systematic method of education from the primary to the university levels.
8. The government should support education for women.
9. The medium of instruction at the primary level should be the vernacular but at the higher levels should be English.
10. The training of teachers at all levels should be promoted and stressed and for this purpose , training schools of teachers should be established.
11. The government schools and colleges ought to be renovated.
12. Secular education is to be promoted.

Measures taken

After Wood's dispatch, several measures were taken by the East India Company:

1. New institutions were set up like the University of Calcutta, the University of Bombay and the University of Madras in 1857, as well as the University of the Punjab in 1882 and the University of Allahabad in 1887.
2. In all provinces, education departments were set up.
3. English-language education was promoted within academics and the bureaucracies of companies and public services.

Consequences

Merits:

According to the recommendations of Sir Charles Wood-

1. Three universities were established in Kolkata, Bombay and Madras in 1857. # Later on two more universities were founded in Lahore and Allahabad.
2. The education department or Directorate of Public Instruction was established in 1855.
3. The number of primary schools all over India increased from 3916 in 1881-82 to 5124 in 1900-02.
4. The Indian Education Service was formed in 1896 to conduct the 4 administrative activities in the field of education.
5. The Hunter Commission (1882- of 83), the Raleigh Commission (1902-04) [Indian Universities Commission 1902] and the Sadler Commission (1917-19) were set up with the purpose of expanding education.

The Indian Universities Commission was a body appointed in 1902 on the instructions of Viceroy of India Lord Curzon intended to make recommendations for reforms in university education in India. Appointed following a conference on education at Simla in September 1901, the commission was led by Law member Thomas Raleigh and included among its members Syed Hussain Belgrami, future Justice Sir C. Sankaran Nair, and Justice Gooroodas Banerjee. The recommendations of the commission included regulations for reformation of University Senates in Indian Universities, greater representation of affiliated colleges in the senates, and stricter monitoring of affiliated institutions by the universities. It also made recommendations for reform of school education, curricular reforms at universities, recommendations on education and examinations, research, as well as student welfare and state scholarships. The recommendations were, however, controversial at the time. There was a growing nationalist sentiment in British India, and a number of colleges and institutions of higher education had risen in metropolitan suburbs which were linked to the major universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. These set their own curriculum, and the recommendations of the commission were seen as measures to derecognize and regulate indigenous institutions which fell into disfavour of the Raj. Despite strong and sustained opposition from Indian populace, the recommendations were enacted by Curzon as Indian Universities Act 1904.

Indian Universities Commission 1902, by Wikipedia

The Sadler Commission

In 1917 to 1919, Sadler led the "Sadler Commission" which looked at the state of Indian Education.[2]

Towards the end of the First World War, the Secretary of State for India, Austen Chamberlain, invited Sadler to accept the chairmanship of a commission the government proposed to appoint to inquire into the affairs of the University of Calcutta. Chamberlain wrote: "Lord Chelmsford [the Viceroy] informs me that they hope for the solution of the big political problems of India through the solution of the educational problems." After some hesitation, Sadler accepted the invitation. Under his direction the Commission far exceeded its initial terms of reference. The result was 13 volumes issued in 1919, providing a comprehensive sociological account of the context in which Mahatma Gandhiwas campaigning for the end of the British Raj and the independence of India. The lines of inquiry pursued make it possible to deduce a concept of expanding higher education that goes far beyond the traditional university image in its search to relate higher education to the 20th century, along with its increasing availability of educational opportunities to women. Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee, known as the Tiger of Bengal, was a member of that commission.

Before the publication of the Calcutta University Report, Sadler delivered a private address to the Senate of the University of Bombay. He put forward his personal conclusions as he surveyed The Educational Movement in India and Britain. It was characteristic of Sadler's belief in the inter-relationship of all the various levels of education and the importance of teacher training. He warned his listeners about producing an academic proletariat with job expectations that could not be fulfilled. And finally he told the members of the Senate:

And in India you stand on the verge of the most hazardous and inevitable of adventures—the planning of primary education for the unlettered millions of a hundred various races. I doubt whether the European model will fit Indian conditions. If you want social dynamite, modern elementary education of the customary kind will give it to you. It is the agency that will put the masses in motion. But to what end or issue no one can foretell.

-- Michael Sadler (educationist), by Wikipedia

Demerits:

1. Since the western education schemes were mainly confined to the cities the villages were deprived of its benefits. As the western education was mainly imparted through the medium of English the common people of India did not show much interest in it.

References

Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Despatch of 1854, on General Education in India
1. Kale, Dr. M.V. (2021). Modern India (in Marathi) (4 ed.). Pune. p. 73.
2. Mia Carter, Barbara Harlow (2003). Archives on Empire Volume I, From East India Company to Suez Canal. Duke university Press. p. 400. ISBN 9780822385042.

Sources

• Bayly, Christopher Alan (1987), Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, The New Cambridge History of India, vol. II.1, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-38650-0.
Category:
• History of education in India
• This page was last edited on 10 March 2024, at 20:41 (UTC).
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Part 1 of 2

The Advent of British Educational System and English Language in the Indian Subcontinent: A Shift from Engraftment to Ultimate Implementation and Its Impact on Regional Vernaculars
by Muhammad Tufail Chandio, Saima Jafri, & Komal Ansari
International Research Journal of Arts & Humanities (IRJAH) Vol. 42
January 2014

Abstract

The research study critically traces the historical background of the introduction of the western education system with English as the medium of instruction in the Indian subcontinent and its impact on the teaching of various subjects and local languages in the postcolonial phase. It analyzes the transitional shift from the indigenous/regional vernaculars to engraftment (translating western knowledge into indigenous languages for teaching) and eventual shift to English as the medium of instruction, which thwarted the process of engraftment and development of indigenous languages. The study analyzes that how the education in the subcontinent was affected in the wake of diametrical shift in the British political policy from orientalism, engraftment, conciliation and consolidation to hostility, antagonism and oppression. Although, the study repudiates the popular myth of the revolutionary changes claimed by the British education system in the subcontinent, yet it establishes that how in the longer term it contributed to the academic, literary, social, political and economic advancement of the region. Nevertheless its repercussions for the regional languages were immense. The study reveals that how English, which was the language of power, authority and center, became a means of retaliation, communication and resistance at the hands of natives. The study, in its nature, is descriptive and historical one.

Key Words: British Colonial Education system, Vernaculars, Engraftment, English Language.

Introduction

The undertaken study focuses the introduction of English language in the educational system of the Indian subcontinent in the wake of the British colonization. The region remained under the indirect and direct rule of the British Empire for about three centuries. The colonizers used Eurocentric historical construct, English literature and English-based western educational system to justify and perpetuate the colonial rule. The pre-colonial educational system of the region was based on the indigenous languages viz. Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and other vernaculars. Initially to avoid confrontation and resistance, the colonizers did not interfere in the educational system of the region. In the later period, the approach of engraftment was introduced, in which the content of the western knowledge were translated into the indigenous languages; however, there had been a prolonged controversy and polemical debate between the Conservatives (Orientalists) and the Reformists (Anglicists) over the education system and medium of instruction: the former preferred the oriental educational system and the engraftment of the western contents, whereas the latter were bent upon the introduction of the western educational system with English as the medium of instruction.

One of Voltaire's favorite teachers at the Jesuit college Louis-le-Grand in Paris was Father Rene Joseph DE TOURNEMINE (1661-1739), the chief editor of the journal Memoires de Trevoux. Father Tournemine had been involved in the controversy about the Chinese Rites that culminated in 1700 with the banning of several books on China at the Sorbonne. This so-called Querelle des rites [Google translate: Quarrel of rites.] had been accompanied by the publication of reams of pamphlets and books and is a striking example of public attention to oriental issues in Voltaire's youth and of their impact on the established religion in Europe (Etiemble 1966; Pinot 1971; Cummins 1993).

On the losing side of the rites controversy, which came to a peak one century after Ricci in Voltaire's school years, were those who agreed with his idea that the ancient Chinese had from remote antiquity venerated God and abandoned pure monotheism only much later under the influence of Persian magic (Daoism) and Indian idolatry (Buddhism). They liked to evoke Ricci's statement about having read with his own eyes in Chinese books that the ancient Chinese had worshipped a single supreme God. In order to explain how this pure ancient religion had degenerated into idolatry, they cited Ricci's Story about the dispatch in the year 65 C.E. of a Chinese embassy to the West in search of the true faith (Trigault 1617:120-21). Instead of bringing back the good news of Jesus, the story went, the Chinese ambassadors had stopped short on the way and returned infected with the idolatrous teachings of an Indian impostor called Fo (Buddha). In the following centuries, this doctrine had reportedly contaminated the whole of East Asia and turned people away from original monotheism. Since Ricci's Story was told in one of the seventeenth century's most widely translated and read books about Asia, Nicolas Trigault's edition of Ricci's History of the Christian Expedition to the Kingdom of China (first published in Latin in 1615), it had an enormous influence on the European perception of Asia's religious history.

Ricci's extremist successors, the so-called Jesuit figurists (see Chapter 5), sought to locate the ancient monotheistic creed of the Chinese not just in Confucian texts but also in the Daoist Daodejing (Book of the Way and Its Power) and of course in the book that some believed to be the oldest extant book of the world, the Yijing (or I-ching; Book of Changes).

These figurists included the French China missionaries Joachim Bouvet (1656-1730), the correspondent of Leibniz, and younger Jesuit colleagues like Joseph-Henri Premare (1666-1736) and Jean-Francois Foucquet (1665-1741), the man to whom Voltaire later falsely attributed the translation of his own "Chinese catechism." The Jesuits of the Ricci camp thought that since genuine monotheism had existed in a relatively pure state at least until the time of Confucius, their role as missionaries essentially consisted in reawakening the old faith, documenting its "prophecies" regarding Christ, identifying its goal and fulfillment as Christianity, and eradicating the causes of religious degeneration such as idolatry, magic, and superstition. Ritual vestiges of ancient monotheism were naturally exempted from the purge and subject to "accommodation."

By contrast, the extremists in the victorious opposite camp of the Chinese Rites controversy held that -- regardless of possible vestiges of monotheism and prediluvian science -- divine revelation came exclusively through the channels of Abraham and Moses, that is, the Hebrew tradition, and was fulfilled in Christianity. This meant that the Old and New Testaments were the sole genuine records of divine revelation and that all unconnected rites and practices were to be condemned. From this exclusivist perspective, the sacred scriptures of other nations could only contain fragments of divine wisdom if they had either plagiarized Judeo-Christian texts or aped their teachers and doctrines.

-- The Birth of Orientalism, by Urs App

The Minutes of Macaulay 1835 settled the issue in the favour of Reformists (Anglicists), and English was introduced as the medium of instruction. Macaulay reiterated that the western English-based educational system would groom a band of the natives who would be Indian in colour but English in taste and intellect and they would play the role of intermediary between the colonizers and the colonized. After the War of Independence (1857), the British government replaced the policy of reconciliation and cooperation with antagonism and oppression. This caused three major losses to the field of education and language teaching: the first, the gradual process of engraftment of western contents was stopped which, if continued, had enriched the indigenous languages with the modern knowledge; the second, the oriental knowledge went into the background as the colonial discourse belittled its worth and scope; the third, English dominated and overshadowed the indigenous languages and halted their progress and development.

When the natives started National Movements against the foreign rule, there occurred a dramatic shift in the status of English from the language of center to the periphery, from the language of power to the tool of retaliation, from the symbol of authority to subversion; moreover, it was altogether transformed from the tool of colonial, imperial and cultural indoctrination to the powerful means of protest and communication at the hands of the natives. This study upholds the issue of occidental versus oriental education system and traces its consequences.

Scope of the Study

The study traces the transitional and historical shift in the educational system of the Indian subcontinent from the oriental to occidental contents and pattern with English as the medium of instruction. The study provides fresh insight into the historical development of language and content teaching in the region. Besides, it also deals with the status, scope, contribution and impact of English language in the academic, political, social, economic and literary realms of the region.

Hypothesis

There is a significant impact of the western education system with English as the medium of instruction on the educational system of the Indian subcontinent in the wake of the British colonization.

The British Colonization of the Indian Subcontinent

After the discovery of the Cape of Hope by a Portuguese navigator in 1498, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the English and the French East India Companies landed in the South Asia. The English East India Company dominated in the Indian subcontinent and outdid its rival European companies. The company had its army for the security and protection of the trade; however, the same military was used in the princely conflicts among the small states and the company was paid for it. With the passage of time, the company made contracts with these small states and provinces for their security and persuaded them not to keep their army on the pretext that the company would defend them. It served dual purpose: the company extended its trade in these states and got political power to intervene and settle the political affairs. Robert Clive defeated the French and their Indian allies and attacked on Bengal. His victory over Siraj-ud-Dawlah in the War of Plassey (1757) laid the foundation of British rule in India.

-- Fort William-India House Correspondence and Other Contemporary Papers Relating Thereto, Vol. I: 1748-1756, Edited by K. K. Datta, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of History, Patna University, Patna. Published for the National Archives of India by the Manager of Publications, Government of India, 1958

-- Full Proceedings of the Black Hole Debate, Bengal, Past & Present, Journal of the Calcutta Historical Society, Vol. XII. Jan – June, 1916

Diwan Act 1765 empowered the company to collect revenue and tax from Bengal, Behar and Orissa.

Provisions of the Diwan Act 1765 in India
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Accessed: 8/30/24

In 1765, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II granted the East India Company (EIC) the Diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This marked a significant milestone in the history of British colonialism in India.

Key Provisions

1. Diwani Rights: The EIC was appointed as the Diwan, responsible for collecting revenue from these provinces, with a fixed annual tribute of twenty-six lakhs of rupees to the Mughal Emperor.
2. Company Rule: The EIC assumed direct control over the diwani administration, replacing the autonomous nawabs and diwans. This marked the beginning of British colonial rule in Bengal.
3. End of Clive’s Double Government: In 1772, the EIC’s Court of Directors abolished the Clive’s Double Government system, where the Company and the nawabs shared power. Warren Hastings, the Governor, took direct control of the diwani administration, solidifying British rule.

Impact

The Diwan Act of 1765:

• Established British dominance over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa
• Marked the beginning of the East India Company’s expansion beyond trade to territorial control
• Set a precedent for future British territorial acquisitions in India
• Led to the eventual decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of British colonial rule in India

The news of making abnormal profit and misappropriation reached England, for that, Regulation Act 1773 was passed to monitor the business activities of the English merchants in India.

India's 1773 Regulation Act
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Accessed: 8/30/24

The Regulation Act of 1773 was a significant piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament to regulate the activities of the East India Company (EIC) in India. The Act aimed to revamp the company’s governance and management, addressing concerns about its financial troubles, corruption, and lack of accountability.

Key Provisions:

1. Limited Company Dividends: The Act capped company dividends at 6% until the company repaid a £1.5m loan.
2. Restricted Court of Directors: The Court of Directors’ terms were limited to four years, ensuring greater accountability and rotation of leadership.
3. Prohibition on Private Trade: Company employees were banned from engaging in private trade or receiving gifts or bribes from Indians.
4. Establishment of a Governor-General: The Act created the position of Governor-General, responsible for overseeing the company’s administration in India, with the authority to issue orders and regulations.
5. Centralization of Power: The Act centralized power in the Governor-General, reducing the autonomy of local officials and the Court of Directors.

Impact:

1. First Step towards Parliamentary Control: The Regulation Act marked the beginning of parliamentary control over the EIC’s Indian administration, paving the way for further reforms.
2. Improved Governance: The Act introduced measures to reduce corruption and increase accountability, leading to a more transparent and efficient administration.
3. Limited Company’s Autonomy: The Act curtailed the company’s autonomy, making it more accountable to the British government and Parliament.
4. Prepared Ground for Future Reforms: The Regulation Act laid the groundwork for subsequent reforms, such as Pitt’s India Act of 1784, which further centralized power and introduced more significant changes to the company’s governance.

Conclusion: The Regulation Act of 1773 was a crucial step in the British Parliament’s efforts to regulate and control the East India Company’s activities in India. While it had its limitations, the Act introduced important reforms, including the establishment of a Governor-General and the prohibition on private trade, which helped to improve governance and reduce corruption.

The Court of Directors was constituted to deal with the affairs of the company and the members of the court were chosen through election process. Later on, William Pit[t] moved a resolution in the British Parliament in 1784 for bringing the company under the administrative control of the ministry. Thus, the company through the ministry was responsible to the British Parliament. From 1757 onwards, the British Government indirectly ruled India through the company but after the upsurge of 1857, the British Government terminated the company’s power and assumed its rule in India, hence India went under the direct rule of the British government, which ended in 1947. Brian (1996) reveals that the territory of about two hundred and eighty thousand square miles, equal to all Christian Europe, consisting of thirty millions of human race, were under the direct control of the East India Company. However, the native laid the foundation of the anti-British empire movements: both the Muslim and the Hindus, in harmony to the extent, jolted, questioned, frowned, and eventually up-rooted the British empires, which split the then Indian subcontinent into two separate states – India and Pakistan, the latter was further subdivided with the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971.

British Withdrawal from India in 1947
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Accessed: 8/30/24

Based on the provided search results, here is a concise answer:

The British left India in 1947 due to a combination of factors, including:

1. Financial burden: World War II had severely damaged the British economy, making it difficult for them to maintain their colonial empire.
2. Local resistance: The Indian Independence movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi and others, had been gaining momentum, and the British realized that they were losing control.
3. Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946): This mutiny showed the British that they were no longer able to maintain control over the local armed forces, making their presence untenable.
4. Shift in global politics: The post-war world order was changing, and the British Empire was no longer the dominant power it once was.
5. Partition: The British decided to partition India into two separate countries, India and Pakistan, to accommodate the demands of Muslim leaders and to reduce the complexity of governing a diverse population.
Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, played a key role in negotiating the transfer of power and setting the date for independence, August 15, 1947. The British government, led by Prime Minister Clement Attlee, ultimately concluded that it was no longer feasible to maintain control over India.

Note that some sources, like Dr. Susmit Kumar’s claim, suggest that Hitler’s defeat in World War II and the subsequent shift in global politics contributed to the British decision to leave India. However, this perspective is not widely accepted and is not supported by the majority of historical accounts.

A Snapshot of the Pre and Post Colonial Indigenous Educational System

The pre-colonial Indian education system was based on oriental pattern consisting of Pathshalas, the madrassas, the Persian schools called Maktabs, in which Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit were mediums of instruction; later in 1829, Urdu was also added as a medium of instruction. With the advent of the British rule, the western education system based on European scientific knowledge and literature with English as the medium of instruction was introduced. Warren Hastings, Lord Bentinck, Charles Grant, Zachary Macaulay and William Wilberforce influenced the British policy of education in the region. Subsequently, Macaulay’s Minutes of 1935, Wood’s dispatch 1854, Hunter Commission 1882, Saddler Commission 1917, Hartog Committee 1929, Abbot and Wood Report 1937 and Sargent Report 1944 emphasized the superiority of occidental over oriental system of education.

Hartog Committee Report, 1929
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Accessed: 8/30/24

In 1929, the Hartog Committee submitted its report. This Committee was appointed to survey the growth of education in British India. It “devoted far more attention to mass education than Secondary and University Education”. The committee was not satisfied with the scanty growth of literacy in the country and highlighted the problem of ‘Wastage’ and ‘Stagnation’ at the primary level.

It mentioned that the great waste of money and efforts which resulted because of the pupils leaving their schools before completing the particular stage of education. Its conclusion was that “out of every 100 pupils (boys and girls) who were in class I in 1922-23, only 18 were reading in class IV in 1925-26. Thus resulted in a relapse into illiteracy. So, it suggested the following important measures for the improvement of primary education.

I. Adoption of the policy of consolidation in place of multiplication of schools;

II. Fixation of the duration of primary course to four years;

III. Improvement in the quality, training, status, pay, service condition of teachers;

IV. Relating the curricula and methods of teaching to the conditions of villages in which children live and read;

V. Adjustment of school hours and holidays to seasonal and local requirements;

VI. Increasing the number of Government inspection staff.

In the sphere of secondary education the Committee indicated a great waste of efforts due to the immense number of failures at the Matriculation Examination. It attributed that the laxity of promotion from one class to another in the earlier stages and persecution of higher education by incapable students in too large a number were the main factors of wastage.

