FREDA BEDI CONT'D (#4)

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Part 1 of 2

From Stone to Parchment: Epigraphic and Literary Transmission of Some Greek Epigrams
by Sara Raczko
Trends in Classics, vol. 1, pp. 90-117
© Walter de Gruyter 2009
2009

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Abstract: This paper deals with an oft-neglected aspect of the complex relationships between the Hellenistic culture and the Archaic and Classical tradition, namely the epigrams handed down to us in both epigraphical and literary sources. These (unfortunately rare) epigrams represent the only opportunity we have to detect the divergence between the original Archaic or Classical texts preserved on stone and their copies transmitted by manuscripts. Indeed, the Archaic and Classical epigrams have usually been handed down to us either as inscriptions or in manuscript copies, but very rarely in both forms. During the literary transmission the epigrams were modified in many ways: e.g. the writing conventions of the Archaic alphabets were abandoned and replaced by the "standard" system, and the linguistic shape suffered remarkable alterations. One of the aims of this paper is to explore the nature of the modifications undergone by some Archaic and Classical epigrams on stone during their literary transmission.

Obviously, most of the modifications found in the literary tradition are either banal scribal errors or alterations due to the well-known tendency of those who copied the texts to turn dialect forms into their Attic (Koine) counterparts. Yet in some instances the modifications seem to be deliberate and in line with the typically Hellenistic tendency to "embellish" the texts by means of dialect forms absent from the original but perceived as "prestigious". It is precisely on this tendency and its effects on the texts that I shall dwell in this paper.

Keywords: Epigrams, "embellishment", Doric [a:], dialect mixture

§ 1. In Archaic and Classical times epigrams were inscribed on stone or other durable materials (pottery, bronze); they were anonymous (as a rule, until the 4th cent. B.C.) and were composed on specific occasions, mostly as epitaphs or dedications. During these early stages, the local alphabets and the local dialects played an important role. The epichoric alphabets were used and the linguistic form was the particular dialect of the dedicator himself, 1 even if the monument was set up abroad.2 It is worth noting that dialect inscriptions in prose behave differently from verse inscriptions in this respect: prose inscriptions are exclusively written in the local dialect;3 epigrams, on the other hand, being verse compositions, are influenced by poetical models, above all by epics. In this case too, however, the strength of the local context is evident: epic features or syntagmas appear, as a rule, "translated" into the epichoric dialect or "coloured" with local phonetics, e.g. [x] (Boeotia, CEG 326) and [x] (scil. [x], Corinth, CEG 360), whereas our Homeric text has [x] (scil. [x], Sparta, CEG 373) based on [x] (cf, [x]; 283).4 On the other hand, some epic features - such as gen. sing. [x] and [x], dat. plur. [x], lack of augment, movable -v, etc. - tended to retain their original shape mostly, but not exclusively, for reasons of metrical convenience or necessity. Although this was the normal practice, it was far from being a strict law: verse epigrams show many examples of literary (usually epic) forms used instead of their local counterparts without any metrical necessity, like a participle in [x] in a Thessalian epitaph (CEG 117) metrically equivalent to the local form [x], some cases of psilosis, etc.5 It must be observed, anyway, that the principles governing the use of epic or literary features that were metrically equivalent to the local ones are very difficult to pin down, being neither fixed nor consistent. This is, however, quite obvious, since stone epigrams were no recognised literary genre and were therefore not bound to any well-established standard from this point of view (Buck 1923, 136).

§ 2. During the 5th cent. B.C., a large number of epigrams began to be produced (mainly) in Attica to celebrate private or public events.6 Their style grew more and more refined (according to ancient sources, some were commissioned to famous authors like Simonides, Anacreon, Euripides and Plato)7 and showed an increasing influence of poetry: chiefly epics, elegy and chorallyrics.8 The influence exerted by some literary languages, respectively linked with the Ionic domain and with the Doric one, has been invoked to explain some inconsistencies or "deviations" of the vocalism versus the epichoric features in Archaic and Classical Attic verse epigrams. In particular, it has been argued that the occurrence of [x] after [e], [i], [r] in the place of the expected [a:] (the so-called "alpha purum", a distinctive Attic feature) was due to the influence of epics, while the presence of non-Ionic-Attic inherited [a:] (< IE *a) instead of the expected Ionic-Attic [x] to the prestige of choral lyrics.9

Clearly, in more than one instance the non-Attic vocalism can be explained by the origin of the deceased.10 Nevertheless, there are some cases, like [x] in CEG 272 (470-460? B.C.), for which it is likely that Ionic [x] instead of Attic [a:] [x] was due to deliberate decision to "colour" the epigram with Ionic or epic features.11

Definitely more frequent and more striking is the spelling with non-Ionic- Attic inherited [a:] (< *a) in Attic verse epigrams between the second half of the 6th and the first half of the 5th cent. B.C.: e.g. gen. plur. [x], dat. sing. [x]; [a:] it is also found in [x], or epithets referring to Athena like [x], etc.12 Apart from rare cases in which, again, spellings foreign to Attic are due to the origin of the deceased (CEG 77 and 83, epitaphs for a Spartan and a Megarian), a change in the vocalism for stylistic purposes, and specifically under the influence of choral lyric, may account for most of the occurrences of [a:] (Mess 1898, 12-21; Buck 1923,134-136).13

§ 3. In Hellenistic times the Greek epigram underwent a number of modifications that have been often studied in depth and on which it is impossible to dwell in detail here. Basically, the epigram acquired the status of a literary genre, became more and more detached from the local dialects (which, incidentally, were on the wane), and the tendency to mix up the dialect features increased. For the sake of convenience, Hellenistic epigrams are usually classified by modern scholars into those composed in "Ionic-epic" dialect, in "Doric" dialect and in an "admixture" of the two,14 but it is clear that things were more complicated than that. The coexistence of "Doric" [a:] and "Ionic-epic" [E:] (and the frequent insertion of Doric features in a basically "Ionic-epic" context) is not only attested in literary epigrams, but it is also evident from several Hellenistic epigrams on stone.15

At a surface level there seems to be little more than an increase of a tendency that was already evident in Classical times; but in fact it seems clear that some new "principle" was at work, in the sense that the epigrams shared the same taste for the contamination of Kunstsprachen typical of other Hellenistic literary genres16 and that the use of dialect forms must have been perceived as a means to "embellish" a poetical text; in other words there was some continuity in a remarkably different frame.17

§ 4. As I have said, during the post-Classical period epigrams were not only composed, but also copied from stones and collected in book forms and anthologies.18 The most important one was the Garland of Meleager, which included most of the epigrams transmitted to us, later flown into the Palatine and Planudean Medieval anthologies.19 Therefore, the Hellenistic anthologies contain both pure literary epigrams and poems copied from stones, several of them ascribed to famous poets of the Archaic and Classical age. Although these ascriptions have often been disputed by modern scholars, it is clear and widely accepted that in many cases we are not dealing with book epigrams, but with poems that were composed and actually engraved on monuments during the Archaic and Classical period.20 Usually, these monuments have not been preserved, and we are not able to detect the differences between the original epigraphic text and its literary copy; yet, sometimes this is possible: it is on these occasions that we become aware of how much has been lost with the loss of the epigraphic text.

One of the most serious problems of literary texts is the vagaries of transmission. The linguistic and dialect form is usually the one deepest affected by modifications: apart from mechanical mistakes, the scribes obviously tended to turn the original dialect forms into those of their spoken Koine, which was phonologically Attic. There are plenty of examples: a well-known one is the first hexameter of the famous distichon for the soldiers fallen at Salamis, ascribed to Simonides (FGE "Simonides" XI). The text as we have it in the MSS is [x], but the original on stone (CEG 131) reads: [x], with the expected dialect forms ([x]), turned into their Attic (Koine) counterparts in the literary version.21 More rarely, some modifications are due to the influence of literary texts: the epigram dedicated by the Laconians to Zeus has come down to us both on stone (CEG 367): [x] and in the text of Paus. V, 24, 3: [x]. While the change of [x] into [x] is trivial, the replacement of [x] with [x] was probably due to the fact that [x] is the Homeric form. 22

In this latter case, the replacement due to literary interference is likely to be occasional (an intervention of a learned scribe), but it has a lesson to teach. We are used to explaining the divergences between the original Archaic or Classical epigrams preserved on stone and their literary copy with "unintentional" modifications, like random corruptions, wrong transcriptions on the MSS, alterations into Attic of dialect features, and so on. However, although this is mostly the case, as we have just seen, it is clear that some changes were not mechanical, but made on purpose. In what follows I shall examine some (unfortunately rare) Classical Attic epigrams handed down to us both in the original on stone and in their literary copies in the Palatine Anthology in order to demonstrate that in some cases we are dealing not only with "mechanical" mistakes, but also with intentional modifications. In actual fact, I believe that some epigrams were purposefully tampered with in order to embellish the linguistic (and literary) features of the original epigram according to the tastes of the post-Classical age.

§ 5. Let us examine first AP VI, 138 (= FGE "Anacreon" IX), one of the epigrams of the so-called Sylloge Anacreontea of the Palatine Anthology; more precisely, it is included in the small group of dedicatory epigrams (AP VI, 134-145), ascribed to Anacreon, The set is opened by AP VI, 134, which is headed with [x], while AP VI, 137, that comes right before our epigram, is a dedication of a certain [x] to Apollo. The text of AP VI, 138 in the MS of the Palatine Anthology reads as follows:

[x]

"Formerly Calliteles erected me; but his descendants set this up, to whom give favour in return".