So it suggested for the introduction of diversified course in middle schools meeting the requirements of majority of students. Further it suggested “the diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle stage”. Besides, the Committee suggested for the improvement of University Education, Women Education, Education of Minorities and Backward classes etc.

The Committee gave a permanent shape to the educational policy of that period and attempted for consolidating and stabilizing education. The report was hailed as the torch bearer of Government efforts. It attempted to prove that a policy of expansion had proved ineffective and wasteful and that a policy of consolidation alone was suited to Indian conditions. However, the suggestions of the Committee could not be implemented effectively and the educational progress could not be maintained due to worldwide economic depression of 1930-31. Most of the recommendations remained mere pious hopes.

Abbot and Wood's 1937 Investigation Report
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Accessed: 8/30/24

Abbot and Wood Report 1937: Recommendations for Vocational Education in India

The Abbot and Wood Report, submitted in 1937, was a comprehensive study on vocational [training in a special skill to be pursued in a trade] education in India. The report’s authors, A. Abott and S.H. Wood, were British experts invited by the Government of India to prepare a plan for vocational education in the country.

Key Recommendations

• Hierarchy of Vocational Institutions: The report suggested a complete hierarchy of vocational institutions parallel to the hierarchy of institutions imparting general education.
• Regional Vocational Areas: Vocational education should be organized according to the needs of various regional vocational areas, with no area considered less important.
• Main Regional Vocations: The organization of vocational education should prioritize main regional vocations, such as agriculture, industry, and commerce.
• Standardization: Vocational education should be considered at par with literary and science education, and its standard should be raised.
• Institutional Setup: The Government should establish vocational institutions in big cities and big vocational centers.

Junior and Senior Vocational Schools

• The junior vocational school should be considered equivalent to a high school, and the senior one should be equivalent to an intermediate college.

The Abbot and Wood Report played a significant role in shaping India’s vocational education system, leading to the establishment of polytechnics and other technical institutions. Its recommendations continue to influence India’s vocational education landscape to this day.

The Controversy over Educational System and the Medium of Instruction

There had been prolonged controversy and polemical debate between the Conservatives (Orientalists) and the Reformists (Anglicists) over the education system to be introduced in the colonized India. The Conservatives preferred the continuation of pre-colonial oriental education system after translating some content of European learnings into the classical languages like Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit or local vernaculars and they emphasized that these languages, as prevalent, should be continued as the medium of instruction. The Conservatives had the firsthand experience of India therefore they were very cautious and did not want to unnecessarily intervene or meddle with the sensitive issues like religion, culture and language. Conversely, the Anglicists intended to introduce the western education pattern, based on science and literature with English as the medium of instruction.

In addition, the missionary wished to bring the superstitious natives to Light and Truth through Christianity. Spear (1938) maintains though it was missionary that wanted to Anglicize the education system of India, yet the most powerful demand was raised by the champions of utilitarianism and free-trade, who wanted to invigorate the stagnant fabric of the Indian society with the infusion of western learning.

Thus, each faction wanted to reform India in accordance with its ideology and affiliation. The Reformists were the followers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), the founder of utilitarian philosophy, and preferred the education system based on European science and literature. The Orientalists were orthodox hence very much prudent and scrupulous [?!], whereas the missionary ascertained that only Christianity could render salvation to the pagan and superstitious Indians.

A far more promising approach to the problem, indeed a short cut, seemed to be heralded in a letter to Jones from Lieutenant Francis Wilford, a surveyor and an enthusiastic student of all things oriental, who was based at Benares. Jones had been sent copies of inscriptions found at Ellora and written in Ashoka Brahmi, the still undeciphered pin-men. He had probably sent them to Wilford because Benares, the holy city of the Hindus, was the most likely place to find a Brahmin who might be able to read them. In 1793 Wilford announced that he had found just such a man:

I have the honour to return to you the facsimile of several inscriptions with an explanation of them. I despaired at first of ever being able to decipher them... However, after many fruitless attempts on our part, we were so fortunate as to find at last an ancient sage, who gave us the key, and produced a book in Sanskrit, containing a great many ancient alphabets formerly in use in different parts of India. This was really a fortunate discovery, which hereafter may be of great service to us.

According to the ancient sage, most of Wilford's inscriptions related to the wanderings of the five heroic Pandava brothers from [url]the Mahabharata[/url]. At the unspecified time in question they were under an obligation not to converse with the rest of mankind; so their friends devised a method of communicating with them by "writing short and obscure sentences on rocks and stones in the wilderness and in characters previously agreed upon betwixt them." The sage happened to have the key to these characters in his code book; obligingly he transcribed them into Devanagari Sanskrit and then translated them.

To be fair to Wilford, he was a bit suspicious about this ingenious explanation of how the inscriptions got there. But he had no doubts that the deciphering and translation were genuine. "Our having been able to decipher them is a great point in my opinion, as it may hereafter lead to further discoveries, that may ultimately crown our labours with success." Above all, he had now located the code book, "a most fortunate circumstance."

Poor Wilford was the laughing stock of the Benares Brahmins for a whole decade. They had already fobbed him off with Sanskrit texts, later proved spurious, on the source of the Nile and the origin of Mecca. After the code book there was a geographical treatise on The Sacred Isles of the West, which included early Hindu reference to the British Isles. The Brahmins, to whom Sanskrit had so long remained a sacred prerogative, were getting their own back. One wonders how much Wilford paid his "ancient sage."

Jones was already a little suspicious of Wilford's sources, but on the code book, which was as much a fabrication as the translations supposedly based on it, he reserved judgment until he might see it. He never did. In fact it was never heard of again. But in spite of these disappointments Jones continued to believe that in time this oldest script would be deciphered. [Jones] had been sent a copy of the writings on the Delhi pillar and told a correspondent that they "drive me to despair; you are right, I doubt not, in thinking them foreign; I believe them to be Ethiopian and to have been imported a thousand years before Christ." It was not one of his more inspired guesses and at the time of his death the mystery of the inscriptions and of the monoliths was as dark as ever.

-- India Discovered, by John Keay

GENTLEMEN,

Before our entrance into the Disquisition promised at the close of my Ninth Annual Discourse, on the particular Advantages which may be derived from our concurrent Researches in Asia, it seems necessary to fix with precision the sense in which we mean to speak of advantage or utility.... though labour be clearly the lot of man in this world, yet, in the midst of his most active exertions, he cannot but feel the substantial benefit of every liberal amusement which may lull his passions to rest, and afford him a sort of repose, without the pain of total inaction, and the real usefulness of every pursuit which may enlarge and diversity his ideas, without interfering with the principal objects of his civil station or economical duties; nor should we wholly exclude even the trivial and worldly sense of utility, which too many consider as merely synonymous with lucre, but should reckon among useful objects those practical, and by no means illiberal arts, which may eventually conduce both to national and to private emolument. With a view then to advantages thus explained, let us examine every point in the whole circle of arts and sciences....

I. In the first place, we cannot surely deem it an inconsiderable advantage that all our historical researches have confirmed the Mosaic accounts of the primitive world; and our testimony on that subject ought to have the greater weight, because, if the result of our observations had been totally different, we should nevertheless have published them, not indeed with equal pleasure, but with equal confidence; for truth is mighty, and, whatever be its consequences, must always prevail; but, independently of our interest in corroborating the multiplied evidences of revealed religion, we could scarce gratify our minds with a more useful and rational entertainment than the contemplation of those wonderful revolutions in kingdoms and states which have happened within little more than four thousand years; revolutions, almost as fully demonstrative of an all-ruling Providence, as the structure of the universe, and the final causes which are discernible in its whole extent, and even in its minutest parts. Figure to your imaginations a moving picture of that eventful period, or rather, a succession of crowded scenes rapidly changed. Three families migrate in different courses from one region, and, in about four centuries, establish very distant governments and various modes of society: Egyptians, Indians, Goths, Phenicians, Celts, Greeks, Latians, Chinese, Peruvians, Mexicans, all sprung from the same immediate stem....

For example: A most beautiful poem by Somadeva, comprising a very long chain of instinctive and agreeable stories, begins with the famed revolution at Pataliputra, by the murder of king Nanda with his eight sons, and the usurpation of Chandragupta....

It is now clearly proved, that the first Purana contains an account of the deluge; between which and the Mohammedan conquests the history of genuine Hindu government must of course be comprehended....Now the age of Vicramaditya is given; and if we can fix on an Indian prince contemporary with Seleucus, we shall have three given points in the line of time between Rama, or the first Indian colony, and Chandrabija, the last Hindu monarch who reigned in Bahar; so that only eight hundred or a thousand years will remain almost wholly dark.... A Sanscrit [Sanskrit] history of the celebrated Vicramaditya was inspected at Benares by a Pandit, who would not have deceived me, and could not himself have been deceived; but the owner of the book is dead, and his family dispersed; nor have my friends in that city been able, with all their exertions, to procure a copy of it....for, while the abstract sciences are all truth, and the fine arts all fiction, we cannot but own, that in the details of history, truth and fiction are so blended as to be scarce distinguishable.

The practical use of history, in affording particular examples of civil and military wisdom, has been greatly exaggerated; but principles of action may certainly be collected from it; and even the narrative of wars and revolutions may serve as a lesson to nations, and an admonition to sovereigns....

Geography, astronomy, and chronology have, in this part of Asia, shared the fate of authentic history; and, like that, have been so masked and bedecked in the fantastic robes of mythology and metaphor, that the real system of Indian philosophers and mathematicians can scarce be distinguished: an accurate knowledge of Sanscrit [Sanskrit], and a confidential intercourse with learned Brahmens, are the only means of separating truth from fable; and we may expect the most important discoveries from two of our members, concerning whom it may be safely asserted, that if our Society should have produced no other advantage than the invitation given to them for the public display of their talents, we should have a claim to the thanks of our country and of all Europe....

Lieutenant Wilford has exhibited an interesting specimen of the geographical knowledge deducible from the Puranas, and will in time present you with so complete a treatise on the ancient world known to the Hindus, that the light acquired by the Greeks will appear but a glimmering in comparison of that he will diffuse....

The jurisprudence of the Hindus and Arabs being the field which I have chosen for my peculiar toil, you cannot expect that I should greatly enlarge your collection of historical knowledge; but I may be able to offer you some occasional tribute; and I cannot help mentioning a discovery which accident threw in my way, though my proofs must be reserved for an essay which I have destined for the fourth volume of your Transactions. To fix the situation of that Palibothra (for there may have been several of the name) which was visited and described by Megasthenes, had always appeared a very difficult problem, for though it could not have been Prayaga, where no ancient metropolis ever stood, nor Canyacubja, which has no epithet at all resembling the word used by the Greeks; nor Gaur, otherwise called Lacshmanavati, which all know to be a town comparatively modern, yet we could not confidently decide that it was Pataliputra, though names and most circumstances nearly correspond, because that renowned capital extended from the confluence of the Sone and the Ganges to the site of Patna, while Palibothra stood at the junction of the Ganges and Erannoboas, which the accurate M. D'Ancille had pronounced to be the Yamuna; but this only difficulty was removed, when I found in a classical Sanscrit [Sanskrit] book, near 2000 years old, that Hiranyabahu, or golden armed, which the Greeks changed into Erannoboas, or the river with a lovely murmur, was in fact another name for the Sona itself; though Megasthenes, from ignorance or inattention, has named them separately. This discovery led to another of greater moment, for Chandragupta, who, from a military adventurer, became like Sandracottus the sovereign of Upper Hindustan, actually fixed the seat of his empire at Pataliputra, where he received ambassadors from foreign princes; and was no other than that very Sandracottus who concluded a treaty with Seleucus Nicator; so that we have solved another problem, to which we before alluded, and may in round numbers consider the twelve and three hundredth years before Christ, as two certain epochs between Rama, who conquered Silan a few centuries after the flood, and Vicramaditya, who died at Ujjayini fifty-seven years before the beginning of our era.

Since these discussions would lead us too far, I proceed to the History of Nature.

-- Discourse X. Delivered February 28, 1793, P. 192, Excerpt from "Discourses Delivered Before the Asiatic Society: And Miscellaneous Papers, on The Religion, Poetry, Literature, Etc. of the Nations of India," by Sir William Jones1824

However, Thomas Babington Macaulay, the Law Member of Governor-General’s Council and the Chairman of the Committee of Public Instruction in Bengal, finally resolved the matter in the favour of the Anglicists in his minutes of 1835 by choosing the western line of education with English as the medium of instruction (Ashton, 1988: 23).

The Transition from Oriental to Occident Education System in the Region

In the early period, the East India Company (EIC) took initiatives only for providing education to the European children whose families traveled to India for business and commercial enterprise. Though, some of the upper class Indians enrolled their children in these schools. Benson (1972) mentions that the EIC did not encourage the educational development during the last quarter of the 18th and the first decade of the 19th century. The underlying prudence for employing such approach was the apprehension the company envisaged that the western education based on English language might ensue cultural conflict and subversion in the subjects (David, 1984; Rahim, 1986).

Initially the EIC patronized the prevailing oriental education system in India to avoid any confrontation with the local culture. Hastings’ (1773-85) pursuit of establishing the institutes for oriental studies based on Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic languages, was incorporation of that political ideology which was diametrically changed with the arrival of Lord Bentinck, the Governor-General during 1828-1835 (Rosselli, 1974). Viswanathan (1989) maintains that pro-oriental approach was an essential political strategy to harmonize the natives with the expanding British rule in India. To obtain such goals, the refined and acculturated band of English officers was appointed in India for the cultivation of cultural synthesis and forbearing to obliterate the feelings of foreboding (quoted by Pachori, 1990). Kopf (1969) adds that Hastings believed that those officers would have sympathetic outlook and broader understanding of the culture, laws and traditions of the Indian society, hence they would wield their power prudently. However, during the last quarter of the 18th and the first quarter of the 19th century, this approach was diametrically changed by the liberal reformists and the European education system based on English language was introduced in the colonized Indian subcontinent. They leveled their arguments on the grounds that the subject should acquaint themselves with western knowledge and culture for their assimilation with the rulers and not the vice versa (Clive, 1973). It indeed was a paradigm shift in the attitude of British towards India from “interest and appreciation to criticism and disdain”, which got momentous effect after the arrival of Lord Bentinck. Macaulay once mentioned in the House of Common that it was better to trade with the civilized people than rule over the savages.

The Role of the Missionary

The missionary, though not with official permission, started proselytizing the people in the 18th century. William Carry [Carey] translated Ramayana and Sanskrit grammar book. Besides, missionary established vocational schools where reading of the Bible was compulsory. The Bible was also translated into the indigenous languages. These institutes provided religious and vocational education to the children of the converts to earn their livelihood. The majority of the converts belonged to the lower Indian class (Chatterji, 1983). Thus, English language and contents first time got their roots in the Indian education system.

Charles Grant, Zachary Macaulay and William Wilberforce were in the favour of English education system in India. Wilberforce moved a resolution in the British Parliament in 1773 for introducing English education system in India so that the subjects could be uplifted morally, socially, politically and religiously. The explicit content and intention of converting people into Christianity led the parliament to disapprove the resolution. Besides, the parliament was prudent enough and did not want cultural and religious confrontation with the natives.

The Pro-Oriental Phase

Warren Hastings was appointed as the governor of Fort William, Calcutta in April 1772, he had much reverence for Indian culture and religion in general and Indian philosophy and literature in particular. He believed in the policy of consolidation and conciliation. He took initiatives for the translation of the Bhagavad Gita and the Mahabharata. Wilkin translated the Bhagavad Gita and Major Rennel, the inventor of printing type of Bengali and Persian script, wrote The Bengal Atlas. Hastings founded “Asiatic Society of Bengal” which rendered integral service to Indian culture and history. In addition, Hastings founded the Calcutta Madrassa in 1781 and the Benares Sanskrit College in 1791 to encourage oriental learning for the natives. The Orientalists were not in the favour of any covert or overt support for the promotion of missionary activities in India, because they knew it would be counterproductive and would beget dissatisfaction and confrontation. Some of the parliamentarians were of the opinion that the idea of educating colonies might not be carried further as they had already lost colonies after educating them – the experience of losing America was fresh in their memory.

The First Official Step: Leading from Oriental Knowledge to Engraftment of Western Contents

The first official blueprint for Indian education system was presented by Charles Grant, the director of EIC, in 1792. He is regarded as father of modern education in India. He was pro-Christian and had strong conviction that if the natives accepted Christianity they would adhere to the culture, politics, economic system and language of their rulers without any resistance or contempt. For him, Christianity, English language and western learning were the tools to mould the Indian natives morally, politically, socially, and religiously (Kirshnaswamy and Lalitah, 2006:12). Charles Grants’ treatise: Observation on the State of Society among the Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain (1792) was in tune with evangelical stance to convince the British parliament for introducing English education and missionary activities in India for the stability of the British rule.

However, missionaries were not happy with the Oriental system of education. They supported the Anglicists for introducing European knowledge of science and literature with English as the medium of instruction. Although, the missionaries approached the British Parliament to seek permission for conducting missionary activities in India, yet given to the policy of conciliation and consolidation, the parliament did not overtly support the missionary activities in the region.

Charles Grant was appointed as the Chairman of EIC in 1805, Deputy Chairman in 1807-1808 and again was appointed as Chairman in 1809. This appointment remained in the favour of both Anglicists and missionary. The Charter Act of 1813 determined that English would be incorporated in Indian schools in coexistence with the local vernaculars. Thus, the English education of science and art would gradually be “engrafted” to produce a class of elite that could serve as cultural intermediaries between the rulers and the ruled. Besides, it was envisaged that European education would boost the moral and social development of the Indians. The missionary now overtly continued its activities as the resolution included religious and moral uplift of the natives. Charles Grant made English as the medium of instruction; science, literature and the content of Christianity were used for the cultural indoctrination and transplantation so that the British could rule peacefully over Indians. In the follow up of the 1773 resolution, a Charter was passed in 1823 which made the government bound to spend at least one lac rupees for the education in India.

James Mill, the senior officer of the company in London during 1819-1836, published a book: History of British India in 1817 based on the utilitarian outlook upon the Indian society. The company’s dispatch of 1824, written by Mill on the behalf of the company, was imbued with Mills’ utilitarian convictions, and it deprecated the company’s policy of “engraftment”. He reiterated that the objectives of education should not be to disseminate Islamic or Hindu learning “but the useful knowledge.” (Zastoupil & Moir, 1999:116). Though Mill was in concord with Charles Grant regarding the teaching of European knowledge of science and literature and rejected the oriental studies yet he, unlike Charles Grant, did not support the implementation of English as the medium of instruction, but suggested that the translation of European knowledge into classical or local Indian vernaculars would yield fruitful harvest moreover in abundance (Zastoupil, 1994). In the response of Mills’ dispatch, the Committee of Public Instructions submitted the note of dissent that the prevailing dislike against the western education was a hindrance in its implementation. The note succinctly mentioned that any innovation in the education system might invoke the public prejudice and end in confrontation (Zastoupil & Moir, 1999:121). It was further reported that even the elite class nourished in the traditional education system would not favour the western education, until such favour was gained from the elite class in particular and society in general. The explicit advocacy and implementation of western education would endanger the peaceful rule in India.

Though there was conspicuous pressure from the middle class Hindu for learning in English, but the Committee of Public Instructions, being dominated by the Orientalists, was reluctant to favour the Anglicists. Majumdar (1955) testifies that the establishment of Hindu College at Calcutta for the higher education in English was the manifestation of growing interest of the public in English learning. Frykenberg (1986) adds that the same demand was incorporated in the private schools of Madras to teach rudiments of English language. In addition, the intellects like Rammohan Roy also preferred and demanded the education system based on western science and literature (Zastoupil & Moir, 1999).

The controversy between the Orientalists and Anglicists still continued but owing to the Gurkhas and Marathas wars during 1813- 1823, the education and other work of development could not receive serious consideration. In 1823, a committee was constituted consisting of the members of both Orientalists and Anglicists to settle the issues regarding education policy and system in India. The committee during 1823-1833 recognized the Calcutta Madrassa, Benares Sanskrit College and established Sanskrit College at Pona in 1821 and two Oriental colleges at Agra in 1823. The Oriental schools were asked to translate the books from English into Indian classical languages. The EIC was interested in trade, the British government endeavoured for the expansion of empire, whereas the missionary strove for conversion. Their interests were mutually dependent therefore missionary also succeeded in getting covert support from the government.