As we have it in our MS, the text falls within the widespread category of the "speaking monuments" ([x]), although the sudden switch from the first person [x] to [x] (scil. the new Herm dedicated by Calliteles' descendants) results, at a first glance, in puzzling syntax, given that at the very beginning of the epigram the statue itself is speaking ([x]), but at the end someone else addresses himself to the god (/statue), asking for thankfulness.24 It must be stressed, however, that this kind of switching is not unparalleled in dedications. As to the destination, it is worth noting that, according to C's lemma "[x]", AP VI, 138 should have been composed in honour of the same god as AP VI, 137, namely Apollo.25

The original on stone of our literary version was found in Attica, in Chaidari (near Daphni). It is written in the local Attic alphabet under a stone Herm dating back to the years 480-460 B.C., although we cannot exclude a slightly later date, namely 470-460 B.C. (IG I [3] 1014; cf. CEG 313); the text is damaged, but perfectly recognisable:

[x]

The discovery of the original monument made us see the epigram under a very different light: to begin with, it is a dedication to Hermes and not to Apollo.26 Moreover, for chronological reasons the ascription of the epigram to Anacreon which had been debated for a long time, turned out to be impossible. Since on epigraphic and palaeographic grounds the inscription is likely to go back to a date between 480 (470?) and 460 B.C.;27 we can safely exclude Anacreon's authorship (he was born in 575 B.C. and supposedly lived 85 years, which takes us to ca. 490 B.C. as the date of his death).

Trypanis 1951 is also convinced that Anacreon cannot be the author of CEG 313 (= AP VI, 138); in his opinion the evidence against Anacreon's authorship rests not on palaeography but on cultural data and he connects the epigram on stone with the spreading of dedications of inscribed marble Herms in Attica. It must be said, however, that Trypanis reconstructs the date of our epigram on stone on feeble bases: firstly, he interprets [x] as 'grandchildren', whereas the term has three possible meanings ('grandchildren', 'descendants' or 'sons',28 each of them would result in a very different chronology as to the generation-gap between the dedication by Calliteles and the second by his [x]; moreover, it is not sure whether or not the Herm dedicated by Calliteles was a marble one.

Trypanis remarks that a marble Herm of square shape with an inscribed epigram is typical of Attica of the 5th cent. B.C. and that the spreading of dedications of marble Herms as cult-statues (from ca. 510 B.C. onwards) came into being in a phase of Hermes' cult in which Hipparchus, the brother of the tyrant Hippias (we are between 528 and 514 B.C.) played an important role. According to some ancient sources, within the framework of the ambitious cultural project of the Peisistratids, Hipparchus summoned to Athens famous poets such as Simonides and Anacreon, and set up marble Herms (the monumental version of the wooden older ones) equipped with epigrams in all of Attica, including country and demes. The [x] served not only as milestones and cult-statues but also as a vehicle for education: some of the epigrams carved on them were allegedly written by Hipparchus himself and his friends.29 Interestingly, during his stay in Athens Anacreon was much admired by the Athenians and later on (during the late-Classical or early-Hellenistic era) he became famous as a composer of epigrams for Herms, probably because of his ties with the Peisistratids.

Through the 5th and 4th cent. B.C., the cult of Hermes became more popular; moreover, the dedication of marble Herms as cult-statues (and not only as milestones) by private citizens more frequent.30 According to Trypanis, our epigram, and probably others of the small Anacreontean Sylloge of the Palatine Anthology, was composed for, and carved on, this kind of Herm.31 Trypanis derives from these bases a hint for discarding the ascription to Anacreon of CEG 313 (= AP VI, 138). According to him, we have the important terminus post quem of 510 B.C. for the dedication of marble Herms with carved epigrams: even if Calliteles was among the first Athenians to set up a marble Herm, since the second one (our Herm) was dedicated by his [x]I = 'grandchildren' we have to calculate three generations, which take us to ca. 480 B.C. As a consequence, even if Anacreon remained in (or returned to) Athens after the death of Hipparchus (514 B.C.), which is indeed possible, and did not leave as frequently assumed,32 he would have already been dead by the time of the dedication of our Herm (see also FGE, 140). As I have said above, Trypanis' conclusions are far from being certain. As Hansen -- who rejects Anacreon's authorship too -- points out, nothing can be inferred from the shape of the second Herm: to begin with, we do not know if the first Herm was one of the marble Herms or a wooden older one; consequently the setting up of inscribed marble Herms by private individuals at the end of the 6th cent. B.C. is no terminus post quem. Moreover, we cannot determine how many years intervened between the setting up of the first and the second Herm, because [x] could in principle stand for [x] and therefore could mean 'sons' or 'descendants' (but see also below). As a consequence, Hansen does not accept the cultural data discussed by Trypanis as evidence: according to him the reasons for discarding Anacreon's authorship rest chiefly on epigraphical grounds.33

In any case, the cultural framework described by Trypanis is important for the literary transmission of AP VI 138: in fact, it is highly likely that because of Anacreon's stay at Athens the ancients began to associate him with verse epigrams on Herms, and this explains why AP VI, 138 was ascribed to him. Besides, it seems that the connection of Anacreon with verse epigrams on Herms was relatively ancient: according to Page (FGE, 123-124) several epigrams, and among them our AP VI, 138, were already ascribed to Anacreon and included in a collection of alleged Anacreontean epigrams which was used by Melager in putting together his Garland.

To sum up, if we did not have the original on stone, we would also lack two important pieces of information: first, the exact nature of the monument, which belongs to a specific phase of the cultural history of Athens; second, the transmission of Calliteles' epigram in the Hellenistic and pre-Hellenistic period, that is to say, the reason for its ascription to Anacreon, possibly dating back to the 4th-3rd cent. B.C., and, in any case, prior to the Garland.

It is time to examine the inscription more closely; as I have said, the text on stone reads:34

[x]

The stone reveals clearly to what extent the literary tradition can modify an original text. Two main points deserve attention:

1) What is carved on the stone is not [x] but [x], with H representing the initial aspirate of [x] (since the epigram was written in the Attic pre-Euclidean alphabet, where H means [h]). As a consequence, the statue was no "speaking monument", and so there is also no syntactical problem due to the fact that the statue apparently starts to speak and then suddenly becomes the object ([x]) of the verb of dedication ([x]) with a different subject ([x]). In all likelihood we are not dealing with any intentional modification of the text, but with a mistake: the pronoun [x] could be put down to a scribe who was used to plenty of cases of "speaking" objects or monuments that he came across in epigrams. Moreover, the mistake is likely to have been facilitated by a text on papyrus in which the old H representing an aspiration was wrongly interpreted as M ([x] > [x]). The difference between [x] of MSS and [x] on the stone is likely to be explained as a consequence of a trivialization too. In Attic inscriptions the two compounds are basically equivalent from the semantic point of view, but [x] is certainly less common than [x]: apart from our example, there are some occurrences of [x] in the 4th and 3rd cent. B.C., then it disappears completely until the 2nd cent. AD.; on the contrary, [x] is consistently attested from its first epigraphical occurrences (second half of the 5th cent. B.C.) onwards.35 A similar scenario is found in literary texts, where [x] is more common and is also frequently attested as varia lectio of [x].

2) On the stone the verb of dedication in the pentameter reads [x], not [x] as in the literary version; as a consequence, the dialect form is not original. What we find on the stone, [x], is the Ionic-Attic form,36 precisely what we expect in an Attic epigram. The middle of [x] with this sense is rare, but well attested already since Homer.37 In other words, if we had only the literary version of Calliteles' epigram, we would accept a dialect feature that was not original.38 Since instances of non-Ionic-Attic ("Doric") inherited [a:] instead of Ionic-Attic [E:] are, although rarely, attested in Attic inscriptional verse epigrams (see above, § 2), we might have been under the misleading impression that the literary version of AP VI, 138 was accurately copied down from an Attic epigram on stone which actually showed an occurrence of [a:] instead of Ionic-Attic [E:] ([x]).

It is obvious that the stone has the original form and that the "Doric" [x] found in the manuscript tradition cannot be due to a banal mistake :39 in my opinion, we are definitely dealing with an intentional manipulation in order to embellish the epigram.

This conclusion is a first important step. The second one is to ascertain according to what principle AP VI, 138 was tampered with. Since the original epigram was copied down and arranged in a collection during the post-Classical age, the easiest and most logical explanation for the alteration of [x] into [x] is that the former was manipulated according to the typically Hellenistic taste for combining elements taken from different literary traditions, i.e. inserting "Doric" [a:] in an Ionic(-Attic) linguistic (and literary) context. In this case we would have a text dating back to the Classical age that was altered or embellished later on according to the linguistic and literary criteria of the Hellenistic (and Roman) period.

In fact, there is another possible explanation, albeit more complex. The Hellenistic age is not only a period of poetical innovation, but also the period par exellence of philological activity on literary texts of the Archaic and Classical age. Since a striking feature of the in Archaic and Classical Attic epigrams on stone was the presence of non-Ionic-Attic ("Doric") [a:] instead of an expected [E:],40 a Hellenistic editor may have felt to be authorised to modify a banal [E:] into [a:]. In other words, sometimes later scholars or editors may have decided to "restore" (to their mind) the original shape of the Attic epigrams copied down from the stone by "characterizing" them by means of the linguistic features they found in the originals on stone and that they regarded as typical of the Archaic and Classical Attic epigrams.41

The latter hypothesis is more daring and, although we have to take it into account, it cannot be proved beyond any doubt; in my opinion the most likely explanation is the first one: an intentional modification based on the linguistic canons of the post-Classical age. Regardless of what principle we assume to have been followed -- either linguistic-literary or philological, we are in any case dealing with a deliberate alteration of a Classical epigram, whose original shape is guaranteed only by the stone.

The hypothesis of a deliberate embellishment is strengthened by the linguistic features of a couplet added at a later stage to a Classical epigram. 42 In the Palatine Anthology we find the following epigram, AP VI, 144 (Beckby) = FGE "Anacreon" XV (also AP VI, 213 his, see below)43:

[x]

"Leocrates, son of Stroebus, when you dedicated this statue to Hermes, the beautiful haired Graces did not fail to notice you, nor the delightful Academy, in whose embrace I declare to whom approaches your beneficence".

The original verse inscription (IG I [3] 983 = CEG 312) was found in Marcopoulo in the Attic Mesogeia and dates back to 460? B.C. (IG I [3] 983); such early dates as 470-460 or even 480-475? (CEG 312) have been proposed, but they seem less likely. Only the first couplet can be read (with some difficulty) on the stone:

[x]

The recovery of the original is important (a) since it is an inscribed marble Herm like that of Calliteles (note that inscribed marble Herms are rare)44; (b) since the epigram was ascribed to Anacreon in antiquity (note that Anacreon was famous as epigrammatist of Herms). Although in the MSS of the Palatine Anthology the epigram is transmitted not only as VI, 144, but also as VI, 213 his among a set of epigrams ascribed to Simonides, in all probability its original position was actually in the Anacreontean set and its placement among the Simonidea is likely to be much later than the Garland of Meleager.45 For chronological reasons the ascription to Anacreon (or Simonides) can be discarded, but in any case the question of the authorship does not affect our main interest, namely the differences between the original on stone and its literary copy.

First of all, the Herm reveals something that several scholars had already suspected, namely that the second distichon is a later addiction (moreover linked to the previous one in an inadequate way). Leocrates' dedication is indeed perfectly concluded in itself and the style of the second distichon suggests that the appendage dates back to the post-Classical age (see also below). There is no possibility that the four-line epigram as we have it in the Palatine Anthology is genuine: Wilamowitz (1913, 145-146 n. 2) put forward the hypothesis (accepted by Friedlander - Hoffieit 1948, 114) that the monument was dedicated by Leocrates in the first instance, inscribed with the initial couplet (the one found in Marcopoulo), and then a second time in the Academy, on which occasion he would have added the second couplet. In actual fact, the most plausible explanation for the startling mention of the Academy in v. 3 (obviously at Athens, whereas the Herm equipped with the original epigram was found in the Attic Mesogeia, far away from Athens), is simply that the author of the second couplet, in choosing a fictitious collocation for the statue, was conditioned by the presence in the original epigram of the [x] and Hermes, deities with whom the Academy was closely connected.46 Moreover, the style of the second couplet contrasts with that of the first, being characterized by a combination of elevated and sophisticated expressions such as [x] (whose semantics reflects a late development) 47 or [x].48 Such stylistic features are lacking in the first couplet.

Obviously enough, the two couplets present different problems. As to the first, the stone gives us the opportunity to reconstruct the original shape of the lines, while the MSS tradition has an error in the case of the name of Leocrates' father49 and the usual writing [x] for [o:], plainly different from what is actually engraved on the monument, i.e. [x] with the value of [o:], a graphic solution derived from some Ionic alphabets, and sporadically attested in other Attic inscriptions.50

The author of the second distichon is not merely pleased with sophisticated terms, but the embellishment involves another level: once more, we find an alteration of the expected vocalism (as in the case of the epigram of Calliteles), both in [x] instead of [x] and in [x] instead of [x]. In an Attic epigram we would expect the Ionic-Attic form [x] with [E:], already found in Homer and Hesiod (cf. AP IX, 189). Instead, we have [x] with [a:], attested in Pindar and in the choral lyrics of tragedy.51

Since the use of [x] had been hallowed by Homer and Hesiod, it was perfectly suitable for the elevated style of an epigram; as a consequence the choice of the "lyric" [x] sounds as a distinct affectation and the presence of the Ionic-epic [x] in the following line is yet another indication that we are before an instance of intentional dialect mixture. This hypothesis is likelier than my second one, namely that a later editor wanted to characterize the epigrams on the basis of the instances of "authentic" co-occurrences of [E:] and [a:] attested in some Attic epigrams of the Classical age.

Another of our few examples is AP XIII, 13 whose original on stone is IG I[3] 885 = CEG 280 and is in (Ionic)-epic dialect. The epigram has been edited in many ways after the discovery of the original on stone,52 but the text as we have it in the manuscript tradition of the Palatine Anthology reads:

[x]

The text on stone (CEG 280 = IG I[3] 885, ca. 440 B.C.?) found on the Akropolis reads:

[x]

The main differences between the inscription and the literary version are immediately evident: [x] is likely to be a trivialization of the [x] found on the stone (which should possibly be restored) 53, while [x] transmitted by the MSS is very distant from the original text (which scribes were probably not anymore able to understand), [x], which has been recovered from the stone.

So, the stone revealed that the third line is basically the signature of Cresilas from Cydonia (in Crete), a famous artist contemporary with Phidias. The recovering of the original line is a first step; the second one is how to interpret the linguistic shape of the sequence [x]. It is very difficult to draw any satisfactory conclusions, but a possible explanation is that some change in the dialect took place: since the third line is Cresilas' signature, it may have been a switch to his own dialect (very common in artists' signatures), namely to Doric.

Indeed, the artist's personal name, [x], is in his own dialect and although [x] is found in the epics (Hesiod), there are instances of aorists in [x] from presents in [x] in choral lyrics (cf. e.g. [x] in Pindar), so that the artist may have perceived [x] as compatible with Doric but at the same time as a prestigious form of the literary tradition (epics and choral lyrics) and therefore appropriate to the language of the epigram. 54 In this scenario, the ethnic [x] is out of place: we would expect a consistent Doric vocalism [x];55 since there are several instances of adaptation of the ethnics to the dialect of the epigram, we might even expect the form [x], which actually occurs as an ethnic with this shape in Attic texts (cf. Threatte 1980, 135) 56, but not the startling [x].

There is no agreement among scholars on the interpretation of this form. The possible explanations are two: a) some scholars regard [x] as a mechanical mistake, namely a simple graphic inversion of the vowels of the two final syllables;57 b) according to a completely different perspective, [x] would be rather due to the influence of the epics. 58 Of course, the "influence of the epics" is meant in the sense that a Doric form [x] (in the basically Doric context of the third line) was altered by colouring the pre-suffixal vowel with Ionic-epic phonetics. Although the outcome [x] is relatively surprising, it is far from isolated: it is paralleled by some forms with a coexistence of Ion. [E:] and "Dor." [a:], e.g. [x], Eur. Hipp.736 and [x], Bacchil. V, 47; XII, 1 (cf. Buck 1913, 140), and by other examples of substantives in [x] in tragedy (chorals parts) like [x] and [x].59

In the case of other Classical epigrams that have come down to us we are not so lucky, because they are fragmentary and only few letters engraved on the stone are recognisable. In fact, they are clear examples of how these kinds of epigrams can result in a puzzling problem for an editor.60

This is evident in CEG 4 (458 or 457 B.C.? cf. CVI 14), a public monument now lost, commemorating the Athenians fallen at Tanagra. It is literarily transmitted as AP VII, 254 (= FGE "Simonides" XLIX), which reads:

[x]61

The epigraphic text is barely preserved and is reconstructed on the basis of the literary copy, see Hansen's edition (CEG 4):

[x]

Apart from other questions,62 a major problem is that words showing [a:] instead of the expected Ionic-Attic [E:] coexist with words showing the expected long [E:]. A long [a:] is certain for [x] (alpha is in the inscription) and possible for [x] (but Planudes has [x]); it coexists with [E:] in [x] and [x],63 for which we do not have the original on stone and all MSS have a vocalism [E:]. Judging from the examples in the epigrams quoted before, this coexistence is likely to be genuine.64 However, since the epigraphic text is so seriously damaged that in some cases we do not have the original form to compare with, we cannot be sure that the distribution of [a:] and [E:] in the literary version actually reflects that on the stone. For example, in the case of [x] it is only the stone that makes it possible to recover the original with [a:], while the form is transmitted with the Ionic-Attic vocalism (with [E:]) in the MSS of both the Palatine and the Planudean Anthologies.65 On the other hand, in the case of [x] P vs. [x] in Pl all we have is the MS tradition: the likeliest solution is that PI has an Attic trivialized fonn, and that the original is preserved in P, but of course this is far from certain, since P could theoretically have "Doricized" an original [x] or mixed various forms of different traditions. This causes a problem for editors, who make very different choices: as we have just seen, Beckby (and so Hansen in CEG 4) prints [x], alongside [x] and [x], Waltz 1960 prints [x] but [x] (and [x]), while, most surprisingly, Page (FGE "Simonides" XLIX) always prints the "Doric" forms ([x] and [x]).66

AP VI, 343 (Beckby) (= FGE "Simonides" III)67 makes clear once again how difficult it is to detect in full the differences between the epigraphic original and the literary version of the same epigram because of the poor conditions of the text on stone. AP VI, 343 is a copy of an Attic epigram, IG I[3] 501 B (quoted also by Hdt. V, 77; Diod. X, 24, and partly by Aristides XLIX, 65 D.):

[x]

"Having defeated the Boeotians and Chalcidians in the work of the war, the sons of the Athenians quenched their arrogance in sorrowful iron chains and dedicated these horses to Pallas as a tithe of their ransom".

The epigram, although less relevant to the present discussion (since [x], and [x] found in the MSS are corruptions ascribable to the literary transmission, whose most reasonable correction seems [x]; see below n. 69), is worth briefly mentioning because we have the fragments of two different versions on stone, a phenomenon comparatively rare, but not unparalleled. In 507/6 Euboeans and Boeotians invaded Attica while the Athenians were fighting against a Peloponnesian army; nevertheless, the Athenians were able to defeat the Euboeans and Boeotians and to take many prisoners. The tithe of the ransom was used to erect a monument that was then destroyed by the Persians in 480 B.C. Many years later, a replica of the monument was set up on the Acropolis, probably slightly after 457 B.C., to celebrate the Athenian victory over the Boeotians at Oenophyta.68 Fragments of both versions were found in the second half of the 19th century: IG I[3] 501 B (stoichedon, ca. 455 B.C.) has the lines in the same order of all the literary sources (Hdt., AP, etc.); while the other, which was recovered ca. 15 years later (IG I[3] 501 A, ca. 505 B.C.) shows the lines in a different order, namely an inversion of the first and the third hexameter); see CEG 179:

[x]

It is generally held that the latter was the original version and, on the contrary, that the literary tradition, starting with Herodotus, depends from the second version. It is likely that when the replica of the old monument was set up the new victory was linked to the earlier one, and the sequence of the lines was altered because now the focus was on the supremacy gained by the Athenians upon some of their major Greek enemies.