The Establishment of Missionary Schools

The missionary schools were established in India during 1815-1840 that included the Baptist Mission School 1815, the Seramore College 1818, the London Missionary Society’s School 1818, the Bishop College at Sibpur 1820, the Calcutta Society’s School 1819, the Jaya Narayan School and Ghoshal’s English School at Benars 1818. The most prominent one was the General Assembly’s Institution 1830 founded by the Scottish missionary headed by Alexander Duff, who was of the opinion that for converting people in Christianity, European knowledge and English language could be used as tools in the Indian education system. Duff and the missionary were very critical of “godless policy” of the British government in India.

The English-based Schools vis-à-vis the Demand of the Natives

The government started English classes at Calcutta Madrassa, the Benares Sanskrit College, Delhi College and Agra College during 1824-35. The young Indians were very much keen interested in English education based on the knowledge of science and art. They regarded it as Indian Renaissance. The English newspapers were published in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay during 1780-95. They Indian were incentivized to read and write in English. Owing to the increasing demand, the natives established the Hindu College in 1817 in Calcutta to impart education in English. The then chief justice of Supreme Court of Calcutta entertained a petition from a group of people who demanded for the provision of education based on European knowledge of science and art.

Raja Rammohan Roy, the prominent Indian figure and now regarded as the founder of modern India, also demanded for the education of science, mathematics, medicine, law and art, because he was of the opinion that Indian society could not progress until it was provided with the modern education. He supported English utilitarian approach in education and opposed the orthodox system dominated by the pundits, but he did not oppose the knowledge of Sanskrit. He was liberal and enlightened who struggled against the tradition of satti, self -immolation by a wife at the funeral pyre of her husband, child marriage and he fought for the rights of women in property and equal treatment in the society (Reena Chatterji, 1983). Thus, the demand for the education based on European subjects translated into Indian classical languages was manipulated to start education in English language. Lord Bentinck, who was friend of Charles Grant, was appointed as governor-general in 1828. He took initiatives for making English as the official language in India. Besides, both the company and British government also needed natives having skills in English language to run the affairs of government and company, because the number of English present in India did not meet the requirement. The committee, constituted for the settlement of line of education and language in India, remained divided in two ideological factions and the Orientalists and Anglicists could not reach to any feasible conclusion unanimously.

Frykenberg (1988) reveals that owing to mounting pressure from both the Indian and the British reformists during the first quarter of the 19th century, western knowledge and English language as the medium of instruction were introduced in the Indian subcontinent. With appointment of Lord Bentinck as the Governor-General and Charles Trevelyan, the brother in law of Macaulay, at the London office of GCPI in place of Wilson, the Orientalists were relegated in the background and Hastings’ policy of conciliation and consolidation was thwarted (Washbrook, 1999).

The Minutes of Macaulay (1835)

Lord Bentinck was appointed to squeeze the expenditures of the company. In the pursuit of the same, he introduced some reforms in which the traditions of satti and child marriages were abolished. Meanwhile, Charles Trevelyan after assuming his charge in London depreciated the oriental model of education in India (Fisher, 1919) and called the oriental pattern as “sleepy, sluggish, inanimate machines” (Hilliker, 1974:282). He further corresponded with Lord Bentinck for the Romanizing of Indian vernaculars and implementing “our language, our learning, and ultimately our religion” (Philips, 1977: 1239). For educational reform, he appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay, the Law Member of Governor-General’s Council, as the Chairman of the Committee of Public Instruction in Bengal, who finally resolved the matter in the favour of the Anglicists by choosing the western line of education in his minutes of 1835 regarded as “the manifesto of English education in India”.

Ghosh (1995) argues that there is no documented proof, but it cannot be ruled out that Macaulay before writing his minutes must have read Charles Grant’s “Observation”. As the minutes were very much tuned with line of action presented in the work of Charles Grant. Clive (1973) adds that Zachary, Macaulay’s father, was close associate of Charles Grant. Charles Jr., the son of Charles Grant, was intimate friend of Macaulay, therefore, the evangelical influence cannot be ruled out altogether. The Bentinck-Macaulay educational reforms were already planned and pre-conceived. Macaulay just officially produced it in black and white form and even its time was also decided. Bentinck knew that there would be much hue and cry in the wake of implementation of western education pattern and English language. Therefore, he chose the time when his tenure of governor-generalship was at end. Because, in past when he introduced some reforms in Madras, at the protest of the people he was removed from his office. So avoiding the replica at the end of his tenure, he implemented the recommendations made in the minutes of Macaulay without further delay and discussion.

Macaulay founded his arguments on the bases of inherit quality of western knowledge of literature and science. He provided a justification for imposing English language that it was another anomaly as it was strange phenomenon the British government ruled a country, thousands miles away having no cultural, social, linguistic and political affinity or sound reasons, where the subjects belonged to different caste, colour, religion, culture and political system. As the rule of British was an exception likewise the decision of making English as the medium of instruction was another strange step in the midst of prevailing political anomaly (Bailey, 1991:137). Besides, he further emphasized that Indian natives also demanded for English to build their career in the government services.

Lord Bentinck approved the minutes forthwith and sent to the Board of Directors, John Stuart Mill critically deprecated the proposal and suggested for the continuity of the past policy of “engraftment”. The proposal of Mill was sent to Sir John Hobhouse, the President of the Board and an ardent admirer of Macaulay. He directly contacted the Directors and asked them to give their assent without any comments or critique. After two months Sir John Hobhouse showed strong objection on the draft of Mill in his letter to James Carnac, the Chairman of the company (Zastoupil & Moir, 1999). Thus, in the follow up of the minutes, the resolution was passed in which promotion of European science and literature was made essential and all the funds were reserved only for English education (Zastoupil & Moir, 1999: 195). It all was done to have political and social control over the subjects by mesmerizing and influencing them with European knowledge (Pennycook, 1994:102-03).

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Part 2 of 2

The Impact of Macaulay’s Minutes on the Classical and Local Languages

The minutes, in clandestine manner, suggested for the abolition of Sanskrit College and Calcutta Madrassa. It was explicitly mentioned that the funds for the printing of books in Arabic and Sanskrit and the stipends of the students pursuing oriental studies should be discontinued. As a result, the institutes imparting education in the classical and regional vernaculars were affected: their funds were curtailed on the pretext of investment in English education system. Besides, the stipends granted to Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian language students were also curtailed. English language replaced Persian in office, court, administration and diplomacy. Onwards, only those having western education and competence in English language were able to qualify job requirements, which increased the demand of English in the region. To reduce the expenditures of the company, Bentinck wanted to replace the British expatriates with Indian natives, for that he introduced educational reforms and got this sub-clause included in the Act of 1833 that appointment in government post will be purely on qualification “irrespective of religion, birth, descent or colour” (Adams & Adams, 1971:167). The job incentives aggrandized the demand of English in India (Mukherjee, 1989).

Cheshire asserts that English was used as a political tool to colonize and exploit but it has become the symbol of social superiority and status after the end of colonization (Cheshire, 1991: 6). But Kachru (1986b:136) maintains that it depends that who used English language, it was a tool in the hands of the colonizers for economic exploitation, cultural indoctrination, dislocation of indigenous culture and lingocide; whereas for nationalist, it became medium, link and window to the world to champion their cause and instill political awareness in the nation during the movement of liberty and independence to dismantle colonization.

Three Phases of the Introduction of English Language and Its Development

Kachru maintains that English was introduced in three phases: the first, by Christian missionary around 1614. The second, at the demand of the public and important figures in the 18th century, Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) and Rajunath Hari Navalkar (fl.1770) were the chief exponents who supported the western education system, as they believed, it would strengthen the people socially, politically and economically, whereas, the knowledge of vernaculars would not help the native to obtain these goals (Kachru, 1983:67-68). Roy, in his letter to Lord Amherst (1773-1857) written in 1823, suggested that the investment should be made for the western knowledge on priority basis than the vernaculars. This letter was presented as the proof of public demand for western knowledge. Roy considered European knowledge essential for the social development and uplift. He believed that English language would serve as a “key to all knowledge”, which would be useful for Indian (Bailey, 1991:136). Roy wanted Indians to be educated with the knowledge of mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, anatomy and other useful sciences (Kachru, 1983:68). The third phase began with the Government policy in 1765, when the East India Company’s authority was stabilized (Kachru, 1983: 21-22).

Lord Bentinck, the governor-general in India, supported by Lord Macaulay initiated some social reforms in India in the beginning of the 19th century. English was used as official language in higher courts, for record-keeping and as the medium of instruction for the cultivation of western learning and science (The New Encyclopedia Britannica (NEB), 1974: 403). Thus, English was used as the medium of instruction in law, higher education, administration, commercial enterprise, science, technology, business and trade because the indigenous vernaculars did not have adequate stuff to meet the nature of demand these fields posed so for.

The Outcome and Implication of the Educational Reform

After the declaration of English as the medium of instruction and administrative affairs, it anglicized the education system of India even in alien sociolinguistic and cultural settings. Moss reported that the British government allocated funds for uplifting education in 1813. The Hindu college was set up in Culcuta in 1816, followed by the Culcuta Medical College. In the 1840, and 1850 under Lord Dalhousie there was a great emphasis on primary education and high schools. Three universities were opened by 1857 as well as the Roorkee College of Engineering (Moss, 1999:76). Mubarak (2008) adds: "For the subservience of the mind of the local people, the British government introduced English as medium of instruction in the schools and colleges especially in the higher educational institutions. In the pursuit of the same, the universities were founded in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857, Punjab in 1882; while in 1887, more universities were set up in Allahabad. These universities catered knowledge to the students belonging to the upper middle class who had deep craving for government jobs." (P: 5).

The missionary from America and England initially established colleges for boys, but in the 20th century colleges for women were also founded in Madras, Lucknow and Lahore to cater education to the children of the converts along with their financial support. The English reformists also provided western education in their institutes with no intention of conversion. Henceforth, English was the language of office, court, press, middle bourgeois class and administration. The English newspapers started receiving wide readership and Indian literature in English also remarkably developed as being the logical consequence of encounter with English language (Kachru 1983: 69). He further mentions that English established its significant role in politics, court and in the domain of national administrative institutes, which remained dominant over the vernaculars even after the cessation of colonization (Kachru, 1986a:8). During the National Movement in 1920, despite anti-English sentiment, English was used as the language of protest and upsurge against the colonizers. Political leaders like Gandhi, who endeavored for the revival of local vernaculars, also chose English to communicate the upper class (ibid, p.8).

In 1880, approximately eight thousand pupils passed high school education, whereas the number of secondary education pass-out was almost 500,000 (five lac) (James, 1994). Vohra (2001:94) presents the education classification and pattern prevalent in the British India. The students after passing vernacular primary education joined Anglo-vernacular high school for the secondary education. At the completion of the secondary education, they had the possibility of seeking admission in one of 140 state-run or private colleges. In 1901, about 17000 students were enrolled in these colleges. The education system, British government introduced in India, groomed a number of intellectual figures but it also produced “a vast class of semi-educated, low-paid English speaking subordinates.” (ibid, p.68). Vohra mentions that English language provided a common means of communication to the people of India where there were “179 languages, 544 major dialects and thousands of dialects” (Vohra, 2001:94).

The Attitude of the Hindus and the Muslims towards English-based Education System

The Hindus, particularly Brahmans, were very much inclined to the British education system, whereas the Muslim refused to join these schools for long period, because they were hostile to English language as it replaced Persian language and the Muslim-ruler-introduced education system. They cherished the nostalgia of past education system and strove for its revival. The English dethroned the Muslim Mughal king, snatched power and colonized the land, therefore, they always held the Muslims in suspect. Because of this, the English interpreted the Muslims as the perpetrator of 1857 upheaval. The edge in education strengthened the Hindu community, and they dominated the politics of the country but Brahmans were again at lead. Thus, the education provided a way for social, political uplift and upward mobility, but it was the matter of opportunity for those who could avail it. Those, who failed to have access to the British education owing to whatsoever reason, lagged and lingered behind and could not acquire high slot in the social vertical or horizontal mobility. Dumont (1980:323) mentions that the Muslims were not happy with the replacement of Persian with English, they remained detached from both English education system and English language. As a result, the Hindu dominated the political and administrative fronts.

The Legacy of the British English

The British India government’s priority was rather running administration and draining wealth by developing trade than making arrangement for the learning of the Queen’s English. However, the present Indian English is very much influenced by the British English, especially Scottish English dialect, which has a pronounced “r” and trilled “r”. The Received Pronunciation (RP) or BBC English is also emulated by some people; nevertheless, the Indian dialect has also established its recognition as a distinct dialect even during the period of British imperialism. Besides, the British and Indian dialects, the American English has also got official acceptance, when the Indian students went to study in the universities of America rather than UK. The American English spellings and structures are common phenomena in scientific and technical scholarship and research studies; whereas the British English still pre-dominates the other fields of life. The survey conducted reveals that 70% preferred RP as the suitable pattern for Indian English, 10% opted American English and 17% liked distinctive Indian dialect (Das and Patra, 2009: 29-31).

The legacy of the East India Company still pervades the modern day Indian official correspondence: the phrases like “do the needful” or “you will be intimated shortly” still find frequent mention in the official correspondence. Malcolm Muggeridge, the English Journalist, writer and wit, added witty remarks that the last Englishman would be Indian (Das and Patra, 2009:30). In Pakistan, RP is preferred in English medium schools however the impact of local accent cannot be altogether ruled out.

Antithetical Status of English Language: From the Tool of Power to the Means of Protest and Communication

The story of English in the Indian subcontinent had antithetical characteristics: it was introduced by the British colonizers as the language of power, but it was used as the language of retaliation during the national movement in India. It was the language of invaders but was absorbed by the natives at great deal. It was the language of authority at the hands of the colonizers but the natives subverted its course. It has evolved from the tool of imperial, colonial and cultural indoctrination to powerful means of communication. English was used as the medium of instruction in the British Indian westernized education system, yet it served to the cause of both of the colonizers and the colonized: from central to the periphery and vice versa. The center, the British, used it to create a class tuned with the western outlook to regard the colonizers as the true benefactors; conversely, the periphery, the colonized, subverted it to translate their grievances and abhorrence against the colonialism. English, in the Indian subcontinent, immensely influenced the cultural outlook with ambivalent phenomenon of both loss and gain. However, after the revolution of information technology, the role of English language has remained highly powerful, which enables the people of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh to have direct interaction with the international community by employing English language as a neutral source of communication. In this connection, they have even excelled the advanced nations like China, Russia and Japan. After realizing its importance and shedding the colonial indifference, the countries of the Indian subcontinent are using it as economic, political and social necessity. The English language has been separated from its master, the colonizers, and it has been brought down to serve the cause of the masses; henceforth, it has no longer remained the language of classes but of masses.

Annika Hohenthal (2003) maintains, “In the same country the English language can be characterized by different terms representing the power of the language: Positive/Negative, National identity, Antinationalism, Literary renaissance, Anti-native culture, Cultural mirror (for native cultures), Materialism, Modernization, Westernization, Liberalism, Rootlesness, Universalism, Ethnocentrism, Technology, Permissiveness, Science, Divisiveness, Mobility, Alienation, etc.”

There has been a great deal of Indian natives who had astonished command over English, whose speeches and creative writings bear strong evidence of their mastery of style and articulation of language. Among them: Nobel prize winner in literature (1913) Rabindranath Tagore, C Rajagopalachari, Sri Aurbindo, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mohandas Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, R.K. Narayan, the eminent novelist, and Sarvepali Radhakrishanan. Following these precursors, there emerged some prominent figures who claimed world -wide recognition in the contemporary literature which include: Vikram Seth and Salman Rushdie, the Booker prize winner, Arundahti Roy, the author of international bestseller “The God of Small Things” (1997), Kiran Desai, Jhumpa Lahiri, Pulitzer Prize Winner, and V.S Naipal, the Noble Prize Winner (2001). From Pakistan, Ahmed Ali, Mumtaz Shahnawaz, Bapsi Sidhwa, Sara Suleri, Tariq Ali, Muhammad Hanif, Zaib-un-Nisa Hamidullah, Rukhsana Ahmad, Bina Shah, Tahira Naqvi, Uzma Aslam Khan, Kamila Shamshie and many other writer of international acclaim have showed the hallmarks of their ingenuity and creative verve in English language with distinctive mark of creative use of language, variety of style and deep artistic innovation.

In post-independence period, English has claimed significant importance in office, court, science, technology, trade, commerce, business, law, state affairs and transaction of whatsoever nature. English is the medium of instructions in all up standard schools, colleges and universities. English has asserted its significance in the national literature and national language policy. Realizing its global significance, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh have equally and unequivocally effected relentless pursuit for the acquisition of the language competence and skills. India is considered the third largest English book producing country after the US and the UK, and the largest number of books is published in English. India is a vast nation and in term of number of English speakers, it ranks third in the world after the USA and the UK. An estimated 4 percent of the population uses English; though this may seem like a small number, it consists of about 40 million people and this small segment of the population dominates the domains of professional and social prestige. Kachru (1997:68-69) states that there is an overwhelming majority consisting of 350 million in Asia that uses English. India is the third largest English-using country after the United Kingdom and America. The Indian English is closer to the British English, because it originated from that style. With the influx of globalization, American English has also influenced the youth and other sphere of professional fields. However, Indian English can neither be classified as American nor British English because after being intermingled with other Indian languages it is emerged with its own distinct flavor. This has made several scholars realize that it cannot be equated with either. In Pakistan, English language significantly dominates every walk of life, yet its scope and usefulness for the Pakistani English writers is still of the greater importance.

Conclusion

The education and English language policy in the Indian subcontinent varied from time to time and was subject to the political and ideological affiliation of the British government representatives in the region. As Warren Hastings was in the favour of orientalism, engraftment, conciliation and consolidation, whereas Cornwallis thwarted that approach and preferred the gap between the rulers and the ruled ones. He asserted the superiority of the English race and kept the colonized in abject humiliation. He did not trust the natives to be appointed at higher positions. With the appointment of Richard Wellseley, the policy of Hastings was revived and his successors followed him but Lord Bentinck along with Thomas Babington Macaulay hit the last nail in the coffin of Anglo-oriental controversy and by abandoning the policy of “engraftment” officially imposed the western education system with English as the medium of instruction.

The Directors’ dispatch in 1841 was a retreat from the strict stance of Macaulay (Carson, 1999). In 1854, Sir Charles Wood dispatched for the enrichment of indigenous vernaculars and making them worth-instructing for the western learnings. Woods emphasized that the core of argument lied in the fact that main objective was the diffusion of the learning of western science and literature in the Indian education system not the promotion of English language. Therefore, the indigenous vernaculars should be enriched for medium of instruction through the translation of the European knowledge. Woods policy remained central until the Act of 1919 was passed, in which the control of education was handed over to the Indian ministry and provincial legislation. In the Education Conference of 1927, the pro-vernacular policy received endorsement (Whitehead, 1991). Mwiria (1991) maintains that policy of promotion elementary vernacular education was also devised to perpetuate the British rule in India. Despite all efforts, Indian education was regarded as second rate in comparison with the education provided in England. It remained rather quantitative than qualitative. It could not produce the class of cultural intermediaries, Macaulay envisaged; however it ended with the hordes of Babus – the band of semi-educated cult taught and trained for routine office work.

The British education system, for what there was much debate and consumed much attention of the British Parliament, could only literate a small number of the natives. The literacy rate in 1911 was only 6%, which gained two points up to 1931and became 8%. In 1947, when India became independent its literacy rate was only 11%. The enrollment in universities or the degree-awarding institutes was also very low. In 1935, only 4 out of 10,000 people were enrolled in any degree awarding higher education institute. Besides the literacy rate, the quantity of published books and number of publications also help to estimate the real standing of a nation. In 1935, only sixteen thousand books were published for the nation consisting over 350 million people, the ratio stands: one book for twenty thousand people.