§ 6. And now some remarks by way of conclusion. The Greek epigrams attested both on stone and in manuscript copies are very few but extremely interesting, since they provide us with the unique opportunity of examining the alterations undergone by the texts during the literary transmission. Quite often we find the obvious mistakes we expect: an epigram originally written on a monument dedicated to a certain god appears in, say, the Palatine Anthology as addressed to a different god; a proper name is misspelt; a dialect feature is turned into its Attic-Ionic counterpart because the scribes tended to trivialize forms that sounded unfamiliar to them.

Yet, this is not the whole story. In some cases we are clearly dealing with deliberate alterations of the original, which took place at some point during the transmission, some of them concerning the dialect choices of the originals. Two slightly different explanations of these dialect alterations are possible. Since a certain amount of dialect mixture is already evident in many Archaic epigrams on stone one might argue that, say, [x] was written by an editor (or a learned scribe) instead of [x] because he wanted to convey the flavour of the dialect treatment of epigrams in a bygone era.

It is also possible, and in my opinion far more probable, that the text was altered not according to scholarly principles of learned reconstruction, but in the wake of the typically Hellenistic tendency to mix up dialects in order to "embellish" literary texts. If we had more originals on stone (or metal) we would certainly discover that the dialect of many of our literary epigrams copied from Archaic or Classical monuments was more or less heavily manipulated in Hellenistic and Roman times.70

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Part 2 of 2

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Notes:

1 Mickey 1981, 36; Buck 1913. The artist's signature was usually in his own alphabet  and dialect: as a result, when the dedicator and the artist had different  origins, we might find a contrast between the alphabet and dialect of the dedication  and those of the signature. However, we come across several examples  of the adaptation of the name of an artist working abroad to the dialect of the  dedication; on the other hand, sometimes the dedication is in the dialect of the  artist; cf. e.g. Buck 1913, 135-143.
 
2 The same principle is true also for epitaphs, whose dialect and alphabet are those  of the dedicator and not of the deceased, although they usually coincide, the  reason being that sepulchral monuments were, as a rule, erected by kinsmen  or compatriots. In epitaphs for deceased buried abroad, however, the alphabet  and the dialect can be either that of the dedicator or of the deceased, with various  degrees of interference (Buck 1913, 143-145).
 
3 It should be mentioned, however, that decisions of interstate arbitrations were  usually written in the dialect of the arbitrators (see e. g. Buck 1913, 150-152).
 
4 Cf [x] (Corinth, CEG 357) for the Homeric verse-ending  [x] (Paros, CEG 414) on [x] at the beginning of the line (and similar Homeric instances).  In this respect  the deep contrast between stone epigrams and literary elegy, whose language  was Ionic (with epic features), is remarkable.
 
5 Mickey 1981; Buck 1923, 134, who stresses that there are not only plenty of  instances of epic forms instead of the dialect ones, which might have been employed being metrically equivalent, but also several examples of epic features where the local forms could have been easily used, although metrically different. This contradicts the widely accepted statement put forward by Kock 1910 that verse-epigrams were composed in the dialect of the dedicator and literary forms foreign to his dialect were employed exclusively when necessitated by the metre.
 
6 Epigrams were engraved, e.g., on such important public monuments as those intended to celebrate the Persian Wars or on the polyandria for the fallen in various military campaigns.
 
7 For example, according to Plutarch. Nic. 17, 4, Euripides wrote the epitaph for the Athenians fallen in the Syracusan war, but its authenticity is very doubtful (cf. FCE, 155-156). On the other hand, on the basis of Hdt. VII, 228, Simonides' authorship of the epigram for Megistias seems reasonably sure (FGE "Simonides" VI). It has been argued that Simonides' fame as epigrammatist depended on his activity as an author not only of epigrams on stone, but also of fictive ones, soon collected in a sylloge; on the development of Athenian epigrams (from the epigraphic to the literary form), and the key-figure of Simonides, see Boas 1905; Gentili 1968; Bravi 2006.
 
8 This is especially true for the style of private epigrams, which was more influenced by elegy, and by tragedy and rhetoric, as well. It cannot be excluded that the ties between lamentatory elegy and funerary epigrams date back to an ancient phase: a polyandrion and two lamentations on stone of the 6th cent. B.C. strongly suggest that a threnodic elegy really existed and was related to funerary epigrams; Cassio 1994, 110-116 with previous discussions.
 
9 Buck 1923, 134; Mickey 1981, 44. Since epigrams were written in the epichoric  dialect, in several cases [E:] occurs alongside the "regular" Attic [a:] [x], which,  as expected, is found in the rest of the epigram.
 
10 Mickey 1981, 44 and nn. 23-24 with references (cf. CEG add. locc.); Buck  1913, 144. For instance, in CEG 66 (end of the 6th cent. B.C.) the Ionic vocalism  of [x] and [x] is likely to be explained by the Ionic origin of the  deceased. More complex are [x] (CEG 280), an artist's signature that  will be discussed in detail later, and [x] from Selymbria (which is actually  in the Doric spelling [x]) in CEG 11 (460/450 B.C.) on which see  Kock 1910, 37 (Ionic origin) and Mess 1898, 14 (imitation of epics). Generally  speaking, in the case of epitaphs the most likely hypothesis (but by no means  always valid) is that dialect features might have been introduced (or retained)  in foreign ethnics or personal names to preserve something of the "identity"  of the deceased buried outside his country. As far as Ionic vocalism is concerned,  it should be noted that [E:] is found under some circumstances in  text prose as well (signatures of artists of Ionic origin on Attic vases) and that  even in public documents like the Athenian tribute lists, the spelling of foreign  ethnics was not standardized: in ethnics of East Ionic areas not only spellings  with "alpha purum" are attested, but also some instances of [E:] instead of  Attic [a:] (Threatte 1980, 131-135).
 
11 Cf. [x] CEG 273 (ca. 470-450? B.C.), [x] versus the usual, contracted,  [x] CEG 235 (ca. 500-480? B.C.); Mickey 1981, 43-44 and  nn. 21-30, who also notes that these instances of [E:] for [a:] are attested in  a historical period (5th cent. B.C., after the Persian Wars) in which Athens  was heavily influenced by Ionic culture. One may also wonder whether the influence  of elegy played some role (we have already mentioned the ties between  elegy and stone epigrams).
 
12 As it is expected, several examples of [a:] occur alongside Ionic-Attic [E:]: in  CEG 235 [x] but [x] and [x] (cf. D'Alfonso 1986); [x] [v in CEG 7  (post 450? 5th cent. B.C.?); [x] but  [x] in CEG 243 (ca.500-480? B.C.); [x],  [x] in CEG 205 (510-500? B.C.); [x] alongside[x] in CEG 284  (500-480? B.C.); [x] alongside [x] on a dedication to Athena  ([x]) CEG 194 (525-510? B.C.); [x] alongside [x] in CEG 61  (ca. 510-500?); [x] alongside [x] in CEG 31 (540-520  B.C.); [x] alongside [x] (epic reminiscence) in CEG  302 (ca. 540?); possibly [x] alongside [x] in CEG 4 (458 or  457 B.C.). Other occurrences of [a:] are [x] CEG 261 (dedication  to Athena, ca. 490-480 B.C.?) and, probably, [x] in CEG 229  (500-480?), but the text is damaged; [x] in CEG 1(ii) (ca. 490-460?  B.C.). References in Mickey 1981, 44 and nn. 25-27.  

13 Of course the inherited [a:] (<IE *a) is a feature not exclusively Doric in itself  (it is basically shared by all dialects apart from Ionic-Attic), it is true, however,  that it was perceived as one the most distinctive features of the choral lyric.  Mickey 1981, 44 agrees with Buck's interpretation and goes further, suggesting  that "the a-vocalism, which would have been familiar from the 'Doric' choral lyric, had a high-style solemnity, and thus would have seemed particularly appropriate  for references to deities"; see also D'Alfonso 1986, 86; Palumbo  Stracca 1987, 431. This is not the place to discuss the motivations of every occurrence  of retained [a:] in the Attic literary production, to which I shall return  on another occasion; I would like only to stress that the influence of such a  prestigious poetry as choral lyric is not wholly unexpected; besides, there are  some reminiscences of choral poetry in the dialogue of tragedy too (Bjorck  1950). Absolutely to be ruled out are other hypotheses (see Kock 1910, 29-  35) which explain these [a:] as due to the retention of Archaic Attic forms  (the same theory, and just as unsatisfactory, has been put forward for some instances  of non-Ionic-Attic inherited [a:] in the dialogue of tragedy); cf. e.g.  Palumbo Stracca 1998, 241-242.
 
14 See e.g. Gow - Page 1965, xlv; in fact, the so-called "mixed" epigrams are prevailingly  written in an Ionic-epic dialect with an admixture of Doric.
 
15 Cf. GVI701 (Smyrna 2nd cent. B.C.), GVI703 (Mykonos 2nd/1st cent. B.C.),  GVI761 (Thasos 2nd/1st cent. B.C.?), GVI798 (Troas 3rd cent. B.C.), etc., see  e.g. Palumbo Stracca 1987, 431 n. 6.
 
16 On the practice of contaminating literary genres and their Kunstsprachen in order  to achieve artificial poetical languages and, in particular, on the Doric features  in Isyllus' poems on stone, Callimachus, Theocritus and various epigrams (e. g.  those of Posidippus, Anyte, etc.), see Wilamowitz 1886, 25 - 29; Molinos-Tejada  1990; Cassio 1993; Strunk 1964; Gow - Page 1965, xlv-xlvi; Geoghegan  1979,14 and 19; Acosta-Hughes 2004; Sens 2004; Lapini 2007,300 n. 30 with  bibliography and previous discussions.
 
17 This is not just a theoretical problem, since what a modern editor prints depends  on how he interprets the data. In several instances it is clear that the transmission  is responsible for some alterations (e.g. of [E:] into [a:]), in others fur  less so: [a:] alternating with [E:] might be genuine and the text ought not to  be corrected (cf. Gow - Page 1965, xlv-xviii). Palumbo Stracca 1987 rightly  notes that editors should be extremely cautious in giving epigrams a uniform  dialect shape, since dialect forms can be found alongside epic or literary features  of different types in the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic stone epigrams, and,  of course, even more frequently in literary Hellenistic epigrams.
 
18 Although several transcriptions of verse inscriptions engraved on stone may date  back to a previous period, the phenomenon gains momentum only from the 4th  cent. B.C. onwards. We have statements in ancient sources about various characters,  like Neoptolemus of Parium, Heliodorus and Philo chorus of Athens,  and, above all, Polemo of Ilium (called [x] 'tablet-glutton') who travelled  throughout Greece to copy and collect inscriptions on monuments; cf.  e.g. Cameron 1993, 5; Petrovic 2007, 92-95.
 
19 Collections of epigrams, several of them ascribed to famous poets, must have  been circulating since the end (to play it safe) of the 4th cent. B.C. and the beginning  of the 3rd cent. B.C. (the evidence is provided by accounts in ancients  sources, sequences of epigrams in MSS, and papyrus scraps of such collections  prior to the Garland), Gow - Page 1965, xvi; Cameron 1993, 6 -13; Gutzwiller  1998, 15-53; Meyer 2005, 98-100; Krevans 2007; cf. also Petrovic 2007, 90-  98.
 
20 Among the ca. 100 epigrams ascribed or ascribable to Simonides and among the  18 ascribed to Anacreon, several date back to the Hellenistic age, but some are  plainly contemporary with one of the two poets. The authors are unknown to  us, in all probability these epigrams were transcribed from the monuments and  it was the collector who attributed them to such prestigious poets as Simonides  or Anacreon (e.g. FGE "Simonides" XIII, XXII a e b, XLV, XLVI, etc. and  "Anacreon" VI, IX, XV, X); FGE, 119-124; Gow - Page 1965, 516-517;  Boas 1905, 249-250; Hauvette 1896, 5-65, 145; Petrovic 2007, 53-54.
 
21 Another possible example is CEG 4 (458 or 457 B.C.) with its literary copy AP  VII, 254, in which [x] is transmitted instead of the original [x]  (§ 5).
 
22 Hoffmann - Debrunner - Scherer 1969 [4], 80; Gallavotti 1978, 17; in general,  on Pausanias' epigraphical interests cf. Zizza 2006. On the root *selH2 /  *s1H2 and the quantity of [a] in [x] see LIV, 480.

23 It must be stressed that on the manuscript [x] is followed by a punctuation  mark (see Preisendanz 1911, 166). Given that the two accents are clearly a  mistake, the most likely interpretation of the verb as we have it in the MS is  [x]. Note that Page, Becky and Waltz 1931 did not  print in their critical apparatus the MS form, but basically their interpretation  of it: Page's apparatus ad FGE "Anacreon" IX reads [x], whereas  both Beckby and Waltz 1931 print [x]. Such an editorial choice  is not only inappropriate, as in Page's edition, although his interpretation of  the sequence is correct, but even misleading, as in Beckby's and Waltz's editions.  As a matter of fact, theoretically a form [x] with short [a] is possible,  since it is a secondary formation (see Schwyzer 1939, 742 n. 3) attested, although  rarely, in Homer e.g. at II. 12.56, where it is the reading of Aristarchus,  and at Od. 3.182; however, on palaeographic grounds we can safely reject  [x].
 
24 A verse asking the god for something beneficial to reciprocate the dedication, as  in our AP VI, 138, is a recurring feature, already from the earliest dedicatory  epigrams on stone, e.g. CEG 326 [x], CEG 396 [x]; examples of this sort can be found  in the Palatine Anthology as well: see AP VI, 346 (FGE "Anacreon" IV)  [x]; AP VI, 137 (FGE "Anacreon"  VIII) [x], etc.; cf. FGE, 137.
 
25 The scribe known as the "Corrector" (C) is responsible for many corrections  and additions: lemmata, ethnics and attributions (sometimes the only indication  of the authorship of an epigram, but often also clearly false); it is possible that he  found those supplements and corrections in his own manuscript against which  he collated P; Gow - Page 1965, xxxv-xxxviii; Cameron 1993, 99-120.
 
26 Thus, the contrast between epigraphical data and those offered by the manuscript  transmission reveals immediately to what extent the literary transmission  can be not only inaccurate as to the destination of epigrams, but even misleading.
 
27 Earlier datings, mostly depending on the acceptance of Anacreon's authorship  (e. g. 520 B.C. ca. Labarbe, cf. SEC XXI, 93), can be safely rejected (see Hansen  ad CEG 313; cf. FGE, 140).
 
28 Although it is true that [x] means 'grandson', more frequently it simply  represents the assimilated form of [x] and therefore means 'descendant'  or 'son', already since Homer (e.g. 'son' at Il. 5.813); cf. LSJ ss.vv. [x]  and [x]. On the phonetics and semantics of the two compounds in Attic  inscriptions cf. below n. 35.
 
29 Pseud.-Plat. Hipparch. 228 d -229 [x]; cf.  the Herm found in Koropi not far away from Athens (CEG 304, 528-514  B.C.); see e.g. Picard 1935, 10; Trypanis 1951. According to Aloni 1984,  the cultural policy of the Peisistratids, whose main issues were the reorganization  and regulation of the rhapsodic recitals at the Panathenaea, recording the  Homeric poems and according priority to the Delian Apollo (pan-Ionic) as opposed  to the Delphic one (philo-aristocratic), had the political aim of associating  education and knowledge with tyranny and not with tradition, which is usually  connected with aristocracy.  

30 As I have said, the phenomenon started from ca. 510 B.C.
 
31 AP VI, 143, VI, 144 and VI, 346 (= FGE "Anacreon" XIV, XV and IV): FGE,  ad locc.
 
32 Trypanis 1951, 31-33 argues that evidence for a stay of Anacreon in Thessaly  after the murder of Hipparchus are scanty and, on the contrary, that it is more  likely that he either came back to or even never left Athens (which seems to be  indicated by the close connection to the powerful Athenian family of Critias, cf.  Plat. Charm. 157e, and the portrayals of Anacreon on Attic vases dating back to  the end of the 6th cent. B.C.).
 
33 Hansen ad CEG 313.
 
34 CEG 313, cf. IG I [2] 834; IG I 381 [E]y[y]ovoi; more cautiously IG I [3] 1014 has  now E[.]yovoi (see ad loc.); however, Hansen (ad CEG 313) explicitly states that  he is positive on identifying vestiges of the first y on the monument.
 
35 Threatte 1980, 581-583; on literature, cf. above n. 28.
 
36 Aorist forms of i[x] with [a:] are wholly unfamiliar to Ionic-Attic,  where, as is well known, [x] with [E:] is found.
 
37 Cf. [x] in an epigram ascribed to Simonides (FGE "Simonides" V); see  also [x] with this meaning and Doric vocalism in AP App. I, 251;  279, etc. For other instances see LSJ s.v. [x].

38 Most surprisingly, Paton 1916-1918 prints [x].
 
39 The tendency is rather to turn dialect forms into their Attic counterparts (for an  example from the Palatine Anthology see AP VII, 254) and not the other way  around.
 
40 Another one, although less frequent, is the use of "epic" [E:] instead of "alpha  purum". On the co-occurrence of [a:] and [E:] respectively in the Attic verse  epigrams on stone and in the Hellenistic epigrams see above, §§ 2 and 3.
 
41 Cassio 1993a; Id. 1997 showed that a certain number of dialect Archaic texts  were manipulated during the Hellenistic age according to a similar "philological"  principle. However, the phenomenon took place with mechanisms different  from those dealt with in this paper: e.g. in the case of the choral lyrics of  Alcman a later scholar or editor decided to insert -- usually not legitimately --  dialect features that were not found in the original, on the assumption that Aleman  wrote in Doric, whereas the author himself had chosen the "international"  forms instead of their strictly local counterparts.
 
42 AP VI, 144 is another Classical epigram altered during the post-Classical age; in  this case, the modifications show linguistic patterns similar to AP VI, 138 but  took place with a different mechanism, because the embellishments are found  in the couplet added in the post-Classical period. The phenomenon of a later  appendage is paralleled by the epigram for the Corinthians fallen in the Persian  Wars: only the first couplet of the epigram appears in AP VII, 250 (= FGE  "Simonides" XII) and Pseudo-Plutarch., de malign. Hdt. 870e, while two  more are quoted by Aristides XLIX, 66 (D.); see FGE, 204-205.
 
43 Interestingly, AP VI, 213 his, the other occurrence of this epigram, is slightly  different from that ascribed to Anacreon (AP VI, 144): AP VI, 213 his reads  [x] (vs. [x] in AP VI, 144; see below n. 49) and, notably,  [x] (P) was corrected into [x] by the scribe C.
 
44 See nos. 869-874 Lazzarini (including the aforementioned CEG 304 and CEG  313).
 
45 Possibly later than Cephalas, the terminus ante quem is the Suda (Boas 1905, 150-  161); however, the problem is discussed among scholars, cf. Hansen ad CEG  179 and Petrovic 2007, 141-143. Incidentally, some scholars regard the authorship  of Simonides as genuine; for example Hansen (ad CEG 312) dates  the inscription to 480-475? B.C. on the basis of the palaeographic data and  of the assumption that the epigram was composed by Simonides (cf. Bravi  2006, 28 n. 35). Hansen recalls that Simonides left Athens in 476 B.C. and died ca. 46817; however, the evidence according to which Leocrates the strategos  was identical with the Leocrates mentioned in connection with Simonides  is scanty (Hauvette 1895, 133-134; FGE, 144) and, above all, given that the  inscription is likely to be later than 480-475 B.C., the palaeographical data  seem actually to rule out such a conclusion.
 