English influenced Indian subcontinent religiously, culturally, socially, politically and academically. The indigenous vernaculars were affected, as the emphasis shifted to English language. As a result, the translation of western knowledge into local vernaculars remained inadequate. It introduced innovation in teaching pedagogy, but owing to religious prejudice or differences, the religious education institutes remained stuck to age-old contents and methodology. It was the parsimony of British government in India, which wielded adverse impact on the local vernaculars, if the government had allocated sufficient funds, there had been no reason for the Anglo-Oriental controversy; the both could have developed in parallel. The low standard of Indian elementary education was because of negligent, parsimonious and apathetic attitude of the British towards India (Mayhew, 1926). Perhaps, it could not produce the class of cultural intermediaries as Macaulay envisaged, but it nourished the hordes of babus – the semi-educated clerical staff for routine office work.

English and European learnings served the cause of both the colonizers in the beginning and the colonized in the end. English was a socio-political tool at the disposal of the colonizers to wield power and exercise their writ. Later on, the same was used by the periphery against the center to challenge its writ and vent their dissatisfaction. The mass education mitigated the difference of class; urbanization integrated the people of various factions and classes. English provided a common communication ground to the people of different religions and vernaculars, to some extent also united them. Such cultural synthesis was manifest in the national movement of independence, in which the Hindu, the Muslim and the Jain strove against the British rule. Besides, English was used to record their grievances, dissatisfaction and protest at national and international level.

English provided access to the modern knowledge and rich expository of science, technology, literature, medical sciences, philosophy and art. It has its share in the economic development and business exposure, in which India has excelled and Pakistan is pressing hard to reach the socio-economic pinnacle. The Anglo-Indian literature led the natives to creative ingenuity in English, hence Indo- Anglican literature came into existence, which initially was an explicit retaliation and repulsion to the act of colonization, but after independence, the literature produced in English in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh has claimed international interest and recognition. The creative impulse and ingenuity of the diasporas and the writers at home have added new branch of English literature to the bulk produced in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In the wake of globalization, it has got fresh stimulus in international perspective, and the revolution of information technology has its own share and role. Thus, it provides edge to the people of these countries over the natives of even developed nations like Chinese, Japanese and Russian. Presently, the children of elite upper class, upper middle class are enrolled in the English medium institutes, which have its own pros and cons. The cultural dislocation, alienation would cast its grey repercussion in future. The vernaculars have received fatal blow in the aftermath of English language dominance, these vernaculars have been heavily Anglicized. The amalgamation of English words in the vernacular articulation is the most common phenomenon even at the level of mediocre layman.

It will be befitting to wind up the argument that the story of English language in the Indian subcontinent is the matter of loss and gain: it has given much to the region, at the same it has taken very much from it. However, it is an obvious fact that with the shift in the medium of instruction from the classical or local vernaculars and “engraftment of contents” to English as a medium of instruction, the classical languages and the local vernaculars of the subcontinent were adversely affected. If the practice of engraftment of the western knowledge and science into the classical languages and local vernaculars had been continued, presently these languages would have been infinitely rich in semantics, contents and concepts to keep pace with the modern era of science and technology. However, the upcoming time will account the ultimate impact of this innovation in the region.

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Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 9/28/24
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipfu ... per_Makers

[Mountstuart Elphinstone] There appear to me to be only three lines of conduct which we can possibly adopt. 1st, To check the diffusion of knowledge and the introduction of printing so as to keep the Natives in their present state and confine the effects of the Press as hitherto to the Europeans. 2nd, To allow perfect freedom to Native Press and to offer no resistance to the natural tendency of such freedom to dispose the Native to attempts at establishing a national Government. 3rd, To promote learning and to encourage printing, but to keep the Press under the same degree of restraint which was maintained in England for more than two centuries after the invention of printing and which is still enforced in all countries where the Government does not rest on a popular basis. The first of these plans would be criminal if it were practicable. The second would only lead to the premature removal of the British Government, without a chance of its being succeeded by a better; the third alone appears to me to offer any prospect of improvement and rational liberty to the Natives. Under it we might safely do our duty in communicating to them all the sciences of Europe; and at some distant period the two nations might be sufficiently on a footing to determine the relation they were thenceforth to bear to one another. At that stage the people might be admitted to a share of the Government and then or at a later period the freedom of the Press might be permitted without control.

-- The Printing Press in India: It's Beginnings and Early Development Being a Quatercentenary Commemoration Study of the Advent of Printing in India (In 1556), by Anant Kakba Priolkar, Director, Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, Bombay

Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers

Motto: Verbum Domini Manet in Aeternum
Location: Stationers' Hall, London
Date of formation: 1403
Company association: Printing and publishing
Order of precedence: 47th
Master of company: Paul Wilson
Website stationers.org

The Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (until 1937 the Worshipful Company of Stationers), usually known as the Stationers' Company, is one of the livery companies of the City of London.[1] The Stationers' Company was formed in 1403; it received a Royal Charter in 1557.[2] It held a monopoly over the publishing industry and was officially responsible for setting and enforcing regulations until the enactment of the Statute of Anne, also known as the Copyright Act of 1710.[3] Once the company received its charter, "the company's role was to regulate and discipline the industry, define proper conduct and maintain its own corporate privileges."[4]

The company members, including master, wardens, assistants, liverymen, freemen and apprentices are mostly involved with the modern visual and graphic communications industries that have evolved from the company's original trades. These include printing, paper-making, packaging, office products, engineering, advertising, design, photography, film and video production, publishing of books, newspapers and periodicals and digital media. The company's principal purpose nowadays is to provide an independent forum where its members can advance the interests (strategic, educational, training and charitable) of the industries associated with the company.[5]

History

In 1403, the Corporation of London approved the formation of a guild of stationers. At this time, the occupations considered stationers for the purposes of the guild were text writers, limners (illuminators), bookbinders or booksellers who worked at a fixed location (stationarius) beside the walls of St Paul's Cathedral.[6] Booksellers sold manuscript books, or copies thereof produced by their respective firms for retail; they also sold writing materials. Illuminators illustrated and decorated manuscripts.

Printing gradually displaced manuscript production so that, by the time the guild received a royal charter of incorporation on 4 May 1557, it had in effect become a printers' guild. In 1559, it became the 47th in city livery company precedence. At the time, it was based at Peter's College, which it bought from St Paul's Cathedral.[7] During the Tudor and Stuart periods, the Stationers were legally empowered to seize "offending books" that violated the standards of content set down by the Church and state; its officers could bring "offenders" before ecclesiastical authorities, usually the Bishop of London or the Archbishop of Canterbury, depending on the severity of the transgression.[8] Thus the Stationers played an important role in the culture of England as it evolved through the intensely turbulent decades of the Protestant Reformation and toward the English Civil War.

The Stationers' Charter, which codified its monopoly on book production, ensured that once a member had asserted ownership of a text or "copy" by having it approved by the company, no other member was entitled to publish it, that is, no one else had the "right to copy" it. This is the origin of the term "copyright". However, this original "right to copy" in England was different from the modern conception of copyright. The stationers' "copy right" was a protection granted to the printers of a book; "copyright" introduced with the Statute of Anne, or the Copyright Act of 1710, was a right granted to the author(s) of a book based on statutory law.[9]

Members of the company could, and mostly did, document their ownership of copyright in a work by entering it in the "entry book of copies" or the Stationers' Company Register.[10] The Register of the Stationers' Company thus became one of the most essential documentary records in the later study of English Renaissance theatre.[11] (In 1606 the Master of the Revels, who was responsible until this time for licensing plays for performance, acquired some overlapping authority over licensing them for publication as well; but the Stationers' Register remained a crucial and authoritative source of information after that date too.) Enforcement of such rules was always a challenge, in this area as in other aspects of the Tudor/Stuart regime. Works were often printed surreptitiously and illegally, and this would remain a subject of interest to both the Company and the government into the modern period.

In 1603, the Stationers formed the English Stock, a joint stock publishing company funded by shares held by members of the company.[12] This profitable venture gave the Company a monopoly on printing certain types of works, including almanacs, prayer-books, and primers, some of the best-selling works of the day. By buying and holding shares in the English Stock (which were limited in number), members of the company received a nearly guaranteed return each year. The English Stock at times employed out-of-work printers, and disbursed some of the profit to the poor and to those reliant on the Company's pensions. When a printer or bookseller who held a share died, it might often pass to another relation, most often his widow.[13]


Stationers' Hall, London (2013 photo)

In 1606, the company bought Abergavenny House in Ave Maria Lane and moved out of Peter's College.[14] The new hall burnt down in the Great Fire of 1666, along with most of its contents, including a great number of books. The Company's clerk, George Tokefeild, is said to have removed a great number of the Company's records to his home in the suburbs—without this act, much of the Company's history before 1666 would have been lost.[15] It was rebuilt by 1674, and its present interior is much as it was when it reopened. The Court Room was added in 1748, and in 1800 the external façade was remodelled to its present form.[16]

In 1695, the monopoly power of the Stationers' Company was diminished by the lapsing of their monopoly on printing, allowing presses to operate more freely outside of London than they had previously. This blow was compounded when in 1710 Parliament passed the Copyright Act 1709, the first such act to establish copyright as the purview of authors, not printers or publishers.[17]

In 1861, the company established the Stationers' Company's School at Bolt Court, Fleet Street for the education of sons of members of the Company. In 1894, the school moved to Hornsey in north London, eventually closing nearly a century later in 1983.

Registration under the Copyright Act 1911 ended in December 1923; the company then established a voluntary register in which copyrights could be recorded to provide printed proof of ownership in case of disputes.

In 1937, a royal charter amalgamated the Stationers' Company and the Newspaper Makers' Company, which had been founded six years earlier (and whose members were predominant in Fleet Street), into the company of the present name.

In March 2012, the company established the "Young Stationers", to provide a forum for young people (under the age of 40) within the company and the civic City of London more broadly. This led to the establishment of the Young Stationers' Prize in 2014, which recognises outstanding achievements within the company's trades. Prize winners have included novelist Angela Clarke, journalist Katie Glass, and professor of journalism Dr Shane Tilton.

The company's motto is Verbum Domini manet in aeternum, Latin for "The Word of the Lord endures forever;" which appears on their heraldic charge.[18]

In November 2020 Stationers' Hall the home of the Stationers' Company were granted approval to redevelop their Grade 1 listed building to bring modern day conference facilities, air-cooling and step free access to its historic rooms. It reopened in July 2022 for live events, weddings, and filming.

Trades

The modern Stationers' Company represents the "content and communications" industries within the City of London Liveries. This includes the following trades and specialisms:

• Archiving (including librarian, curators, and book conservation)
• Bookselling and distribution
• Communications (including advertising, marketing, and PR)
• Digital media and software
• Newspapers and broadcasting
• Office products and supplies
• Packaging
• Paper
• Print machinery
• Printing
• Publishing (including digital publishing and design)
• Writing (including journalism, broadcasting, and authorship)

Hall

Stationers' Hall is at Ave Maria Lane near Ludgate Hill. The site of the present hall was formerly the site of Abergavenny House, which was purchased by the Stationers in 1606 for £3,500, but destroyed in the Great Fire of London, 1666.[19] The current building and hall date from circa 1670. The hall was remodelled in 1800 by the architect Robert Mylne and, on 4 January 1950, it was designated a Grade I listed building.[20][21]
Stationers' Hall hosts the Shine School Media Awards, where students compete in the creation of websites and magazines.


Stationers' Hall


Main Hall


Caxton window


The Stock Room


The Court Room

Notable liverymen

• Edward Allde
• John Cleave
• Thomas Cotes
• George Eld
• Edmund Evans
• George Faulkner
• Richard Field
• Augustine Matthews
• George Mudie (Owenite)
• Rupert Murdoch
• Thomas Cautley Newby
• Nicholas Okes
• Peter Short
• William Stansby
• John Trundle
• Sir Christopher Meyer
• William Hague

Court

Below are lists of officials who either sat on the Stationer's Company Court of Assistants, or who worked for the Company in another official capacity (Beadle, Treasurer, and Clerk) from the time the Company was first granted a charter in 1556 to the present day. As with most London livery companies, the Master of the Company was elected yearly, along with the Wardens. For the Stationers, this election day always took place in late June, the day before St. Peter's Day (June 29). Thus, a Master's term would run effectively from July to July. The dates below reflect the year a Master was elected and began a term of service. Upper and Under Wardens were elected at the same time, while Renter Wardens (those two wardens charged with collecting dues from members of the Company annually) were chosen for the following year in March, on or around Lady Day. The roles of Beadle and Clerk were likewise elected positions, filled whenever they came open, but were often held by the same members for years or even decades. The Treasurer of the Company/English Stock was elected annually in March along with the Stockeepers, and again, was often held by the same person for years.
The master oversaw Company "courts", meetings of the Assistants and sometimes the Livery and wider membership where Company business was discussed and resolved. These courts were usually held monthly but could be held more or less frequently. Although official company positions were historically always held by men until the twentieth century, women have always participated meaningfully in the life of the Company, at certain times even holding a controlling interest in the Company's joint stock venture, known as the English Stock.[22][23][24]
The first woman elected master was Helen Esmonde, who held the position in 2015.[25]

1555–1599

Sixteenth Century Court Officials, 1556–1599[26][27]

Year elected / Master / Upper Warden / Under Warden / Renter Wardens / Clerk / Beadle / Treasurer

1555 Thomas Dockwray John Cawood Henry Cooke John Walley; Anthony Smythe Unknown Unknown Unknown
1556 Thomas Dockwray John Cawood Henry Cooke John Walley Unknown Unknown Unknown
1557 Thomas Dockwray John Cawood John Walley John Walley Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1558 Richard Waye John Jaques John Turke Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1559 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
Michael Loble Thomas Duxwell Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1560 Stephen Kevall Richard Jugge John Judson Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1561 John Cawood
William Seres Richard Tottell Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1562 John Cawood
Michael Loble Richard Harrison; John Judson [from February] Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1563 Richard Waye Richard Jugge Roger Ireland Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1564 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
John Walley John Day Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1565 Stephen Kevall William Seres James Gonneld Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1566 John Cawood
Richard Jugge John Day Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1567 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
Richard Tottell James Gonneld Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1568 Richard Jugge
Richard Tottell Roger Ireland Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1569 Richard Jugge
John Walley William Norton Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1570 William Seres
John Judson William Norton Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1571 William Seres
John Day Humphrey Toy Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1572 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
James Gonneld Humphrey Toy Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1573 Richard Jugge
William Norton John Harrison [the elder] Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1574 Richard Jugge
Richard Tottell William Cooke Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1575 William Seres
John Day Thomas Marsh Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1576 William Seres
James Gonneld Richard Watkins Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1577 William Seres
William Norton Richard Watkins Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1578 Richard Tottel
John Harrison [the elder] George Bishop Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1579 James Gonneld John Harrison [the elder] George Bishop Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1580 John Day
Richard Watkins Francis Coldock Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1581 William Norton Thomas Marsh Garrat Dewce Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1582 James Gonneld Christopher Barker Francis Coldock Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1583 John Harrison [the elder] Richard Watkins Ralph Newbery Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1584 Richard Tottel
George Bishop Ralph Newbery Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1585 James Gonneld Christopher Barker Henry Conway Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1586 William Norton George Bishop Henry Denham
Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1587 John Judson Francis Coldock Henry Middleton; Henry Conway [from September] Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1588 John Harrison [the elder] Francis Coldock Henry Denham Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1589 Richard Watkins Ralph Newbery Gabriel Cawood Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1590 George Bishop Ralph Newbery Gabriel Cawood Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1591 Francis Coldock Henry Conway George Allen Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1592 George Bishop Henry Conway Thomas Stirrop Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1593 William Norton [succeeded by George Bishop] Gabriel Cawood Thomas Woodcock; Thomas Stirrop [from April] Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1593 George Bishop [succeeds William Norton in December] Gabriel Cawood Thomas Woodcock; Thomas Stirrop [from April] Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1594 Richard Watkins Gabriel Cawood Isaac Binge Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1595 Francis Coldock Isaac Binge Thomas Dawson Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1596 John Harrison [the elder] Thomas Stirrop Thomas Dawson Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1597 Gabriel Cawood Thomas Stirrop Thomas Man Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1598 Ralph Newbery Isaac Binge William Ponsonby Unknown Richard Collins Toby Cooke Unknown
1599 Gabriel Cawood Thomas Man John Windet Unknown Richard Collins Toby Cooke Unknown

1600–1699

Seventeenth Century Court Officials, 1600–1699[28][29]

Year elected /Master /Upper Warden /Under Warden /Senior Renter Warden /Junior Renter Warden Clerk / Beadle / Treasurer