46 FGE, 145; Petrovic 2007, 134-135, 139.
 
47 As Page (FGE, 145-146) rightly observes, the use of [x] in AP VI, 144 is  further confirmation that the second couplet is a later (Post-classical) appendage:  the first instances (in Homer) of [x] mean 'palm of the hand',  while during the Hellenistic age [x] developed also the value of 'crook  of the arm' (e.g. in Theocritus and some epigrams) whence, metaphorically,  'embrace' in our AP VI, 144 (cf. Petrovic 2007, 140).
 
48 There is a further problem with the meaning of [x]: according to Wilhelm  1889, 233 (cf. FGE, 146; Petrovic 2007, 140-141), we would expect  [x] rather than [x] ([x] means 'good deed', 'favour' or 'public  service': of course the dedication of a Herm can be interpreted as any of these).  The choice of [x] was possibly due to the "formula" [x] ('for  service done') useful to fill the first part of the pentameter and very common in  dedications (there are many examples in the Palatine Anthology too). However,  it cannot be excluded that [x] refers to Leocrates' activity as strategos.
 
49 The MSS have [x] or [x] instead of the right [x], which,  however, was already corrected by Schneider on the basis of Thuc. I, 105  who mentions a Leocrates son of Stroebus as an Athenian strategos in 479 and  459 B.C., a conjecture which the stone showed to be right.
 
50 It is unnecessary to assume a mistake in the inscription, as Page does (cf. FGE,  145; see also Wilhelm 1899, 231): the use of [x] = [o:] in Attic inscriptions (and  in Attic script) is relatively rare on texts on stone (nevertheless, it appears at least  on three of them), but there are several instances on ostraka. It was typical of the  alphabets of Thasos, Paros and Amorgos, and it is indeed possible that the Attic  usage was influenced by them. It should be noted, however, that in the aforementioned  Ionic alphabets [x] denotes both [o] and [o:], while in the instances  of Attic script [x] has never designated the two values at the same time, but only  that of [o:] or of [o] at anyone time. In all likelihood, n was sporadically used  for about sixty years in order to distinguish [9:] from [0] (which was not possible  in the epichoric Attic alphabet, since O denoted both long and short vowels),  but was never adopted for official use and disappeared soon after 450 B.C.,  along with the establishment of the standard use of [x] = [[x]], still rare in 5th  cent. B.C. Attic texts (cf. Threatte 1980, 47 -49).
 
51 Cf. [x] in Pindar Pyth. II, 28. Interestingly enough, in tragedy the root  [x]- alternates with [x]- depending on the form (substantive, verb, etc.) and  on whether it occurs in the dialogue or in the chorus: the p£ of the verb always  has [E:] in the chorus too (while in choral lyrics the proper [x] is obviously found);  the present forms in tragedy are found only in the dialogue and they  have [a:] ([x]). As to the compounds, the second element is always  [x] in the chorus ([x] and [x] Eur., [x] Aisch.), but  we cannot be sure of its shape in the dialogue because [x] Soph.  Trach. 869 is a modern conjecture (the text has [x], which was also corrected  into [x] or [x]; Bjorck 1950, 136.
 
52 Cf. e.g. Beckby's edition: [x].  "Pyres, beloved son of Polymnestos, dedicated this, / having vowed the tithe  to Pallas Tritogeneia / Cresilas from Cydonia wrought it".
 
53 That [x] (contra metrum) in the MSS is a trivialization is clear, but I am  not wholly convinced of emendations like [x] (printed by Paton) and  [x] (printed by Beckby and Buffiere). In fact, the stone has  [x], in all probability a high-style form without augment; aorists in  [x] are found in the literary tradition: in the epics the aorists in [x] are  generalized for presents in [x] and [x] alternates with [x] for metrical convenience  (aorists in [x] for presents in [x] can be found also in choral lyrics,  cf. Pindar, where also aorists in [x] and "Doric" aor. in [x] are attested). Given  these premises, it seems to me that [x] is to be ruled out, since it has no  support in the original on stone; the form [x] seems problematic too,  being unparalleled. One may wonder if it would not be safer to correct  [x]: it is attested in the literary tradition (chiefly in the epics, c£  [x] in Hes. Op. 43) and consistent with the language of the epigram,  moreover it is found on the stone (and it would easily explain the trivialization  [x] in the MSS).
 
54 The epichoric form would have probably been [x], since in most Doric  dialects, including that of Crete, aorists in [x] are generalized for presents in  [x].
 
55 Cresilas' signature on an epigram found at Hermione in Argolis (Lazzarini 74)  reads [x].
 
56 As to the dialect shape of artists' signatures, see above n. 1.
 
57 Kirchhoff, Kaibel and Kock, see Hansen ad CEG 280 with bibliography; cf.  Threatte 1980, 134-135 (who adds that if [x] is not a mistake, it  could be a mixture of two dialects or a hyperionism, cf. [x] Hdt. III,  44 and 59).
 
58 Mess 1898, 15, whose interpretation is accepted by Buck 1913, 139-140; Hansen  (ad CEG 280); see also Palumbo Stracca 1985, 65.
 
59 It does indeed seem possible that we are dealing with an Ionic(-epic) colouring  of the form, paralleled by some examples in tragedy in which the Ionic vocalism  was perceived as somewhat poetic, especially in a chorus: see chiefly Bjorck  1950, 160-162; 352-357 ("als hochpoetisch gerade in C. gegen D."), cf.  also Barrett 1964, 301 (on [x]): "there is some evidence that tragedy  may have felt it more elevated in names with Ionian association". Interestingly  enough, the Ionic-epic colouring of a Doric form always involves the vowels in  the root and not in the endings: for the same practice in a very different context  cf. [x] on the "Hipponion leaf'.
 
60 In this paper I have left aside CEG 430, 431, CEG 2 776 (and CEG 305), because  either the originals are so poorly preserved that possible differences are  not detectable or they are irrelevant to my main topic.
 
61 "Salute chiefs, who gained the great glory of the war, / sons of the Athenians,  excellent in horsemanship, / who once for fatherland lost your youth / fighting  against a great part of the Greeks". P1 has [x],  while P1 has [x] and, along with P2yp [x].
 
62 Given that the original on stone is lost, I do no want to commit myself to  [x] (see CEG 4); yet, since the MSS have [x] (P) or  [x] (P after correction), [x] seems feeble; both GVI 14 and  IG I[3] 1181 print [x].
 
63 The first [E:] of [x] is etymological (< IE *yegwa) , cf. e.g. GEW, 620.
 
64 This means that, in general terms, we should be prepared to accept an occasional  inherited non Ionic-Attic ("Doric") [a:] in an Attic epigram. There is no  need to postulate with West (accepted by Petrovic 2007, 185-186) a [x]  on the stone, cf. Hansen ad CEG 4.
 
65 As to our topic, namely the difference between the original on stone and its literary  copy, it is evident that [x] with [E:] is a trivialization.
 
66 Since [a:] and [E:] coexist in Classical Attic epigrams there is, to my mind, no  reason for printing such a text; cf. the criticism in Palumbo 1987, 434. The  same problem, namely unclear information in the MSS as to [a:] and [E:] is  found in AP VII, 245, a literary copy of a public Attic epigram (CEG2 467;  338 B.C.): the original on stone is damaged, in the MSS P has [x], both  P after correction and P1 have [x]. It should be noted that once more several  editors accept a correction (Kaibel's in this case) and print [x] (see Hansen  ad CEG2 467).
 
67 On the question of the ascription to Simonides see FGE, 192; Petrovic 2007,  218-222.
 
68 See Meiggs' and Lewis' commentary ad ML 15. There is however no agreement  among scholars on the victory celebrated by the dedication of the second  monument and also on the original site of the monument, cf. FGE, 192; Raubitschek  ad DAA 173; Bravi 2006, 52; Petrovic 2007, 211-214.
 
69 Since various literary sources quote the second version of the epigram, there are  numerous variants: the MSS have [x], and [x]. The  latter does not seem admissible on account of its meaning nor is [x]  both because [u] is supposed to be short, and for historical-linguistic reasons  (a parallel and much later example is corrected in [x] by Peek, GVI  238). The form [x], proposed by Hecker, seems suitable from both  points of view, and it would easily explain the vv. ll. [x] and  [x]; however, it must be said that [x] is unparalleled. There are  remarkable palaeographical problems too: the first version of the epigram is  not stoichedon, but the second one is, and for the restoration of the epigram  scholars usually take into account the number of letters allowed by the stoichedon  system. Some scholars imagine a complete stoichedon order, in which the  number of the letters is regular and fixed, and in which, as a consequence,  [x] (and [x]) is impossible: hence, they print [x] (ML  15), or [x] (IG I[3] 501 A; B) or [x] (CEG 179: Hansen rejects  [x] and [x] as being all impossible because  of the stoichedon order or semantics or lack of parallels, and supposes a mistake  in the copy of the 5th cent. B.C.). Several scholars are, on the contrary, positive  about [x] (but contra see Iacobacci 1990, who is for [x]). In fact,  since the second epigram on stone was copied and adapted from a non-stochei don original, there is in my view no particular difficulty in thinking that in the  stoichedon version (likely) an iota shared a stoichos with another letter. Moreover,  since already in Homer [x] is widely used for [x] adjectives based  on athematic stems (e.g. IX [x], see Risch 1974[2], 151-152), [x] is definitely  a satisfactory correction for our epigram (for detailed discussions see  Hansen ad CEG 179; FGE, 193; Raubitschek ad DAA 173). Indeed,  [x] is accepted in the LSJ Revised Supplement (cf. Glare - Thompson  1996, 63).