1600 George Bishop Thomas Dawson Richard White Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1601 Ralph Newbery Robert Barker Gregory Seton Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1602 George Bishop Thomas Man Simon Waterson Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1603 Isaac Binge Thomas Dawson Humphrey Hooper Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1604 Thomas Man John Norton William Leake Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1605 Robert Barker
John Norton Richard Feild Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Nathaniel Butter
1606 Robert Barker
Edward White William Leake Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy William Cotton
1607 John Norton Gregory Seton John Standish William Newton Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy William Cotton
1608 George Bishop Humphrey Hooper Humphrey Lownes Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy William Cotton
1609 Thomas Dawson Simon Waterson John Standish Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1610 Thomas Man William Leake Thomas Adams Anthony Gilman Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1611 John Norton Richard Feild Humphrey Lownes Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1612 John Norton Humphrey Hooper John Harrison [the younger] Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1613 Bonham Norton
Richard Field Richard Ockould Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1614 Thomas Man William Leake Thomas Adams Felix Kingston Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1615 Thomas Dawson Humphrey Lownes, senior George Swinhowe Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1616 Thomas Man Thomas Adams Matthew Lownes Matthew Law Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1617 Simon Waterson Humphrey Lownes, senior George Swinhowe Robert Bolton Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1618 William Leake Thomas Adams Anthony Gilman Leonard Kempe Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1619 Richard Field
George Swinhowe John Jaggard Thomas Purfoote John Harrison Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1620 Humphrey Lownes Matthew Lownes George Cole John Harrison John Jaggard Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1621 Simon Waterson George Swinhowe Clement Knight Richard Tombes Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1622 Richard Field Anthony Gilman Thomas Pavier Richard Tombes John Browne Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1623 George Swinhowe George Cole John Bill John Browne Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1624 Humphrey Lownes Matthew Lownes Henry Cooke Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1625 George Swinhowe Anthony Gilman Adam Islip William Aspley Roger Jackson Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1626 Bonham Norton
Clement Knight Felix Kingston John Rothwell Henry Fetherstone Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1627 George Cole Clement Knight Edmund Weaver Henry Featherstone Nathaniel Butter Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1628 George Cole Adam Islip Edmund Weaver Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1629 Bonham Norton
John Bill Thomas Purfoote John Busby Emanuel Exoll Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1630 George Swinhowe Felix Kingston John Harrison Emanuel Exoll Thomas Downes Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1631 George Cole Adam Islip John Smethwick Thomas Downes Richard Moore Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1632 George Cole Edmund Weaver William Aspley John Beale Richard Higganbotham Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1633 Adam Islip Edmund Weaver William Aspley John Hoth John Parker Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1634 Adam Islip Thomas Purfoote John Rothwell John Parker Francis Constable Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1635 Felix Kingston John Smethwick Henry Featherstone Richard Whitaker George Latham Henry Walley John Badger Edmund Weaver
1636 Felix Kingston John Harrison Thomas Downes George Latham Jonas Wellings Henry Walley John Badger Edmund Weaver
1637 Edmund Weaver, died June 1638 William Aspley Nicholas Bourne Jonas Wellings Ephraim Dawson Henry Walley John Badger Edmund Weaver
1638 John Harrison [the younger] John Rothwell Robert Mead George Miller Edward Brewster Henry Walley John Badger Unknown/Open
1639 John Smethwick
Henry Featherstone Nicholas Bourne Jonas Wellings Ephraim Dawson Henry Walley John Badger Edward Brewster
1640 William Aspley, died in office; succeeded by John Smethwick Thomas Downes Samuel Mann Jacob Bloome John Bellamy Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1641 Henry Fetherstone Nicholas Bourne John Parker Robert Bird, died in office; succeeded by Richard Thrale John Bartlett, fined out; succeeded by Nicholas Fussell Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1642 Thomas Downes Robert Meade George Edwards Nicholas Fussell Christopher Meredith Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1643 Nicholas Bourne Samuel Mann Richard Whitaker Christopher Meredith Robert Dawlman Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1644 Robert Mead John Parker Richard Whitaker Robert Dawlman William Crawley Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1645 Robert Mead John Parker George Miller William Crawley John Marriott Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1646 Samuel Mann Richard Whitaker Henry Seile John Marriott Richard Coates Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1647 John Parker George Latham John Bellamy Richard Coates Samuel Cartwright Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster [died between August and October 1647]
1648 Thomas Downes, succeeded by John Parker Ephraim Dawson William Lee Samuel Cartwright Humphrey Moseley Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1649 Robert Mead Miles Flesher John Chappell Humphrey Moseley Thomas Dainty Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1650 George Latham Miles Flesher Philemon Stephens Thomas Dainty Roger Norton Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1651 Nicholas Bourne John Legate Humphrey Robinson Roger Norton George Thomason Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1652 Miles Flesher John Legate Richard Thrale George Thomason Octavian Pulleyn John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1653 Miles Flesher Henry Seile Humphrey Robinson Octavian Pulleyn Andrew Crooke John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1654 Samuel Mann William Lee Roger Norton Andrew Crooke Luke Fawne John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1655 Henry Walley Philemon Stephens Roger Norton Luke Fawne Thomas Gold John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1656 Robert Mead Humphrey Robinson Richard Thrale Evan Tiler Ralph Rounthwaite John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1657 Henry Seile William Lee George Thomason Alexander Fifield Ralph Smith John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1658 Samuel Mann Philemon Stephens Octavien Pulleyn Francis Leach Thomas Hunt John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1659 William Lee Richard Thrale Humphrey Moseley Joshua Kirton Abel Roper John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott [died June 1660] George Sawbridge
1660 Philemon Stephens Roger Norton Andrew Crooke Abel Roper Giles Calvert John Burroughs Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1661 Humphrey Robinson George Thomason William Leake Robert White Richard Best John Burroughs Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1662 Miles Flesher Octavian Pulleyn Daniel Pakeman Richard Best Abraham Miller John Burroughs Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1663 Miles Flesher Andrew Crooke Luke Fawne Humphrey Tuckey Edmund Paxton George Tokefeild Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1664 Richard Thrale Octavian Pulleyn Evan Tyler Joseph Surbutt Richard Tomlyns George Tokefeild Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1665 Andrew Crooke
William Leake Ralph Smith Richard Tomlyns Samuel Gellibrand George Tokefeild Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1666 Andrew Crooke
Evan Tyler Richard Royston Samuel Gellibrand John Macocke George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1667 Humphrey Robinson
Evan Tyler Richard Royston John Macocke Richard Clarke George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1668 Thomas Davies Ralph Smith Thomas Hunt Richard Clarke Henry Twyford George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1669 Thomas Davies Ralph Smith Thomas White Henry Twyford John Clarke, junior George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1670 William Leake
Francis Coles Abell Roger John Clarke George Calvert George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1671 Evan Tyler Richard Royston Roger Norton George Calvert Thomas Vere George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1672 Ralph Smith Abell Roper Samuel Mearne Major Brook George Eversden George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1673 Richard Royston
Robert White Samuel Mearne Thomas Williams Andrew Nicholson John Lilly John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1674 Richard Royston
Robert White Thomas Roycroft Henry Leigh Henry Herringman John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1675 George Sawbridge Roger Norton Samuel Gellibrand; died in office, succeeded by John Macocke William Miller Henry Lee John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1676 Abel Roper
Samuel Mearne Richard Clarke Henry Lee John Wright John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1677 Robert White Thomas Roycroft Thomas Vere Christopher Wall Thomas Raw John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1678 Roger Norton John Macocke John Martin William Fisher John Haies John Lilly Randall Taylor John Leigh
1679 Samuel Mearne
Thomas Vere Thomas Newcomb John Sims Robert Clavell John Lilly Randall Taylor John Leigh
1680 John Macock Richard CLarke Francis Tyton Thomas Goreing Godfrey Head John Lilly Randall Taylor John Leigh
1681 Thomas Vere; died in January or February 1682, succeeded by Samuel Mearne Thomas Newcomb; died in January or February 1682, succeeded by Francis Tyton John Towse Nathaniel Ranew Dorman Newman John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1682 Samuel Mearne; died in June 1683, succeeded by Roger Norton Francis Tyton Henry Hills Thomas Spicer (Helder?) Samuel Herrick John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1683 Roger Norton John Towse Henry Hills Samuel Hoyle Adam Felton John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1684 Roger Norton Henry Hills James Cotterell Christopher Wall Nathaniel Ponder John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1685 Henry Herringman
John Bellinger Ambrose Isted Bennitt Griffin Adiel Mill John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1686 John Bellinger John Baker Robert Clavell Daniel Peacock Thomas Sawbridge John Garrett Randall Taylor Obadiah Blagrave, pro tempore
1687, June to October Roger Norton John Baker Thomas Bassett John Penn George Wells John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1687, October to 1688, June Henry Hills Edward Brewster Christopher Wilkinson John Penn Gabriel Cox John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1688, July to November Henry Hills John Simms Benjamin Tooke Thomas Hodgkins Robert Roberts John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1688, November to 1689, June John Towse Major John Baker [died in office in March 1689; succeeded by Ambrose Isted] Robert Clavell Thomas Hodgkins Robert Roberts John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1689 Edward Brewster Ambrose Isted Thomas Parkhurst Thomas Snodham Thomas Minshull John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1690 Ambrose Isted Henry Clarke Henry Mortlock John Harding James Oades John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1691 Ambrose Isted Thomas Bassett Henry Mortlock Freeman Collins William Baker John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1692 Edward Brewster John Simms William Phillipps John Miller Edward Jones John Garrett [resigned 1692; succeeded by Christopher Grandorge] Randall Taylor [ejected, March; succeeded by Nicholas Hooper] Benjamin Tooke
1693 John Bellinger Thomas Bassett William Phillipps Richard Sare James Damson Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1694 John Sims Henry Mortlock Samuel Lowndes John Williams John Darby Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1695 John Sims William Rawlins Samuel Lowndes William Horton John Heptinstall Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1696 Henry Mortlock Samuel Heyrick John Richardson Oliver Elliston John Baskett Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1697 Henry Mortlock Samuel Lowndes Bennett Griffin William Wyld Nicholas Boddington Christopher Grandorge [resigned in March; succeeded by Simon Beckley] Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1698 Robert Clavell
Samuel Lowndes Richard Simpson John Leake Luke Meredith Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1699 Robert Clavell
Samuel Heyrick Charles Harper Edward Limpany Benjamin Bound Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke

1700–1799

Eighteenth Century Court Officials, 1700–1799[30][31]

Year elected / Master / Upper Warden / Under Warden / Senior Renter Warden / Junior Renter Warden / Clerk / Beadle / Treasurer

1700 William Phillips Richard Simpson Samuel Sprint Awnsham Churchill Robert Vincent Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1701 William Phillips Richard Simpson Samuel Sprint John Lawrence Thomas Bennett Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1702 William Phillips Walter Kettleby Robert Andrews Matthew Wootton Christopher Bateman Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke [suspended from post 16 July] Joseph Collyer [elected 15 October]
1703 Thomas Parkhurst Walter Kettleby Robert Andrews John Taylor Richard Mount Simon Beckley Henry Million Joseph Collyer
1704 Richard Simpson Samuel Sprint Thomas Hodgkin Ralph Simpson Joshua Phillips Simon Beckley Henry Million Joseph Collyer
1705 Richard Simpson
1706 Walter Kettilby
1707 Edward Darrel
1708 Charles Harper
1709 William Phillips
1710 William Phillips
1711 William Phillips
1712 William Phillips
1713 Daniel Brown
1714 John Baskett
1715 John Baskett
1716 Nicholas Boddington
1717 Nicholas Boddington [joint with Richard Mount]
1717 Richard Mount [joint with Nicholas Boddington]
1718 Richard Mount
1719 Richard Mount
1720 John Sprint
1721 John Sprint
1722 John Knaplock
1723 John Knaplock
1724 John Knaplock
1725 John Walthoe
1726 John Walthoe
1727 James Knapton
1728 James Knapton
1729 James Roberts
1730 James Roberts
1731 James Roberts
1732 James Roberts
1733 William Mount
1734 William Mount
1735 William Mount
1736 Samuel Ashurst
1737 Samuel Ashurst
1738 Samuel Buckley
1739 Samuel Buckley
1740 James Round
1741 James Round
1742 John Knapton
1743 John Knapton
1744 John Knapton
1745 Thomas Brewer
1746 Thomas Brewer
1747 William Innys
1748 William Innys
1749 Stephen Theodore Janssen, Baronet
1750 Stephen Theodore Janssen, Baronet
1751 Thomas Ridge
1752 Thomas Ridge
1753 Thomas Page
1754 Samuel Richardson
1755 John March
1756 Francis Gosling, Knight
1757 Thomas Wotton
1758 Charles Hitch
1759 Jacob Tonson
1760 John Clarke
1761 Allington Wilde
1762 John Coles
1763 Edward Say
1764 Richard Brooke
1765 Richard Manby
1766 Henry Woodfall
1767 John Vowell
1768 James Bailey
1769 Matthew Jenour
1770 Paul Vaillant
1771 Thomas Gamull [joint with John Vowell]
1771 John Vowell [joint with Thomas Gamull]
1772 Joshua Jenour
1773 John Beecroft
1774 William Strahan
1775 John Rivington
1776 Robert Brown
1777 Thomas Wright
1778 Daniel Richards
1779 Lockyer Davis
1780 William Gill
1781 William Owen
1782 Thomas Caslon
1783 John Boydell
1784 Thomas Harrison
1785 Robert Gyfford
1786 William Fenner
1787 Thomas Greenhill
1788 Thomas Hooke
1789 Thomas Field
1790 John March
1791 Thomas Pote
1792 Henry Baldwin
1793 John Townsend
1794 Henry Clarke
1795 William Chapman
1796 Richard Welles
1797 Henry Sampson Woodfall
1798 Thomas Cadell
1799 James Bate

1800–1899

Nineteenth Century Masters, 1800–1899[32][33]

Year elected / Name / Trade

1800 William Stephens
Law Stationer
1801 Henry Parker
Printer, Bookseller, Print-seller, Stationer
1802 Charles Dilly
Publisher, Bookseller
1803 William Domville
Bookseller, Stationer
1804 John Nichols
Printer
1805 Francis Rivington
Bookseller
1806 Mathew Bloxham
Stationer
1807 Thomas Vallance
Paper maker; Wholesale Stationer
1808 Henry Woolsey Byfield
Printer; Bookseller; Stationer
1809 Samuel Hawksworth
Printer, Bookseller, Stationer
1810 John Crickitt
Stationer; Marshall of the High Court of Admiralty
1811 Josiah Boydell
Publisher, Painter
1812 Thomas Smith
Bookbinder, Stock Broker
1813 John Barker
Printer
1814 James Wallis Street
Bookseller, Stationer
1815 Joseph Collyer
Engraver
1816 Christopher Magnay
Wholesale Stationer
1817 Thomas Payne
Bookseller
1818 Joseph Gardiner
Wholesale Stationer
1819 Charles Rivington
Publisher
1820 William Walker
Stationer, Tea-dealer
1821 William Witherby
Printer, Law Stationer
1822 Robert Davidson
Pocket-book-maker
1823 George Wilkie
Bookseller
1824 William Venables
Wholesale Stationer
1825 Thomas Bensley
Printer; Lithographer
1826 Richard Marsh
Fancy Stationer
1827 Thomas Turner
Paper-maker; Paper-hanging Manufacturer; Stationer
1828 James Harrison
Printer
1829 John Crowder
Printer
1830 John Key
Wholesale Stationer
1831 Roger Pettiward
Businessman; Antiquarian
1832 Joseph Baker
Map engraver
1833 George Woodfall
Printer
1834 Charles Fourdrinier
Wholesale Stationer
1835 Edward London Witts
Stationer
1836 Thomas Chapman
Printer; Bookseller
1837 William Barron
Stationer
1838 William Francis Chapman
Bookseller; Wholesale Stationer
1839 George Rowe
Fancy Stationer
1840 Thomas Steel
Law Stationer
1841 William Barron
Stationer
1842 Charles Baldwin
Printer
1843 Charles Baldwin
Printer
1844 Richard Bate
Merchant, Stationer
1845 William Carpenter
Printer
1846 John Walter
Printer; Proprietor of The Times
1847 William Magnay
Stationer
1848 John Lewis Cox
Printer to the East India Company
1849 Benjamin Gibbons
Wholesale Stationer
1850 John Bowyer Nichols
Printer
1851 Thomas Gardiner
Wholesale Stationer
1852 Thomas Taylor
Printer; Stationer; Coal-merchant
1853 William Farlow
Law Stationer
1854 Samuel Gyfford
Stationer
1855 Francis Graham Moon
Printseller; Publisher
1856 Nathaniel Graham
Bookseller; Grocer; Upholsterer
1857 John Dickinson
Paper-maker; Stationer
1858 John Dickinson
Paper-maker; Stationer
1859 John Saddington
Copperplate-printer; Stationer; Slop-seller
1860 Henry Foss
Bookseller
1861 James William Adlard
Printer
1862 Henry Foss
Bookseller
1863 John Simpson
Music publisher; Musical-instrument-maker; Music-seller
1864 James Daikers
Stationer
1865 Thomas Jones
Painter; Paper-hanger; Paper-maker; Stationer
1866 Edmund Hodgson
Book auctioneer; Stationer
1867 Edmund Hodgson
Book auctioneer; Stationer
1868 Henry Adlard
Printer; Engraver
1869 Henry Good
Stationer
1870 Henry George Brown
Stationer
1871 William Tyler
Wholesale Stationer
1872 Sydney Hedley Waterlow
Politician
1873 Francis Rivington
Bookseller
1874 William Watson
Printer; Bookbinder; Stationer
1875 William Good
Stationer
1876 Charles Rivington [died in office, succeeded by Henry George Brown]
1876 Henry George Brown [succeeded Charles Rivington]
Stationer
1877 William Rivington
Printer; Bookseller
1878 George Chater
Wholesale Stationer
1879 Francis Wyatt Truscott
Wholesale Stationer
1880 James Figgins
Type-founder; Sheriff of London; Conservative MP
1881 Richard William Starkey
Wholesale Stationer
1882 Joseph Johnson Miles
1883 John Miles
1884 Charles Layton
1885 Edmund Waller
1886 Thomas Curson Hansard
Printer
1887 Francis Wyatt Truscott
Wholesale Stationer
1888 William Hawksworth
1889 James George Alexander Diggens
1890 James Evan Adlard [joint with Joseph Greenhill]
1890 Joseph Greenhill [joint with James Evan Adlard]
1891 George Singer
1892 Guildford Barker Richardson
1893 George Robert Tyler
Paper-maker
1894 Joshua Whitehead Butterworth [joint with Sir George Tyler]
1894 George Robert Tyler [joint with Joshua Whitehead Butterworth]
Paper-maker
1895 Henry Sotheran
Bookseller
1896 William Richard Stephens
1897 Charles John Clay
1898 William Rider
Publisher
1899 Joseph Hunt

1900–1999

Twentieth Century Masters, 1900–1999[34][35]

Year elected / Name

1900 James William Harrison
1901 George Wyatt Truscott
1902 Matthew Thomas Roe [joint with John Miles]
1902 John Miles [joint with Matthew Thomas Roe]
1903 Thomas Vezey Strong
1904 George North-Cox
1905 John Ion
1906 Richard Stevens
1907 Henry Hill Hodgson
1908 Richard Webster Cox
1909 William Charles Knight Clowes
1910 George Chater
1911 Daniel Greenaway
1912 George Edward Briscoe Eyre
1913 Henry Hill
1914 Henry Good
1915 Herbert Jameson Waterlow
1916 Edward Hanslope Cox
1917 Horace Brooks Marshall
1918 John Bruce Nichols
1919 Edwin James Layton
1920 Edward Unwin
1921 Charles Robert Rivington
1922 Herbert Fitch
1923 Edward Pinney Vacher
1924 Richard Bentley
1925 Frederick Harris Miles
1926 George Rowland Blades
1927 Arthur William Rivington
1928 Cecil Reeves Harrison
1929 William Alfred Waterlow
1930 Edgar Erat Harrison
1931 John Henry Williams
1932 Percy Walter Greenaway
1933 Percy Walter Greenaway
1934 HRH The Prince of Wales [ Ralph David Blumenfeld, deputy]
1935 HRH The Prince of Wales [John William Davy, deputy]
1936 Robert Evan Adlard [joint with Sidney John Sandle]
1936 Sidney John Sandle [joint with Robert Evan Adlard]
1937 John William Baddeley [joint with Edward Manger Iliffe]
1937 Edward Manger Iliffe [joint with John William Baddeley]
1938 Henry Dexter Truscott [joint with Charles Felix Clay]
1938 Charles Felix Clay [joint with Henry Dexter Truscott]
1939 Edward Chenivix Austen-Leigh [joint with Edward Unwin]
1939 Edward Unwin [joint with Edward Chenivix Austen-Leigh]
1940 Edgar Lutwyche Waterlow [joint with Stanley Low]
1940 Stanley Low [joint with Edgar Lutwyche Waterlow]
1941 George Henry Wilkinson
1942 John Jacob Astor
1943 Herbert Arthur Cox
1944 Charles John Watts
1945 Robert Kingston Burt
1946 Herbert William Jordan
1947 Victor Bobardt Harrison
1948 Bernard Guy Harrison
1949 Sidney Hodgson
1950 Reginald Thurston Rivington
1951 Arthur George Fowler
1952 Charles Clifton Tollit
1953 William Will
1954 Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh
1955 William Penman
1956 Cuthbert Grasemann
1957 Victor Robert Penman
1958 George Percival Simon
1959 Denis Henry Truscott
1960 James Edward Ousey
1961 William Henry Young
1962 John Betts
1963 John Mylne Rivington
1964 James Alexander Bailey
1965 Henry Arthur Johnson
1966 Donald Fores Kellie
1967 Henry Frank Thompson
1968 Charles Arthur Rivington
1969 John Hubbard
1970 Eric Burt
1971 Philip Soundy Unwin
1972 George Low Riddell
1973 Alan Pearce Greenaway
1974 Derek Burdick Greenaway
1975 Leonard Entwisle Kenyon
1976 Jack Matson
1977 Edward Glanvill Benn
1978 Brian Trevena Coulton
1979 Wilfrid Becket Hodgson
1980 Kenneth Buckingham Robinson
1981 David Wyndham Smith
1982 Peter Cox
1983 Christopher Rivington
1984 Laurence Viney
1985 Ray Tindle
1986 Allen Thompson
1987 Mark Tollit
1988 John Leighton
1989 Desmond Ryman
1990 Thomas Corrigan
1991 William Young
1992 George Mandl
1993 Peter Rippon
1994 Richard Haselden
1995 Alan Brooker
1996 Roy Fullick
1997 Clive Martin
1998 Vernon Sullivan
1999 Richard Harrison

2000–present

Twenty-first Century Masters, 2000– [36][37]

Year elected / Name

2000 Henry Frank Chappell
2001 Robert J Russell
2002 Michael A Pelham
2003 Jonathan Straker
2004 James Benn
2005 Patrick Shorten
2006 Neville Cusworth
2007 John W Waterlow
2008 Noel Osborne
2009 Richard Brewster
2010 Christopher McKane
2011 Nigel Stapleton
2012 Kevin Dewey
2013 Tom Hempenstall
2014 Ian Locks
2015 Helen Esmonde
2016 Ian Bennett
2017 Nick Steidl
2018 David Allan
2019 Trevor Fenwick
2020 Stephen Platten
2021 Robert Flather
2022 Moira Sleight
2023 Anthony Mash
2024 Paul Wilson

Young Stationers' Prize


Young Stationers' Prize with engraved winners as of 2018

The "Young Stationers' Prize" is an annual prize awarded by the Young Stationers' Committee to a young person under 40 years of age who has distinguished themself within the company's trades. Launched in 2014, the prize is a pewter plate (donated by the Worshipful Company of Pewterers) onto which each winner's name is engraved.

List of Young Stationers' Prize winners

As of December 2019 there have been seven winners of the Young Stationers' Prize: Katie Glass, journalist, 2014;[38][39] Angela Clarke, novelist, playwright, and columnist, 2015;[40][41] Ella Kahn and Bryony Woods, founders of Diamond Kahn & Woods Literary Agency (awarded jointly), 2016;[42] Ian Buckley, managing director of Prima Software, 2017;[43] Shane Tilton, academic and professor of multimedia journalism, 2018;[44] Amy Hutchinson, CEO of the BOSS Federation, 2019.[45]

Arms

Coat of arms of Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers hide



Crest: On a wreath of the colours, An eagle, wings expanded, with a diadem above its head, perched on a book fessewise, all Or.

Escutcheon

Azure, on a chevron between three books with clasps, all Or an eagle volant gules with a nimbus Or, between two roses gules leaved vert, in chief issuing out of a cloud proper radiated Or a Holy Spirit, wings displayed, argent with a nimbus Or.

Supporters

On either side an angel proper, vested argent, mantled azure, winged and blowing a trumpet Or.

Motto

'Verbum Dei manet in aetemum'[46]

See also

• Authorized King James Version
• Eyre & Spottiswoode
• Fleet Street
• Printing patent

References

1. "Livery Committee: The Worshipful Company of Stationers & Newspaper Makers". Retrieved 25 January 2024.
2. Blagden, Cyprian. The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1960, p.19
3. Raven, James (2007). The Business of Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade 1450–1850. Yale University Press. p. 200. ISBN 9780300181630.
4. Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 61.
5. "About Us". The Stationer's Company.
6. Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press.
7. Blagden, Cyprian. "The Property". The Stationers' Company: a History, 1403–1959. p. 206, n2. On November 24, 1548, John and Richard Keyme, gentlemen of Lewes, paid £1,154 15 shillings into the Court of Augmentations and obtained possession, along with other property, of 'the site, house and mansion commonly called Peter College' (Cal. Patent Rolls Ed. VI, i, 362–363). Four years later, William Sparke, a Merchant Taylor, conveyed the property to the executors of Matthew Wotton, clerk, but retained the right to reclaim it on payment of £340; this figure may approximate to that paid by the Stationers two years later still (Hustings Roll 246, 63). For a short period before 1553 William Seres used the building for a printing house.
8. Loades, D. M. (1974). "The Theory and Practice of Censorship in Sixteenth-Century England". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (24): 141–157. doi:10.2307/3678936.
9. Gadd, Ian (2016). "The Stationers' Company in England before 1710". In Alexander, I.; Gómez-Arostegui, H.T. (eds.). Research handbook on the history of copyright law. Cheltenham: Elgar.
10. Arber, Edward, ed. (1875–1877). Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640 A.D.
11. Chambers, Edmund Kerchever (1923). The Elizabethan Stage. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 160–177, 186–191.
12. Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "English Stock of the Stationers' Company in the Time of the Stuarts". The Library (12).
13. Turner, Michael (2009). "Personnel within the London Book Trades: Evidence from the Stationers' Company". Cambridge History of the Book in Britain. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
14. See Blagden, "The Property", in The Stationers' Company: a History, especially pages 212–215.
15. Blagden, "The Great Fire and the Rebuilding", in The Stationer's Company: a History, p.215. The Company remembers Tokefeild's contribution today in the name of its Archives Center.
16. Blagden, The Stationers' Company: a History
17. See the Statute of Anne. The Company maintained a copyright registry untl 1923, after which registrations became voluntary.
18. "Stationer's Company". British Armorial Bindings Database. University of Toronto. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
19. "Official website". Stationers Livery Company. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
20. Historic England. "Stationers' Hall (Grade I) (1064742)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
21. Blagden, Cyprian (1977) [1960]. "The Property". The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804709354.
22. Turner, Michael (2009). "Personnel within the London Book Trades: Evidence from the Stationers' Company". The Cambridge History of the Book in Britain 5: 1695–1830. p. 331. There were occasions in the eighteenth century when the majority of the Assistants' shares were in the hands of surviving widows rather than active Assistants.
23. Smith, Helen (2012). Grossly Material Things: Women and Book Production in Early Modern England. Oxford University Press.
24. McDowell, Paula (1998). The Women of Grub Street: Press, Politics, and Gender in the London Literary Marketplace 1678–1730. Oxford University Press.
25. "Master breaks centuries old barrier". Print Business. 27 July 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
26. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
27. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
28. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
29. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
30. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
31. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
32. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
33. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
34. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
35. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
36. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
37. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
38. "Announcement of the Young Stationers' Prize winner". InPublishing. 24 July 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
39. "Profile: Katie Glass". The Times & Sunday Times. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
40. Crockett, Sophie (4 August 2015). "St Albans playwright, Angela Clarke, scoops award". The Herts Advertiser. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
41. Cheesman, Neil (24 July 2015). "Debut playwright Angela Clarke wins The Young Stationers' Prize 2015". LondonTheatre1. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
42. "Former SYP committee members win Young Stationers' Prize". Society of Young Publishers. 31 August 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
43. Goldbart, Max (28 July 2017). "Buckley scoops Young Stationers' prize". Printweek. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
44. "Dr Shane Tilton wins Young Stationers' Prize". British Printing Industries Federation. 31 July 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
45. Handley, Rhys (12 July 2019). "New Boss chief wins Young Stationers' prize". Printweek. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
46. "Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers". Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 1 May 2024.

Further reading

• Arber, Edward, ed. (1875–1877), Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640 A.D.
• v.2, 1571–1595
• v.3, 1595–1620
• v.4, 1620–1640
• v.5, index
• Bell, Maureen (1996). "Women in the English Book Trades 1557–1700". Leipziger Jahrbuch zur Buchgeschichte. 6: 13–45.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "Accounts of the Wardens of the Stationers' Company". Studies in Bibliography. 9: 69–93. JSTOR 40371196.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "English Stock of the Stationers' Company in the Time of the Stuarts". The Library. 12.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1958). "Stationers' Company in the Civil War Period". The Library. 13.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1959). "Stationers' Company in the Eighteenth Century". Guildhall Miscellany. ISSN 0072-8985.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1960). The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. London: Allen & Unwin. OCLC 459559508.
• Blayney, Peter (2003), Stationers' Company before the Charter, 1403–1557, London: Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers, OCLC 52634009
• Blayney, Peter W. M. (2013). The Stationers' Company and the Printers of London: 1501–1557. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Eyre, G. E. B.; Rivington, C. R., eds. (1913–1914), Transcript of the Registers of the worshipful Company of Stationers, from 1640–1708 A.D. + v.2–3
• Ferdinand, C. Y. (1992). "Towards a Demography of the Stationers' Company, 1601–1700". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 21. ISSN 0079-5321.
• Gadd, Ian; Wallis, Patrick (2002). Guilds, Society and Economy in London, 1450–1800. Centre for Metropolitan History in association with Guildhall Library, London. ISBN 9781871348651.
• Gadd, Ian (2016). "The Stationers' Company in England before 1710". In Alexander, I.; Gómez-Arostegui, H.T. (eds.). Research handbook on the history of copyright law. Research handbooks in intellectual property. Cheltenham: Elgar. pp. 81–95. ISBN 9781783472390.
• Gadd, Ian (2013). "The press and the London book trade". In Gadd, Ian (ed.). History of Oxford University Press, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1780. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 569–600. ISBN 9780199557318.
• Gadd, Ian; Wallis, Patrick (2008). "Reaching beyond the City Wall: London guilds and national regulation, 1500–1700". In Epstein, S.; Prak, M. (eds.). Guilds, innovation, and the European economy 1400–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521887175.
• Gadd, Ian (2021). "The Stationers' Company, 1403–1775: London's book trade guild". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature.
• Greg, W. W.; Boswell, E. (1930). Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company, 1576 to 1602 – from Register B.
• Greg, W. W. (1928). The Decrees and Ordinances of the Stationers' Company, 1576–1602.
• "Government Control of the Printing Press: Star Chamber Censorship Ordinances (1566, 1586) and Philip Stubbs' Comments on Censorship (1593)". Voices of Shakespeare's England: Contemporary Accounts of Elizabethan Daily Life. 2010.
• Jackson, W. A. (1957). Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company, 1602 to 1640.
• Knight, Charles, ed. (1844), "Stationers' Company", London, vol. 6, London: C. Knight & Co.
• McDowell, Paula (1998). The Women of Grub Street: Press, Politics, and Gender in the London Literary Marketplace 1678–1730. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198184492.
• McKenzie, D. F. (ed.), Stationers' Company Apprentices, 1605–1800 in three volumes: 1605–1640, 1641–1700 and 1701–1800. (Charlottesville: Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia, 1961; Oxford: Oxford Bibliographical Society, 1974 and 1978)
• Mendle, Michael (1995). "De Facto Freedom De Facto Authority: Press and Parliament 1640–1643". The Historical Journal: 307–32.
• Myers, Robin (1985), Myers, Robin; Harris, Michael (eds.), "The Financial Records of the Stationers' Company, 1605–1811", Economics of the British Booktrade 1605–1939, Cambridge: Chadwyck-Healey, ISBN 0859641694
• Myers, Robin (1990). The Stationers' Company Archive: An Account of the Records, 1554–1984. Winchester: St Paul's Bibliographies.
• Myers, Robin; Harris, Michael, eds. (1997). Stationers' Company and the Book Trade 1550–1990. Winchester: St Paul's Bibliographies. ISBN 9781873040331.
• Myers, Robin, ed. (2001). Stationers' Company: a history of the later years 1800–2000. Chichester: Phillimore. ISBN 9781860771408.
• Nichols, John Gough (1861), Historical notices of the worshipful Company of stationers of London, OCLC 5386736, OL 6639628M
• Pollard, Graham (1937). "Company of Stationers before 1557". The Library. 18. ISSN 1744-8581.
• Pollard, Graham (1937). "Early Constitution of the Stationers' Company". The Library. 18.
• Raven, James (2007). The Business of Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade 1450–1850. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300181630.
• Rivington, Charles Robert (1883), Records of the Worshipful Company of Stationers, Nichols and Sons, OCLC 19943126
• Siebert, Fred S. (1936). "Regulation of the Press in the Seventeenth Century: Excerpts from the Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company". Journalism Quarterly. 13 (4): 381–393. doi:10.1177/107769903601300402. S2CID 159460546.
• Sketch of the History and Privileges of the Company of Stationers. London Stationers' Hall. 1871.
• Smith, Helen (2012). Grossly Material Things: Women and Book Production in Early Modern England. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199651580.
• "Stationers' Hall", Handbook to London as It Is, London: J. Murray, 1879
• "Stationers' Hall", London and Its Environs (17th ed.), Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1915, hdl:2027/mdp.39015019440851

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.

• The Stationers' and Newspaper Makers' Company
• Events Venue Website

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Part 1 of 2

Tipu Sultan [Tippoo Sultan]
by Wikipedia
Accessed 10/2/24
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipu_Sultan

The earliest book printed in Bombay which is at present available is one published in 1793 under the following title: "Remarks and Occurrences of Mr. Henry Becher, during his imprisonment of two years and a half in the Dominions of Tippoo Sultan, from whence he made his escape." 5 [A copy of this book is available in the Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture, Bombay.] This book does not bear the name of the press where it was printed. It is clearly stated in the introduction of this book that "It is the first book ever printed in Bombay."

1793 The Times 24 August
“We learn, that not withstanding Tippoo’s repeated declarations that he had no more English prisoners in his possession, it is evident that all those declarations have been insincere. Mr Becher, who some years ago was proceeding in a Pattamar boat, with stores for Mr. Rivitt’s ship at Cochin, was unfortunately driven on shore near Mangalore, and taken prisoner: after undergoing a long and painful imprisonment, and being marched from fort to fort, has at last effected his escape from Seringapatam. Latterly his confinement was not so strict as formerly, and he was sometimes permitted to go a shooting, under the guard of a sepoy, - One day having strolled a comfortable distance from the fort, he turned upon the sepoy & threatened to shoot him, if he did not accompany him – the sepoy was obliged to comply, and they are both now safely arrived at Tellicherry. Mr. Becher reports there are several prisoners at Seringapatram.”

-- https://freepages.rootsweb.com/~becher/ ... papers.htm

Tipu Sultan
Badshah
Nasib-ud-Daulah
Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Tipu

Portrait of Tipu Sultan, from Mysore (c. 1790–1800).
Sultan of Mysore
Reign: 10 December 1782 – 4 May 1799
Coronation: 29 December 1782
Predecessor: Hyder Ali
Successor: Krishnaraja III (as Maharaja of Mysore)
Born: Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu, 1 December 1751, Devanahalli, Kingdom of Mysore (present-day Karnataka, India)
Died: 4 May 1799 (aged 47)
Burial: Srirangapatna, present-day Mandya, Karnataka
Spouse: Sultan Begum Sahib ​(m. 1774)​; Ruqaya Banu Begum ​(m. 1774)​; Khadija Zaman Begum ​(m. 1796; died 1797)​;
Buranti Begum; Roshani Begum
Issue: Shezada Hyder Ali, Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib and many others
Names: Badshah Nasib-ud-Daulah Sultan Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Saheb Tipu
House: Mysore
Father: Hyder Ali
Mother: Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa
Religion: Sunni Islam[1][2][3][4]
Seal:

Military career
Service/branch: Mysore Army
Rank: Sultan
Battles/wars:
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Battle of Annagudi
Maratha-Mysore War
Battle of Moti Talab
Siege of Nargund
Siege of Adoni
Battle of Savanur
Siege of Bahadur Benda
Mysorean invasion of Malabar
Siege of Bednore
Battle of Nedumkotta
Third Anglo-Mysore War
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Seringapatam (1799) †

Tipu Sultan (Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu; 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), commonly referred to as Sher-e-Mysore or "Tiger of Mysore",[5][6] was an Indian ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India.[7] He was a pioneer of rocket artillery.[8][9][10] He expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatna.[11]

Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali used their French-trained army in alliance with the French in their struggle with the British,[12] and in Mysore's struggles with other surrounding powers: against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers of Malabar, Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, and Travancore. Tipu became the ruler of Mysore upon his father's death from cancer in 1782 during the Second Anglo-Mysore War. He negotiated with the British in 1784 with the Treaty of Mangalore which ended the war in status quo ante bellum.

Tipu's conflicts with his neighbours included the Maratha–Mysore War, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Gajendragad.[13]

Tipu remained an enemy of the British East India Company. He initiated an attack on British-allied Travancore in 1789. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, he was forced into the Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of previously conquered territories, including Malabar and Mangalore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, a combined force of British East India Company troops supported by the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu. He was killed on 4 May 1799 while defending his stronghold of Seringapatam.

Tipu also introduced administrative innovations during his rule, including a new coinage system and calendar,[14] and a new land revenue system, which initiated the growth of the Mysore silk industry.[15] He is known for his patronage to Channapatna toys.[16]

Early years


Tipu's birthplace, Devanahalli.

Childhood

Tipu Sultan was born in Devanahalli, in present-day Bangalore Rural district, about 33 km (21 mi) north of Bangalore on 1 December 1751.[17][18] He was named "Tipu Sultan" after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a prince's education and a very early exposure to military and political affairs. At age of 17 onwards Tipu was given charge of diplomatic and military missions and supported his father Hyder in his wars.[19]

Tipu's father, Hyder Ali, was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore who had become the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 while his mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, beary, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing.[17][20][21][22]

Language

Tipu Sultan's mother tongue was Urdu. The French noted that "Their language is Moorish[Urdu] but they also speak Persian."[23] Moors at the time was a European designation for Urdu: "I have a deep knowledge [je possède à fond] of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain by the natives of the land."[24]

Early military service


War coat used by Tipu Sultan of Mysore.c. 1785-1790


A flintlock blunderbuss, built for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatna, 1793–94. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[25]

Early Conflicts

Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father. At age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16. He also took part in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775–1779.[26]

Alexander Beatson, who published a volume on the Fourth Mysore War entitled View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun, described Tipu Sultan as follows: "His stature was about five feet eight inches; he had a short neck, square shoulders, and was rather corpulent: his limbs were small, particularly his feet and hands; he had large full eyes, small arched eyebrows, and an aquiline nose; his complexion was fair, and the general expression of his countenance, not void of dignity".[27]

Second Anglo-Mysore War

Main articles: Second Anglo-Mysore War and Battle of Annagudi


Mural of the Battle of Pollilur on the walls of Tipu's summer palace, painted to celebrate his triumph over the British


Very small Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces now in Government Museum (Egmore), Chennai

In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahé which Tipu had placed under his protection, providing some troops for its defence. In response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras.[28] During this campaign in September 1780, Tipu Sultan was dispatched by Hyder Ali with 10,000 men and 18 guns to intercept Colonel William Baillie who was on his way to join Sir Hector Munro. In the Battle of Pollilur, Tipu defeated Baillie. Out of 360 Europeans, about 200 were captured alive, and the sepoys, who were about 3800 men, suffered very high casualties. Munro was moving south with a separate force to join Baillie, but on hearing the news of the defeat he retreated to Madras, abandoning his artillery in a water tank at Kanchipuram.[29]

Tipu Sultan defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi near Tanjore on 18 February 1782. Braithwaite's forces, consisting of 100 Europeans, 300 cavalry, 1400 sepoys and 10 field pieces, was the standard size of the colonial armies. Tipu Sultan seized all guns and took the detachment prisoner. In December 1781 Tipu Sultan seized Chittur from the British. Tipu Sultan had gained sufficient military experience by the time Hyder Ali died on Friday, 6 December 1782. Some historians put Hyder Ali's death at 2 or 3 days later or before due to the Hijri date being 1 Muharram, 1197 as per some records in Persian (which can result in a difference of 1 to 3 days due to the Lunar Calendar). He became the ruler of Mysore on Sunday, 22 December 1782 (the inscriptions in some of Tipu's regalia show it as 20 Muharram, 1197 Hijri Sunday) in a simple coronation ceremony. He subsequently worked on to check the advances of the British by making alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. The Second Mysore War came to an end with the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore.[clarification needed][30]

Ruler of Mysore

On 29 December 1782, Tipu Sultan crowned himself Badshah or Emperor of Mysore with the title Nawab Tipu Sultan Bahadur at age 32, and struck coinage.[31]

Conflicts with Maratha Confederacy

See also: Battles involving the Maratha Empire § Conflict with the Kingdom of Mysore


Tipu Sultan seated on his throne (1800), by Anna Tonelli


Tipu Sultan's Summer Palace at Srirangapatna, Karnataka

The Maratha Empire under its new Peshwa Madhavrao I regained most of Indian subcontinent, twice defeating Tipu's father in 1764 and then in 1767. In 1767 Maratha Peshwa Madhavrao defeated both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan and entered Srirangapatna, the capital of Mysore. Hyder Ali accepted the authority of Madhavrao who gave him the title of Nawab of Mysore.[32]

Subsequently, to escape the treaty, Tipu tried to take some Maratha forts in Southern India captured by in the previous war and also stopped the tribute to Marathas which was promised by Hyder Ali.[33] This brought Tipu in direct conflict with the Marathas, leading to Maratha–Mysore War[33] Conflicts between Mysore (under Tipu) and Marathas:

• Siege of Nargund during February 1785 won by Mysore
• Siege of Badami during May 1786 in which Mysore surrendered
• Siege of Adoni during June 1786 won by Mysore
• Battle of Gajendragad, June 1786 won by Marathas
• Battle of Savanur during October 1786 won by Mysore
• Siege of Bahadur Benda during January 1787 won by Mysore

Conflict ended with Treaty of Gajendragad in March 1787, as per which Tipu returned all the territory captured by Hyder Ali to Maratha Empire.[33][34] Tipu would elease Kalopant and return Adoni, Kittur, and Nargund to their previous rulers. Badami would be ceded to the Marathas and Tipu would also pay an annual tribute totaling 12 lakhs for an agreed period of 4 years to the Marathas. In return, Tipu Sultan would get all the region that he had captured during the war. This included Gajendragarh and Dharwar.[35][36] The Marathas in return agreed to recognize his authority and to address Tipu sultan as "Nabob Tipu Sultan Futteh Ally Khan".[36] However the Marathas ultimately reneged on the treaty and in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War the Marathas presented their support to the British East India Company which helped the British to take over Mysore in 1799.[37][page needed][38]

The Invasion of Malabar (1766–1790)

Main article: Mysorean invasion of Malabar


Tipu Sultan at the lines of Travancore.