70 I am grateful to professors A.C. Cassio, E. Dettori, M.L. Lazzarini, B.M. Palumbo and B. Zimmermann for comments and suggestions. I wrote this paper during a stay at the Hardt Foundation (Geneva, Switzerland) financed by a "Hardt Research Scholarship".

______________

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[admin]

Review: Further Greek Epigrams
Reviewed Work(s): Further Greek Epigrams: Epigrams before A.D. 50 from the Greek Anthology and Other Sources, Not Included in 'Hellenistic Epigrams' or 'The Garland of Philip' by D. L. Page, R. D. Dawe and J. Diggle
Review by: Hugh Lloyd-Jones
The Classical Review, 1982, New Series, Vol. 32, No.2 (1982), pp. 139-144
Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association
1982

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After bringing out Hellenistic Epigrams in 1965 and The Garland of Philip in 1968, A. S. F. Gow and Sir Denys Page decided to complete the collection of epigrams down to A.D. 50 by editing all the other epigrams composed during the period covered by the Palatine and Planudean Anthologies, except for those preserved only in inscriptions. Those who find the book expensive should note that it consists of three sections, each of which by itself amounts to an important work.

The first section contains epigrams ascribed by name to authors; this falls into two parts, one containing epigrams whose ascriptions are certainly or probably correct and the other epigrams falsely, or at least without firm foundation, ascribed to famous names earlier than the Hellenistic period. The second section contains anonymous epigrams judged to be earlier than A.D. 50; this too falls into two parts, the first containing epigrams from the two great anthologies and the second epigrams from other sources. The third section contains the epigrams of Leonides of Alexandria, the specialist in so-called isopsephic epigrams, Tiberius Ilus and Nicodemus of Heraclea, and also those ascribed to imperial Romans, not only Germanicus and Tiberius, who fall within the dateline of the collection, but also Trajan, Hadrian and Julian, who do not. A number of the epigrams will also be found in Supplementum Hellenisticum, ed. H. Lloyd-Jones and P. J. Parsons (forthcoming) henceforth referred to as SH.

When Sir Denys died in July 1978, he left behind the typescript of the work, marked as 'ready for the press, except that it would be the better for a critical eye'. That has been provided by the editors, who have also added indexes corresponding with those of the earlier collections. The editors have missed some errors which Sir Denys would surely have eliminated if he had had time; but in general the book maintains the high level of its predecessors. In particular, the section dealing with epigrams ascribed to famous persons before the Hellenistic age is of high excellence and great importance. Page deals with each epigram as an individual case, but in general regards these attributions with a scepticism which his handling of the evidence shows to be well founded. He points out that the problem of the epigrams ascribed to Simonides was better handled by Marcus Boas in his Groningen dissertation of 1905 De epigrammatis Simonideis than it was by Wilamowitz, whose Sappho und Simonides comes in for some rough treatment. Page often supports his view about the dates of epigrams with excellent observations about style and language; yet some of his opinions are open to the reproach of subjectivism, all the more because of the assurance with which they are put forward. Yet the book represents another considerable addition to Page's vast contribution to learning, and it is sad to think that it will be the last.

In the remarks that follow, I refer to the epigrams in terms of the continuous numbering of lines that runs right through the book. Antigenes 40: surely the chariot of the Graces is not a real chariot (see the note on SH 317, 5). Apollonius 53: Page's usual scepticism deserts him when he writes of the crude epigram against Callimachus ascribed in the Palatine Anthology to 'Apollonius the grammarian' that 'there is nothing improbable in the ascription'; even if one shares his belief that 'in the notorious controversy at Alexandria concerning poetry ... the chief antagonists were Callimachus and Apollonius of Rhodes' (for the case against doing so, see M. R. Lefkowitz, The Lives of the Greek Poets (1981), p. 117 f.), one may well hesitate to ascribe such a production to the author of the Argonautica. In the second line, Page makes heavy weather of the use of [x]": we do not need to suppose that it can mean 'criminal', but many passages, such as Il. 19.86, indicate that it can mean 'guilty'. Arcesilaus 63: for a defence of [x], see P. Von der Muhll, Kl. Schr. 280. Archimedes 79: [x] has been conjectured by A. S. Hollis. P. 34: the name appearing in AP 9. 4 as [x] in P and as [x] in Pl. might be corrupt for [x], a commoner name than [x], though that occurs at AP 9. 33. Democritus 140: surely the sense is 'Ares (her lover) will be captivated by the sight'. Dionysius Sophista 158: read [x]. Flaccus 172: [x] is found in Hymn. Hom. Merc. 21, 63, 150, 254, and the hymn is generally taken to be earlier than Sophocles. Gaetulicus 195: [x] means 'having won respite from anxiety', see LSJ 1350, col. ii, 1. 7 f. Gallus 227 f. : Page oddly forgets to refer to SH 970, discussed by himself at PCPS 198 (1972), 63 f. Herodicus: see also SH 495, convincingly ascribed to this author by I. During, Herodicus the Cratetean (1941), p. 63 f. Id. 237: on [x], see M. Fusillo, Ricerche di Filologia Classica I, Studi di Litteratura Greca (Pisa, 1981), p. 9 f. 265: the text is also supported by the proverb [x] (see Shackleton Bailey, Cicero's Letters to Atticus VI, p. 261). Pisander 293 f.: see R. M. Cook in Festschrift Andreas Rumpf (l952), pp. 38 f. Plato Junior 301-2: the companion of Daphne is Apollo, not Dionysus. Satyrus 331: how can Page be surprised that swallows should be called 'daughters of Cecrops', and when at last he remembers Philomela, how can he complain that she was daughter not of Cecrops but of Pandion? Cecropides may stand for any Athenian females, which as the Plauttine, Daemones (Rudens 604) knew at once, swallows are. 337: [x] is taken as cognate accusative going with [x], but this is awkward; I believe it to be a corruption of an adjective going with [x] and meaning' bird-catching'. 340: why not [x], meaning 'brings into action'? P. 116: Page brushes aside the notion that my case for ascribing to Poseidippus SH 705, put forward at JHS 83 (1963), 75 f. might be correct (cf. the equally arbitrary treatment at HE 482); dogmatic assertion, even by a great scholar, is no substitute for reasoned argument, and Page's own treatment at Greek Literary Papyri (1942), p. 470 f. will not suffice.

Section I. ii: Page handles eighty epigrams ascribed to Simonides and fifteen anonymous ones belonging to his period or not much later. Fifty-two of these are given to Simonides by AP, about three-quarters of them occurring within extracts from the Garland of Meleager; most are copies of inscriptions, but some are literary exercises of Hellenistic date. Page concludes that Meleager made use of a Sylloge Simonidea put together early in the Hellenistic period, and that the Hellenistic epigrams ascribed to Simonides had been either added to later editions of this or taken by Meleager from other anthologies. The only epigram ascribed to Simonides by an author earlier than Aristotle is the one on Megistias, and we have no positive reason for supposing that he wrote any of the others. The same is true of the epigrams ascribed to Anacreon, of which Meleager must have had a collection, and of those ascribed to Plato; in the case of the latter, Page agrees with the important article of W. Ludwig (ORBS 4 (1963), 77 f.). Equal suspicion attaches to the other epigrams attached to famous names; only those assigned to Parrhasius and Zeuxis are treated by Page as genuine.

'Aeschylus' 476 f.: Page points out that if the epitaph ascribed to Aeschylus had really stood upon his tomb, it would hardly have been necessary for it to inform the reader that it was in Gela. 'Anacreon' 492: Page rightly argues, against Wilamowitz, that [x] is hardly an expression that Anacreon can have used. Archilochus 531-5 (the lines about the lost shield): Page points out that, if these lines form a complete poem, it is the earliest surviving example of its type. 540-1 (= fr. 331 West): Page comes down strongly against authenticity. 'Pindar' 582-3: see now R. Scodel, GRBS 21 (1981), 301 f., though her view that Eur. Heracl. 657 echoes the epigram may be questioned. 'Plato' 612 f. (the epigram on Dion): Page's doubts about the authenticity of the lines seem to me justified, but I do not see why one cannot write [x], just as well as [x]. 'Sappho' 679: cf. S. Ant. 804. 'Simonides' 604-5: I miss a reference to the epigram published by C. A. Trypanis at Hermes 88 (1960), 69 (see Snell, Gr. Metrik (1962), p. 5, I. 688: surely [x] simply means 'were killed'; cf. Il. 15. 522, etc. 710-3, 714-7: Page remarks that the Thermopylae epigrams are 'among the best that have survived', and that the ascription to Simonides may well be right. 725: Page complains that Jacoby did not consider the problem posed by [x], since if the epigram on a monument to Corinthians killed in the Persian Wars erected at the Isthmus consisted simply of a single couplet, this word is appropriate only at the place of burial. But why? [x] may mean 'We lie low', as instances like that at Il. 18. 20 suggest. 764: a masterly treatment of the epigrams on Athenians killed in the Persian Wars concludes that they stood on a war-memorial erected in Athens, that the first commemorated the war as a whole, and that the second, commemorating Marathon only, was added later. Like Mrs Lefkowitz (op. cit. 71), he does not believe that Aeschylus left for Sicily because the epigram of Simonides was preferred to his. 772-3: Page makes a strong case, against Jacoby, for holding that the epigram [x] stood on the battlefield of Marathon. 776-7: in the famous epigram on the Spartan dead at Thermopylae, Page prefers [x] to [x], on the ground that [x] cannot mean 'commands'; but the word can take its colour from the context, and I hope his view will not be generally accepted. 796 f.: Page follows L. A. Stella in taking the epigram on Simonides' fifty-seventh victory in dithyrambic contests to be Hellenistic, a view strongly supported by [x] in line 3. 816-7: 'Kimon painted the door on the right, Dionysios that on the right of those who leave' seems to Page 'oddly phrased'; but any oddity might be accounted for by the desire for euphemism. 818: Page justly remarks that the problem of the tripods dedicated at Delphi by Gelon and his brothers is better handled by Jebb in his commentary on Bacchylides than it is by Wilamowitz. 878: on this epigraphic use of [x] see Fraenkel on A. Ag. 577. 898: [x]? 944-5: [x]... The best reeds for making pipes came from the land west of the Copaic Marsh, in the region of Orchomenos, where the earth was rich and black; the locus classicus is Theophr. Hist. Plant.4. 10-11. We know from Apostolius 18, 17 (Paroem. Gr. ed. Leutsch-Schneidewin II, p. 721) that Chares was the name of a famous aulete, and I suggest that the only change needed is the substitution of [x] for [x]; since as Page says 'the plural here presumably signifies, as so often, the double-flute, of which the two pipes, laterally pierced, were held together by the [x]', the plural may stand in apposition to the singular [x] (cf. e.g. Xen. Cyrop. 8. 3. 12 [x]). 990-3 (= AP 7. 514): I do not see why Page finds the style of these lines 'ponderous' and the half-line [x] 'dull and heavy'. 1001-5: Page finds the last words of Protomachus (AP 7.513) to be 'wretched, full of insipid sentimentality'; for the same reasons he might say the same of certain words of the dying Hippolytus (1363 f.); ancient taste was different.