In 1766 when he was 15 years old Tipu accompanied his father on an invasion of Malabar. After the incident- Siege of Tellicherry in Thalassery in North Malabar,[39] Hyder Ali started losing his territories in Malabar. Tipu came from Mysore to reinstate the authority over Malabar. After the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789–90), due to the monsoon flood, the stiff resistance of the Travancore forces and news about the attack of British in Srirangapatnam he went back.[40]

Third Anglo-Mysore War

Main article: Third Anglo-Mysore War


Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces at the battle of Srirangapatna 1799


General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages in the year 1793.

In 1789, Tipu Sultan disputed the acquisition by Dharma Raja of Travancore of two Dutch-held fortresses in Cochin. In December 1789 he massed troops at Coimbatore, and on 28 December made an attack on the lines of Travancore, knowing that Travancore was (according to the Treaty of Mangalore) an ally of the British East India Company.[41] On account of the staunch resistance by the Travancore army, Tipu was unable to break through the Tranvancore lines and the Maharajah of Travancore appealed to the East India Company for help. In response, Lord Cornwallis mobilised company and British military forces, and formed alliances with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad to oppose Tipu. In 1790 the company forces advanced, taking control of much of the Coimbatore district.[41] Tipu counter-attacked, regaining much of the territory, although the British continued to hold Coimbatore itself. He then descended into the Carnatic, eventually reaching Pondicherry, where he attempted without success to draw the French into the conflict.[41]

In 1791 his opponents advanced on all fronts, with the main British force under Cornwallis taking Bangalore and threatening Srirangapatna. Tipu harassed the British supply and communication and embarked on a "scorched earth" policy of denying local resources to the British.[41] In this last effort he was successful, as the lack of provisions forced Cornwallis to withdraw to Bangalore rather than attempt a siege of Srirangapatna. Following the withdrawal, Tipu sent forces to Coimbatore, which they retook after a lengthy siege.[41]

The 1792 campaign was a failure for Tipu. The allied army was well-supplied, and Tipu was unable to prevent the junction of forces from Bangalore and Bombay before Srirangapatna.[41] After about two weeks of siege, Tipu opened negotiations for terms of surrender. In the ensuing treaty, he was forced to cede half his territories to the allies,[26] and deliver two of his sons as hostages until he paid in full three crores and thirty lakhs rupees fixed as war indemnity to the British for the campaign against him. He paid the amount in two instalments and got back his sons from Madras.[41]

Napoleon's attempt at a junction

Main article: Franco-Indian alliances

In 1794, with the support of French Republican officers, Tipu allegedly helped found the Jacobin Club of Mysore for 'framing laws comfortable with the laws of the Republic'. He planted a Liberty Tree and declared himself Citizen Tipoo.[42] In a 2005 paper, historian Jean Boutier argued that the club's existence, and Tipu's involvement in it, was fabricated by the East India Company in order to justify British military intervention against Tipu.[43]

One of the motivations of Napoleon's invasion of Egypt was to establish a junction with India against the British. Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with Tippoo Sahib.[44] Napoleon assured the French Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions."[45] According to a 13 February 1798 report by Talleyrand: "Having occupied and fortified Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000 men from Suez to India, to join the forces of Tipu-Sahib and drive away the English."[45] Napoleon was unsuccessful in this strategy, losing the Siege of Acre in 1799 and at the Battle of Abukir in 1801.[46]

Although I never supposed that he (Napoleon) possessed, allowing for some difference of education, the liberality of conduct and political views which were sometimes exhibited by old Hyder Ali, yet I did think he might have shown the same resolved and dogged spirit of resolution which induced Tipu Sahib to die manfully upon the breach of his capital city with his sabre clenched in his hand.

— Sir Walter Scott, commenting on the abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814

Death

Further information: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War


Tipu Sultan confronts his opponents during the Siege of Srirangapatna.

Horatio Nelson defeated François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers at the Battle of the Nile in Egypt in 1798. Three armies marched into Mysore in 1799—one from Bombay and two British, one of which included Arthur Wellesley.[47] They besieged the capital Srirangapatna in the Fourth Mysore War.[48] There were more than 60,000 soldiers of the British East India Company, approximately 4,000 Europeans and the rest Indians; while Tipu Sultan's forces numbered only around 30,000. The betrayal by Tipu Sultan's ministers in working with the British and weakening the walls to make an easy path for the British.[49][50] The death of Tipu Sultan led British General Harris to exclaim "Now India is ours."[37][page needed]

When the British broke through the city walls, French military advisers told Tipu Sultan[51] to escape via secret passages and to fight the rest of the wars from other forts, but he refused.[52] Tipu famously said "Better to live one day as a tiger than a thousand years as a sheep".[53]


The Last Effort and Fall of Tipu Sultan by Henry Singleton, c. 1800

Tipu Sultan was killed at the Hoally (Diddy) Gateway, which was located 300 yards (270 m) from the N.E. Angle of the Srirangapatna Fort.[54] He was buried the next afternoon at the Gumaz, next to the grave of his father. Many members of the British East India Company believed that Nawab of Carnatic Umdat Ul-Umra secretly provided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the war and sought his deposition after 1799.[citation needed] These five men include Mir Sadiq, Purnaiya, two military commanders Saiyed Saheb and Qamaruddin, and Mir Nadim, commandant of the fort of Seringapatam. The episode of treachery as narrated by Hasan starts with the disobedience of Tipu's instructions.[55] When he died there were jubilant celebrations in Britain, with authors, playwrights and painters creating works to celebrate it.[56] The death of Tipu Sultan was celebrated with declaration of public holiday in Britain.[57]

Administration

Tipu introduced a new calendar, new coinage, and seven new government departments, during his reign, and made military innovations in the use of rocketry.

Mysorean rockets

Main article: Mysorean rockets


A soldier from Tipu Sultan's army, using his rocket as a flagstaff.


Tipu Sultan organised his Rocket artillery brigades known as Cushoons, Tipu Sultan expanded the number of servicemen in the various Cushoons from 1500 to almost 5000. The Mysorean rockets utilised by Tipu Sultan, were later updated by the British and successively employed during the Napoleonic Wars.

Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the former President of India, in his Tipu Sultan Shaheed Memorial Lecture in Bangalore (30 November 1991), called Tipu Sultan the innovator of the world's first war rocket. Two of these rockets, captured by the British at Srirangapatna, were displayed in the Royal Artillery Museum in London. According to historian Dr Dulari Qureshi Tipu Sultan was a fierce warrior king and was so quick in his movement that it seemed to the enemy that he was fighting on many fronts at the same time.[49] Tipu managed to subdue all the petty kingdoms in the south. He was also one of the few Indian rulers to have defeated British armies.

Tipu Sultan's father had expanded on Mysore's use of rocketry, making critical innovations in the rockets themselves and the military logistics of their use. He deployed as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate rocket launchers. These men were skilled in operating the weapons and were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. The rockets had twin side sharpened blades mounted on them, and when fired en masse, spun and wreaked significant damage against a large army. Tipu greatly expanded the use of rockets after Hyder's death, deploying as many as 5,000 rocketeers at a time.[58] The rockets deployed by Tipu during the Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced than those the British East India Company had previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missiles (up to 2 km range).[58][11]

British accounts describe the use of the rockets during the third and fourth wars.[59] During the climactic battle at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a magazine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. After Tipu's defeat in the fourth war the British captured a number of the Mysorean rockets. These became influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[11]

Navy

In 1786 Tipu Sultan, again following the lead of his father, decided to build a navy consisting of 20 battleships of 72 cannons and 20 frigates of 65 cannons. In the year 1790 he appointed Kamaluddin as his Mir Bahar and established massive dockyards at Jamalabad and Majidabad. Tipu Sultan's board of admiralty consisted of 11 commanders in service of a Mir Yam. A Mir Yam led 30 admirals and each one of them had two ships. Tipu Sultan ordered that the ships have copper-bottoms, an idea that increased the longevity of the ships and was introduced to Tipu by Admiral Suffren.[60]

Army

Due to their perpetual battle engagements, Haidar and Tipu required a disciplined standing army. Thus, Rajputs, Muslims and able tribal men were enrolled for full time service replacing the local militia called the Kandachar[61] force of agricultural origin which existed in the Mysore army earlier. The removal of the Vokkaligas from the local militia which had taken part in wars for centuries and the imposition of higher taxes on them in place of their quit rent led indirectly to the implementation of Ryotwari system. Now the Ryots could not rely upon slaves for their agricultural activities since their slaves were enrolled in the army in some places. Besides paying higher taxes they had to endure the additional responsibility of feeding the slaves and financing their marriages. This led to the weakening of the system of slavery in Mysore.[62]

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore
Further information: Mysore silk and Economic history of India

The peak of Mysore's economic power was under Tipu Sultan in the late 18th century. Along with his father Hyder Ali, he embarked on an ambitious program of economic development, aiming to increase the wealth and revenue of Mysore.[63] Under his reign, Mysore overtook Bengal Subah as India's dominant economic power, with highly productive agriculture and textile manufacturing.[64] Mysore's average income was five times higher than subsistence level at the time.[65]

Tipu Sultan laid the foundation for the construction of the Kannambadi dam (present-day Krishna Raja Sagara or KRS dam) on the Kaveri river, as attested by an extant stone plaque bearing his name, but was unable to begin the construction.[66][67] The dam was later built and opened in 1938. It is a major source of drinking water for the people of Mysore and Bangalore.

The Mysore silk industry was first initiated during the reign of Tipu Sultan.[68] He sent an expert to Bengal Subah to study silk cultivation and processing, after which Mysore began developing polyvoltine silk.[15]

The greater prominence of the Channapatna toys can be traced to patronage from Tipu Sultan, the historic ruler of Mysore, though these toys existed before this period historically given as gifts as part of Dusshera celebrations. It is known that he was an ardent admirer of arts, and in particular of woodwork.[69][16]

Road development

Tipu Sultan was considered as pioneer of road construction, especially in Malabar, as part of his campaigns, he connected most of the cities by roads.[70]

Foreign relations


Louis XVI receives the ambassadors of Tipu Sultan in 1788. Tipu Sultan is known to have sent many diplomatic missions to France, the Ottoman Empire, Sultanate of Oman, Zand dynasty and Durrani Empire.[71]

Mughal Empire

Both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan owed nominal allegiance to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; both were described as Nabobs by the British East India Company in all existing treaties. But unlike the Nawab of Carnatic, they did not acknowledge the overlordship of the Nizam of Hyderabad.[72]

Immediately after his coronation as Badshah, Tipu Sultan sought the investiture of the Mughal emperor. He earned the title "Nasib-ud-Daula" with the heavy heart of those loyal to Shah Alam II. Tipu was a selfdeclared "Sultan" this fact drew towards him the hostility of Nizam Ali Khan, the Nizam of Hyderabad, who clearly expressed his hostility by dissuading the Mughal emperor and laying claims on Mysore. Disheartened, Tipu Sultan began to establish contacts with other Muslim rulers of that period.[73]

Tipu Sultan was the master of his own diplomacy with foreign nations, in his quest to rid India of the East India Company and to ensure the international strength of France. Like his father before him he fought battles on behalf of foreign nations which were not in the best interests of Shah Alam II.

After Ghulam Qadir had Shah Alam II blinded on 10 August 1788, Tipu Sultan is believed to have broken into tears.[74][page needed]


Tipu Sultan's forces during the Siege of Srirangapatna.

After the Fall of Seringapatam in 1799, the blind emperor did remorse for Tipu, but maintained his confidence in the Nizam of Hyderabad, who had now made peace with the British.

Afghanistan

After facing substantial threats from the Marathas, Tipu Sultan began to correspond with Zaman Shah Durrani, the ruler of the Afghan Durrani Empire, so they could defeat the British and Marathas. Initially, Zaman Shah agreed to help Tipu, but the Persian attack on Afghanistan's Western border diverted its forces, and hence no help could be provided to Tipu.

Ottoman Empire

In 1787, Tipu Sultan sent an embassy to the Ottoman capital Constantinople, to the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid I requesting urgent assistance against the British East India Company. Tipu Sultan requested the Ottoman Sultan to send him troops and military experts. Furthermore, Tipu Sultan also requested permission from the Ottomans to contribute to the maintenance of the Islamic shrines in Mecca, Medina, Najaf and Karbala.

However, the Ottomans were themselves in crisis and still recuperating from the devastating Austro-Ottoman War and a new conflict with the Russian Empire had begun, for which Ottoman Turkey needed British alliance to keep off the Russians, hence it could not risk being hostile to the British in the Indian theatre.

Due to the Ottoman inability to organise a fleet in the Indian Ocean, Tipu Sultan's ambassadors returned home only with gifts from their Ottoman brothers.

Nevertheless, Tipu Sultan's correspondence with the Ottoman Empire and particularly its new Sultan Selim III continued till his final battle in the year 1799.[73]

Persia and Oman

Like his father before him, Tipu Sultan maintained friendly relations with Mohammad Ali Khan, ruler of the Zand dynasty in Persia. Tipu Sultan also maintained correspondence with Hamad bin Said, the ruler of the Sultanate of Oman.[75]

Qing China

Tipu's and Mysore's tryst with silk began in the early 1780s when he received an ambassador from the Qing dynasty-ruled China at his court. The ambassador presented him with a silk cloth. Tipu was said to be enchanted by the item to such an extent that he resolved to introduce its production in his kingdom. He sent a return journey to China, which returned after twelve years.[76]

France


In his attempts to junction with Tipu Sultan, Napoleon annexed Ottoman Egypt in the year 1798.

Both Hyder Ali and Tipu sought an alliance with the French, the only European power still strong enough to challenge the British East India Company in the subcontinent. In 1782, Louis XVI concluded an alliance with the Peshwa Madhu Rao Narayan. This treaty enabled Bussy to move his troops to the Isle de France (now Mauritius). In the same year, French Admiral De Suffren ceremonially presented a portrait of Louis XVI to Haidar Ali and sought his alliance.[77]

Napoleon conquered Egypt in an attempt to link with Tipu Sultan.[citation needed] In February 1798, Napoleon wrote a letter to Tipu Sultan appreciating his efforts of resisting the British annexation and plans, but this letter never reached Tipu and was seized by a British spy in Muscat. The idea of a possible Tipu-Napoleon alliance alarmed the British Governor, General Sir Richard Wellesley (also known as Lord Wellesley), so much that he immediately started large scale preparations for a final battle against Tipu Sultan.

Social system

Judicial system

Tipu Sultan appointed judges from both communities for Hindu and Muslim subjects. Qadi for Muslims and Pandit for Hindus in each province. Upper courts also had similar systems.[78]

Moral Administration

Usage of liquor and prostitution were strictly prohibited in his administration.[79] Usage and agriculture of psychedelics, such as Cannabis, was also prohibited.[80]

Polyandry in Kerala was prohibited by Tipu Sultan. He passed a decree for all women to cover their breasts, which was not practised in Kerala in the previous era.[81][82]

Religious policy

On a personal level, Tipu was a devout Muslim, saying his prayers daily and paying special attention to mosques in the area.[83] Regular endowments were made during this period to about 156 Hindu temples,[84] including the famed Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangapatna.[85] Many sources mention the appointment of Hindu officers in Tipu's administration[86] and his land grants and endowments to Hindu temples,[87][88][89] which are cited as evidence for his religious tolerance.

His religious legacy has become a source of considerable controversy in India, with some groups (including Christians[90] and even Muslims) proclaiming him a great warrior for the faith or Ghazi[91][92] for both religious and political reasons.[85] Various sources describe the massacres,[93] imprisonment[94] and forced conversion[95] of Hindus (Kodavas of Coorg, Nairs of Malabar) and Christians (Catholics of Mangalore), the destruction of churches[96] and temples, and the clamping down on Muslims (Mappila of Kerala, the Mahdavia Muslims, the rulers of Savanur and the people of Hyderabad State), which are sometimes cited as evidence for his intolerance.

British accounts

Historians such as Brittlebank, Hasan, Chetty, Habib, and Saletare, amongst others, argue that controversial stories of Tipu Sultan's religious persecution of Hindus and Christians are largely derived from the work of early British authors (who were very much against Tipu Sultan's independence and harboured prejudice against the Sultan) such as James Kirkpatrick[97] and Mark Wilks,[98] whom they do not consider to be entirely reliable and likely fabricated.[99] A. S. Chetty argues that Wilks' account in particular cannot be trusted.[100]

Irfan Habib and Mohibbul Hasan argue that these early British authors had a strong vested interest in presenting Tipu Sultan as a tyrant from whom the British had liberated Mysore.[99][101] This assessment is echoed by Brittlebank in her recent work where she writes that Wilks and Kirkpatrick must be used with particular care as both authors had taken part in the wars against Tipu Sultan and were closely connected to the administrations of Lord Cornwallis and Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley.[102]

Relations with Hindus

Tipu Sultan's treasurer was Krishna Rao, Shamaiya Iyengar was his Minister of Post and Police, his brother Ranga Iyengar was also an officer, and Purnaiya held the very important post of "Mir Asaf". Moolchand and Sujan Rai were his chief agents at the Mughal court, and his chief "Peshkar", Suba Rao, was also a Hindu.[86]

The Editor of Mysore Gazette reports of correspondence between his court and temples, and his having donated jewellery and deeded land grants to several temples, which he was compelled to for forming alliances with Hindu rulers. Between 1782 and 1799 Tipu Sultan issued 34 "Sanads" (deeds) of endowment to temples in his domain, while also presenting many of them with gifts of silver and gold plate.[89]

The Srikanteswara Temple in Nanjangud still possesses a jeweled cup presented by the Sultan.[88] He also gave a greenish linga; to Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatna, he donated seven silver cups and a silver camphor burner. This temple was hardly a stone's throw from his palace from where he would listen with equal respect to the ringing of temple bells and the muezzin's call from the mosque; to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale he gifted four cups, a plate and Spitoon in silver.[87][89]

During the Maratha–Mysore War in 1791, a group of Maratha horsemen under Raghunath Rao Patwardhan raided the temple and matha of Sringeri Shankaracharya. They wounded and killed many people, including Brahmins, plundered the monastery of all its valuable possessions, and desecrated the temple by displacing the image of goddess Sarada.[86]

The incumbent Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. About 30 letters written in Kannada, which were exchanged between Tipu Sultan's court and the Sringeri Shankaracharya, were discovered in 1916 by the Director of Archaeology in Mysore. Tipu Sultan expressed his indignation and grief at the news of the raid:[86][103]

"People who have sinned against such a holy place are sure to suffer the consequences of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali age in accordance with the verse: "Hasadbhih kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate" (People do [evil] deeds smilingly but suffer the consequences crying)."[104]

He immediately ordered the Asaf of Bednur to supply the Swami with 200 rahatis (fanams) in cash and other gifts and articles. Tipu Sultan's interest in the Sringeri temple continued for many years, and he was still writing to the Swami in the 1790s.[105]

In light of this and other events, historian B. A. Saletare has described Tipu Sultan as a defender of the Hindu dharma, who also patronised other temples including one at Melkote, for which he issued a Kannada decree that the Shrivaishnava invocatory verses there should be recited in the traditional form.[106] The temple at Melkote still has gold and silver vessels with inscriptions indicating that they were presented by the Sultan. Tipu Sultan also presented four silver cups to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale.[106] Tipu Sultan does seem to have repossessed unauthorised grants of land made to Brahmins and temples, but those which had proper sanads (certificates) were not. It was a normal practice for any ruler, Muslim or Hindu, on his accession or on the conquest of new territory.

Persecution of Kodavas outside Mysore

Main article: Captivity of Kodavas at Seringapatam

Tipu got Runmust Khan, the Nawab of Kurnool, to launch a surprise attack upon the Kodavas who were besieged by the invading Muslim army. 500 were killed and over 40,000 Kodavas fled to the woods and concealed themselves in the mountains.[107] Thousands of Kodavas were seized along with the Raja and held captive at Seringapatam.[95]

Mohibbul Hasan, Prof. Sheikh Ali, and other historians cast great doubt on the scale of the deportations and forced conversions in Coorg in particular. Hassan says that it is difficult to estimate the real number of Kodava captured by Tipu.[108]

In a letter to Runmust Khan, Tipu himself stated:[109]

"We proceeded with the utmost speed, and, at once, made prisoners of 40,000 occasion-seeking and sedition-exciting Kodavas, who alarmed at the approach of our victorious army, had slunk into woods, and concealed themselves in lofty mountains, inaccessible even to birds. Then carrying them away from their native country (the native place of sedition) we raised them to the honour of Islam, and incorporated them into our Ahmedy corps." [110]

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Part 2 of 2

The coinage system


Among his many innovations, Tipu introduced new coin denominations and new coin types, including this copper double paisa weighing over 23 gm. The coin on the left also contains the emblem of the Sultanate of Mysore.


A gold coin issued by the Kingdom of Mysore during the reign of the Tipu Sultan.

The coinage of Tipu Sultan is one of the most complex and fascinating series struck in India during the 18th century. Local South India coinage had been struck in the area that became Mysore since ancient times, with the first gold coinage introduced about the 11th century (the elephant pagoda), and other pagodas continuing through the following centuries. These pagoda were always in the South Indian style until the reign of Haidar Ali (1761–1782), who added pagodas with Persian legends, plus a few very rare gold mohurs and silver rupees, always in the name of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II plus the Arabic letter "ح" as the first letter of his name. His successor, Tipu Sultan, continued to issue pagodas, mohurs and rupees, with legends that were completely new. As for copper, the new large paisa was commenced by Haidar Ali in AH1195, two years before his death, with the elephant on the obverse, the mint on the reverse, and was continued throughout the reign of Tipu Sultan, who added other denominations. Tipu Sultan introduced a set of new Persian names for the various denominations, which appear on all of the gold and silver coins and on some of the copper. They were:

Copper: Qutb "قطب" for the 1/8 paisa (Persian for the pole star) – Akhtar "اختر" for the 1/4 paisa (star) – Bahram "بهرام" for the 1/2 paisa (the planet Mars) – Zohra "زهره" for the paisa (the planet Venus) – either Othmani "عثمانی" for the double-paisa (the third caliph of the Rashidun) or Mushtari "مشتری" (the planet Jupiter).

Silver: Khizri "خضری" for the 1/32 rupee (Khizr the prophet) – Kazimi "کاظمی" for the 1/16 rupee (for Musa, the seventh Shi'ite Imam) – Ja'fari "جعفری" for the 1/8 rupee (Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shi'ite Imam) – Bâqiri "باقری" for the 1/4 rupee (Muhammad al-Baqir, the fifth Imam) – Abidi "عبیدی" for the 1/2 rupee (Ali Zain al-'Abidin, the fourth Imam) – Imami for the rupee (reference to the 12 Shi'ite Imams) – Haidari "حیدری" for the double-rupee (lion, for Ali b. Abi Talib, who was both the fourth caliph and the first Shi'ite Imam).

Gold: Faruqi "فاروقی" for the pagoda (Umar al-Faruq, the second caliph) – Sadîqi "صدیقی" for the double-pagoda (Abu Bakr al-Sadiq, the first caliph) – Ahmadi "احمدی" for the four-pagoda ( "most praised ", one of the name of the Islamic prophet Muhammad). During his first 4 years, the large gold coin was the mohur, with an average weight of about 10.95g (AH1197-1200), replaced with the four-pagoda of 13.74g with the calendar change to the Mauludi "مولودی" system (AM1215-1219).

Coinage dating system


2 gold Two Pagoda Coins issued by tipu Sultan

The denomination does not appear on the Hijri dated gold coins, but was added on all the Mauludi dated pieces.

At the beginning of his first year, Tipu Sultan abandoned the Hijri dating system and introduced the Mauludi system (from the Arabic word "walad ", which means "birth "), based on the solar year and the birth year of Muhammad (actually 571 AD, but for some perplexing reason reckoned as 572 by Tipu Sultan for his staff).

From the beginning of his reign, Tipu Sultan added the name of the Indian cyclic year on the large silver and gold coins, including this double-pagoda, together with his regnal year. Each of the names is Persian, though in several examples, the meaning of the names in India was different from the Iranian meaning (not indicated here). According to the Indian meanings, these are the cyclic years: Zaki "زکي" for cyclic 37, which corresponded to his year 1 ( "pure ") – Azâl "أزل" for 38 ( "eternity ", year 2) – Jalal "جَلال" for 39 ( "splendor ", year 3) – Dalv "دَلو" for 40 (the sign of Aquarius, year 4) – Shâ "شاه" for 41 ( "king ", year 5) – Sârâ "سارا" for 42 ( "fragrant ", year 6) – Sarâb "سراب" for 43 ( "mirage ", for year 7) – Shitâ "شتا" for 44 ( "winter ", year 8) – Zabarjad "زبرجد" for 45 ( "topaz ", year 9) – sahar "سَحَر" ( "dawn ", year 10) – Sâher "ساحِر" ( "magician ", year 11).[111]

Assessment and legacy


The spot in Srirangapatna where Tipu's body was found

Assessments of Tipu Sultan have often been passionate and divided. Successive Indian National Congress governments have often celebrated Tipu Sultan's memory and monuments and relics of his rule while the Bharatiya Janata Party has been largely critical. School and college textbooks in India officially recognize him as a "freedom-fighter" along with many other rulers of the 18th century who fought European powers.[112] The original copy of the Constitution of India bears a painting of Tipu Sultan.[113]

In 2017 the 14th Indian president Ram Nath Kovind hailed Tipu Sultan in his address to the Karnataka Assembly on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of the state secretariat Vidhana Soudha saying "Tipu Sultan died a heroic death fighting the British. He was also a pioneer in the development and use of Mysore rockets in warfare. This technology was later adopted by the Europeans."[114]

Tipu Sultan is also admired as a hero in Pakistan. Former Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan has said that he admires Tipu Sultan as a freedom fighter.[115]

Tipu also patronised art forms such as Ganjifa cards, effectively saving this art form.[116] Ganjifa card of Mysore have the GI Tag today.[117]

Sword and tiger

Main article: Tipu's Tiger


Tipu Sultan's Tiger. Victoria and Albert Museum, London


Sword of Tipu Sultan. National Museum, New Delhi

Tipu Sultan had lost his sword in a war with the Nairs of Travancore during the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789), in which he was forced to withdraw due to the severe joint attack from the Travancore army and British army.[118] The Nair army under the leadership of Raja Kesavadas again defeated the army of Tipu near Aluva. The Maharaja, Dharma Raja, gave the famous sword to the Nawab of Arcot, from whom the sword was taken as a war trophy by the British after annexing Arcot and sent to London. The sword was on display at the Wallace Collection, No. 1 Manchester Square, London.

Tipu was commonly known as the Tiger of Mysore and adopted this animal as the symbol (bubri/babri)[119] of his rule.[120] It is said that Tipu Sultan was hunting in the forest with a French friend. They came face to face with a tiger there. The tiger first pounced on the French soldier and killed him. Tipu's gun did not work, and his dagger fell on the ground as the tiger jumped on him. He reached for the dagger, picked it up, and killed the tiger with it. That earned him the name "the Tiger of Mysore". [citation needed] He even had French engineers build a mechanical tiger for his palace.[121] The device, known as Tipu's Tiger, is on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.[122] Not only did Tipu place relics of tigers around his palace and domain, but also had the emblem of a tiger on his banners and some arms and weapons. Sometimes this tiger was very ornate and had inscriptions within the drawing, alluding to Tipu's faith – Islam.[123] Historian Alexander Beatson reported that "in his palace was found a great variety of curious swords, daggers, fusils, pistols, and blunderbusses; some were of exquisite workmanship, mounted with gold, or silver, and beautifully inlaid and ornamented with tigers' heads and stripes, or with Persian and Arabic verses".[124]

The last sword used by Tipu in his last battle, at Sri Rangapatnam, and the ring worn by him were taken by the British forces as war trophies. Till April 2004, they were kept on display at the British Museum London as gifts to the museum from Maj-Gen Augustus W.H. Meyrick and Nancy Dowager.[125] At an auction in London in April 2004, Vijay Mallya purchased the sword of Tipu Sultan and some other historical artefacts, and brought them back to India.[126]

In October 2013, another sword owned by Tipu Sultan and decorated with his babri (tiger stripe motif) surfaced and was auctioned by Sotheby's.[127] It was purchased for £98,500[128] by a telephone bidder.

Tipu Sultan Jayanti

In 2015, the Government of Karnataka, under the leadership of then Chief Minister Siddaramaiah from the Congress party, began to celebrate Tipu's birth anniversary as the "Tipu Sultan Jayanti".[129] The Congress regime declared it as an annual event to be celebrated on 20 November.[130] It was officially celebrated in Karnataka initially by the Minority Welfare department, and later by the Kannada & Culture department. However, on 29 July 2019, the next Chief Minister B. S. Yediyurappa, who belongs to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), ordered the celebrations cancelled, saying: "Legislators from Kodagu had highlighted incidents of violence during Tipu Jayanti."

Objecting against the cancellation of the celebrations, the previous Chief Minister Siddaramaiah said: "BJP has cancelled it because of their hatred towards minorities. It's a big crime. He [Tipu] was a king of Mysore and fought against the British [as] a freedom fighter. It was during his time when the foundation was laid for the Krishna Raja Sagara dam. He also tried to improve industry, agriculture and trade". The previous year, not a single JD(S) leader, including the then chief minister HD Kumaraswamy, attended the event, turning it into a fiasco.[129]

The Lok Sabha Congress leader, Mallikarjun Kharge, also earlier criticized BJP and RSS for their opposition against holding the celebrations, and asked: "When RSS can celebrate Nathuram Godse, can't we celebrate Tipu Sultan?"[131]

In fiction


Sir David Baird Discovering the Body of Sultan Tipoo Sahib by David Wilkie, 1839

• He has a role in G. A. Henty's 1896 book The Tiger of Mysore,[132] and is also mentioned in Henty's 1902 At the Point of the Bayonet,[132] which deals with much of the same period.
• In Jules Verne's Mysterious Island, Captain Nemo is described as Tipu's nephew.
• He was portrayed by Paidi Jairaj in the 1959 Indian historical drama film Tipu Sultan, directed by Jagdish Gautam.[133]
• Bharat Ek Khoj, a 1988 Indian television series based on Jawaharlal Nehru's The Discovery of India which aired on DD National, dedicated an episode to Tipu Sultan with Salim Ghouse portraying the king.
• Tipu's life and adventures were the central theme of a short-running South Indian television series The Adventures of Tipu Sultan, and of a more popular national television series The Sword of Tipu Sultan based on a historical novel by Bhagwan Gidwani.[134][135]
• The Dreams of Tipu Sultan is a 1997 play written in Kannada by Indian writer Girish Karnad. It follows the last days as well as the historic moments in the life of Tipu, through the eyes of an Indian court historian and a British Oriental scholar.
• Tipu Sultan: The Tiger Lord is a Pakistani television series that broadcast on PTV in 1997, deals with the life of Sultan.
• Naseem Hijazi's novels Muazam Ali and Aur Talvar Ṭūṭ Gaye (And The Sword Broke) describe Tipu's wars.
• Wilkie Collins's novel The Moonstone contains an account of Tipu and the fall of Srirangapatna in the prologue.
• In The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen by Rudolf Erich Raspe, Munchausen vanquishes Tipu near the end of the novel.
• Sharpe's Tiger is a novel by Bernard Cornwell in which Napoleonic–era British soldier Richard Sharpe fights at Seringapatam, later killing Tipu.
• Tipu appears as a "Great Person" in the video games, Sid Meier's Civilization: Revolution and Sid Meier's Civilization IV.
• In his historical Konkani-language novels on the Seringapatam captivity of Konkani Catholics by Indian littérateur V. J. P. Saldanha, Belthangaddicho Balthazar (Balthazar of Belthangady), Devache Krupen (By the Grace of God), Sardarachi Sinol (The sign of the Knights) and Infernachi Daram (The gates of Hell), Tipu is portrayed as "cunning, haughty, hard-hearted, revengeful, yet full of self-control".[136]

Family


The mausoleum housing Tipu Sultan's tomb is another example of Islamic architecture. Tipu Sultan's flag is in the foreground.


The tomb of Tipu Sultan at Srirangapatna. Tipu's tomb is adjacent to his mother's and father's graves.

Tipu had several wives.[137] His first wife was Sultan Begum Sahib also known as Padishah Begum.[138] She was the daughter of Imam Sahib Bakhshi Naita from Arcot,[139] and sister of Ghulam Husain Khan, known as the Pondicherry Nawab, a descendant of Chanda Sahib.[138] They married in 1774.[140] Another wife married at the same time was Ruqaya Banu Begum. She was the daughter of Lala Miyan Shaheed Charkoli,[141] and the sister of Sheikh Burhanuddin.[142] She died in February 1792 at the time of the siege of Seringapatam.[139] Another wife was Khadija Zaman Begum. She was the daughter of Mir Sayyid Moinuddin Khan[142] also known as Sayyid Sahib.[143] They married in 1796. She died in childbirth in 1797.[140] Another wife was Buranti Begum. She was the daughter of Mir Muhammad Pasand Beg, a nobleman from Delhi and her mother's father was Sayyid Muhammad Khan, once a subedar of Kashmir. Another wife was Roshani Begum. She was the mother of his eldest son Fath Haider.[138]

His sons were Hyder Ali Khan Sultan,[144] Muin-ud-din Sultan, Abdul Khaliq Sultan, Muiz-ud-din Sultan, Muhammad Subhan Sultan, Shukrullah Sultan, Ghulam Ahmad Sultan, Ghulam Muhammad Sultan, Sarwar-ud-din Sultan, Muhammad Yasin Sultan, Jamal-ud-din Sultan and Munir-ud-din Sultan. One of his daughters was married to Husain Ali Khan.[138] Many of Tipu's descendants live in Kolkata and have expressed objection to use of Tipu Sultan's name by political parties for polarising votes.[145][146]

Image gallery


A view of the Hoally Gateway, Srirangapatnam, where Tipu Sultan was killed, Seringapatam (Mysore), by Thomas Sydenham (c. 1799)


A flintlock blunderbuss, made for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatnam in 1793–94. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[25]


Cannon used by Tipu Sultan in the battle of Srirangapatnam 1799


General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages in the year 1793.


During the Republic Day Parade in 2014, in New Delhi, the tableau of Karnataka, highlighting "Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore," made its way through the Rajpath.

See also

• Muslim warriors
• Mysore invasion of Kerala
• PNS Tippu Sultan
• Tipu Sultan Mosque
• The Sword of Tipu Sultan – an Indian TV series on Tipu Sultan
• Tipu's Tiger
• The Dreams of Tipu Sultan by Girish Karnad
• Mir Ghulam Ali, an official and senior military commander

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Cited sources

• Brittlebank, Kate (1999). Tipu Sultan's Search for Legitimacy. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563977-3. OCLC 246448596.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Tippoo Sahib" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1005.
• Dalrymple, William (2019). The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company (Hardcover). New York: Bloomsbury publishing. ISBN 978-1-63557-395-4.
• Fernandes, Praxy (1969). Storm over Seringapatam: the incredible story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan. Thackers..
• Habib, Irfan, ed. (2002). Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modernization Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan (Anthem South Asian Studies). Anthem Press. ISBN 1-84331-024-4.
• Hasan, Mohibbul (2005), History of Tipu Sultan, Aakar Books, ISBN 978-81-87879-57-2
• Knight, Charles (1858). The English cyclopædia: a new dictionary of universal knowledge, Volume 6. Bradbury & Evans. Retrieved 28 November 2011..
• Moienuddin, Mohammad (2000). Sunset at Srirangapatam: After the Death of Tipu Sultan. London: Sangam Books. ISBN 978-0-86311-850-0. OCLC 48995204.
• Palsokar, R. D. (1969). Tipu Sultan. s.n..
• Punganuri, Ram Chandra Rao (1849). Memoirs of Hyder and Tippoo: rulers of Seringapatam, written in the Mahratta language. Simkins & Co. Retrieved 28 November 2011..
• Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011). Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0.
• Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
• Roy, Kaushik (2011). War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-79087-4.
• Sastri, K.N.V. (1943). Moral Laws under Tipu Sultan. Indian History Congress. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
• Sen, Sailendra Nath (1995). Anglo-Maratha Relations, 1785-96. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 9788171547890.
• Sharma, Hari Dev (1991). The real Tipu: a brief history of Tipu Sultan. Rishi Publications..
• Wenger, Estefania (March 2017). Tipu Sultan: A Biography. Vij Books India Private Limited. ISBN 9789386367440.

Further reading

• Balakrishna, Sandeep, Tipu Sultan, The Tyrant of Mysore, Rare Publications
• Sen, Surendra Nath (1930), Studies in Indian History, University of Calcutta, OCLC 578119748
• Subramanian, K. R. (1928), The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore, self-published, OCLC 249773661
• William, Logan (1887), Malabar Manual, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 978-81-206-0446-9
• Grose, John Henry; Charmichael (1777), A Voyage to the East Indies
• Thompson, Rev. E. W. (1990) [1923]. The last siege of Seringapatam. Mysore City: Wesleyan Mission. ISBN 978-8120606029.
• Agha, Shamsu. Tipu Sultan", "Mirza Ghalib in London";, "Flight Delayed", Paperback, ISBN 0-901974-42-0
• Ali, B Sheik. Tipu Sultan, Nyasanal Buk Trast
• Amjad, Sayyid. 'Ali Ashahri, Savanih Tipu Sultan, Himaliyah Buk Ha®us
• Banglori, Mahmud Khan Mahmud. Sahifah-yi Tipu Sultan, Himālayah Pablishing Hā'ūs,
• Bhagwan, Gidwami S (1976). The Sword of Tipu Sultan: a historical novel about the life and legend of Tipu Sultan of India. Allied Publishers. OCLC 173807200. A fictionalised account of Tipu's life.
• Buddle, Anne. Tigers Round the Throne, Zamana Gallery, ISBN 1-869933-02-8
• Campbell, Richard Hamilton. Tippoo Sultan: The fall of Srirangapattana and the restoration of the Hindu raj, Govt. Press
• Chinnian, P. Tipu Sultan the Great, Siva Publications
• Hashimi, Sajjad. Tipu Sultan, Publisher: Maktabah-yi Urdu Da®ijast
• Home, Robert. Select Views in Mysore: The Country of Tipu Sultan from Drawings Taken on the Spot by Mr. Home, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-1512-3
• Kareem, C.K (1973). Kerala Under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. Kerala History Association: distributors, Paico Pub. House.
• V.M. Korath, P. Parameswaran, Ravi Varma, Nandagopal R Menon, S.R. Goel & P.C.N. Raja: Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993). ISBN 9788185990088
• Mohibbul Hasan. Tipu Sultan's Mission to Constantinople, Aakar Books, ISBN 81-87879-56-4
• Pande, B. N. Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of their religious policies (IOS series), Institute of Objective Studies
• Sil, Narasingha P. "Tipu Sultan: A Re-Vision," Calcutta Historical Journal' (2008) 28#1 pp 1–23. historiography
• Strandberg, Samuel. Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore: or, to fight against the odds, AB Samuel Travel, ISBN 91-630-7333-1
• Taylor, George. Coins of Tipu Sultan, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0503-9
• Wigington, Robin. Firearms of Tipu Sultan, 1783–99, J. Taylor Book Ventures, ISBN 1-871224-13-6
• Ashfaq Ahmed Mathur – "SALTANATH-E-KHUDADAT" and a book by Allama Iqbal ahmed (RH) "Daana e Raaz Diyaar e Dakan mein"

External links

• Media related to Tipu Sultan at Wikimedia Commons
• The Sword of Tipu Sultan – Volume 1
• The Tiger of Mysore – Dramatised account of the British campaign against Tipu Sultan by G. A. Henty, from Project Gutenberg
• Illuminated Qurʾān from the library of Tippoo Ṣāḥib, Cambridge University Digital Library
• UK Family Finds Tipu Sultan's Gun, Sword In Attic
• Tipu's Legacy