Section II. i: Anon. 1082-3 (= AP 5. 50): 'the implication may be that the lovers' ecstasy is so great that they seem quite different from their normal selves', but a more convincing explanation would be welcome: drink? P. 339: from the way Page writes about the Pisistratean recension of Homer, in which he is a devout believer, no one would guess that any opinion other than his own had ever been propounded. Assigning the famous epigram on the subject (1182 f. = AP II. 442) to the Hellenistic period, he adds that 'there is no denying that it may be earlier or later'; I for one would deny that it could be earlier. P. 344 n. 1: West alone, and not Parsons, is responsible for the new edition of the papyrus fragment of Erinna at ZPE 25 (1977), 98; see now SH 401. 1244-5: the fictitious epitaph for Callimachus appears less 'undistinguished' if one remembers that the poet is called [x] of the Muses because of the conversation described in the first two books of the Aitia. 1329: Jacobs' explanation of the occurrence of 'Arcadian' when we expect 'Elean' on the ground that though the Alpheus flows past Olympia it rises in Arcadia is rejected as being 'far-fetched'; but it had occurred to me independently of Jacobs, and I think it may be right. 1411: Page finds [x] to be an 'extraordinary' epithet for [x], but as Dodds, citing Jacobsthal, observes in his note on Eur. Bacch. 553-5, objects pertaining to the gods are often called golden. 1425: does Stadtmuller 'merely compose afresh' when he emends to [x]? I would accept his conjecture, except that I would keep [x]. 1461: why does Page object to the mortal paramour of a god being called his 'bride'?

Section II. ii. Anon. 1493: on Arimnestus, see Burkert, Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism (1972), p. 455 n. 40. 1499: surely [x] merely contrasts the residence of the artist with the location of the work. 1546: Helicaon has now turned up as a speaking character in the [x] of Sophocles (see fr. 10 e, 8 Radt and Haslam in P. Oxy. 44 (1970), 10-11). 1550-1: according to Athenaeus 8. 337 E, when the aulete Dorion gave evidence of wit, the Cyprian dynast Nicocreon quoted the epigram [x]. Page rightly complains that the quotation seems to have had no point; it would have some if we altered [x] to [x]; which is an easy change. 1570-1 : the epithet on Timotheus is of the same type as those in Lobon or in the Peplus Aristoteleus (also FGE 1604 f.). 1576-85: Page does not quote the detailed discussion of the Chaeronea epigram by H. Wankel, ZPE 21 (1976), 97 f.; Wankel's conclusion (expressed at Demosthtenes' Rede fur Ktesiphon uber den Kranz II (1976), p. 1233) is, 'Ich halte das Gedicht gleichfalls fur echt, allerdings nur mit grossen Bedenken und weil sie sich seine Unechtheit nicht erweisen lasst'. I agree with Page that the epigram is spurious, for as he says, if it is not there is no way of avoiding the conclusion that Demosthenes has put into 1. 9 an implication which it requires violence to insert, and which was surely not intended by the author. 1611: [x] should probably be paroxytone (see Fraenkel on A. Ag. 881). 1612-3: [x] (test. 16 in G. Kuchenmuller, Philetae Coi Reliquiae (Diss. Berlin, 1928); cf. test.21 = Suid. s. [x]. Page is led by the words of Athenaeus' dialogue (9. 401 E) which introduce the quotation to argue that the expression [x] 'refers to literary usage which has not been sanctioned by ancient authority'. But the [x] is the name of a well-known logical puzzle propounded by Eubulides (see Diog. Laert. 2. 108, and cf. William and Martha Kneale, The Development of Logic (1962), p. 114. 'Nights' evening-thoughts', Page writes, 'is a very odd expression'. Night is, of course, a regular time for [x]: see, for example, Menander, Misoumenos 1 f. Surely 'evening night-worries' are night-worries that begin as early as the evening of the day before; that derives support from 1. 8 of the prologue of the Misoumenos, if we accept Austin's conjecture (first at PBA 63 (1978), 321) and read [x] ([x], Turner, P. Oxy. 48 (1981), 12, where he rightly prefers Austin's emendation of the [x] of P. Oxy. 3368 to West's [x]). 1632-3: in the fragment of Varro quoted in translation on p. 446, the name 'Apollas' rests on an improbable conjecture; see Jacoby, FGrH 413 Skopas (?); 'Scopas' is the likeliest restoration of the corrupt names in Pliny, HN 1. 8 and 8.82. For information about Greek werewolves, Page refers to Frazer's Pausanias (4. 189); for a plausible explanation of the belief, see Burkert, Homo Necans (1972), p. 99 f. 1660: [x] as the lectio difficilior deserves preference. 1674 f. (= SH 977, the epitaph on Zeno's dog Tauron): Page wrote in Greek Literary Papyri (1942), p. 461 'since the boar was a [x], I do not know what is meant by saying it was like one', and he now (p. 458) points out that the postponement of [x] in 1. 3 is 'unparalleled so far as I have noticed'. Both difficulties are removed if in 1. 3 we read [x], taking [x] ... [x] in 1. 2 as a parenthesis, and place a full stop after [x]. 1703: accepting Page's [x] and reading [x], we may take the sense to be that while in office Marcellus shed much of the blood of his enemies. 1704 f. (the graffito from Redesiyeh): see Etienne Bernand, Les inscriptions merriques de l' Egypte greco-romaine (1969), no. 164, 568 f. (pl. CI) and Andre Bernand, Le Paneion d'El Kanais (1972), no. 8, 38 f. (pl. 23, 1-2). In order to ask the god to save Alexandria, the poet would not have to know of troubles there; cf. Call. fr. 112.9 or FGE 1565. 1735: Trypanis' [x] is a better supplement than Korte's [x]. P. 471: the much damaged quotation from Sophocles in the commentary on the epigram on the oyster is fr. 966A Radt. 1472: although Ares was not the official consort of Aphrodite, he was so notoriously her lover that it is no use making a fuss about his being called her [x], as he probably is in 1. 1747. 1783 A f.: see SH 986 for the results of a fresh examination of the papyrus. 1814 f.: Page says that no one would have spoken of Agesilaus in these terms, but as the words in question are put into the mouth of the lame Spartan himself, the poet may have been crediting the king with great modesty. However, the editors of SH were somewhat rash in taking it for granted that Agesilaus is referred to. 1820 f. it is worth remarking that the statues of Cleobis and Biton may still be seen at Delphi. 1833: perhaps the [x] is the tomb itself. 1835: a prophet may be called [x], as Tiresias sometimes is in tragedy, and even in death Sibylla retains the dignity of her office. 1844 f.: on Sicyonian dancing, see now Audrey Griffin, Sikyon (1982), 161-2. P. 497, second piece, 1. 4: for Agenor, read Agapenor. 1856 f.: late though she learned her letters, why should Eurydice be assumed not to have written her own dedication?

Section III. Leonides 1882-3: Page's remark that the sentence is Callimachean in style and spirit is confirmed by a Callimachean epigram (HE 1134 f.). 1887: this line, like 1379, echoes Call., HE 1300. 1893: Page agrees with Jacobs that the sense is 'munera enim [x] invidiae obnoxia', but the main point is that the poet can confer gifts which envy cannot spoil. 1940: cf. Call. fr. 110. I. Nicodemus 2038-9: since [x] may mean 'cult objects' as well as 'rites' (see Dodds on Eur. Bacch. 469-70), [x] may not be altogether inappropriate. Tiberius Hus 2048-9: Page quotes [x] at Pindar, Pyth. 12. II in the sense of 'destroyed' as though it were not a conjecture in that place. Wilamowitz, Schroeder and Turyn all read [x], but Snell restored [x], and it is defended by Burton, Pindar's Pythian Odes (1962), p. 28 and Kohnken, BICS 25 (1978), 92. Tiberius 2104: to the instances of [x] in the sense of 'scion', add now the second line of the third book of the Aitia (SH 254, 2). Hadrian 2129: does [x] when applied to Cypris mean 'sweetly singing', or does it rather mean 'eloquent, persuasive'? 2137-44 (= Kaibel, Epigr. 888): it has long been known that this epigram is not by Hadrian the emperor but by Hadrianus the Tyrian sophist, that its Quadratus is not Pliny's friend but Marcus Aurelius' son-in-law, and that its Severus is not L. Catilius Severus, consul under Trajan, but Cn. Claudius Severus, consul in AD. 173; see Syme, Roman Papers II (1979), p. 689.

Christ Church, Oxford

HUGH LLOYD-JONES

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Dicaearchus
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/19/22

For the pirate, see Dicaearchus of Aetolia.

A series of different ancient sources report that Plato was a poet in his youth, before turning to philosophy. The oldest of these seems to be Dicaearcus, quoted by Diogenes Laertius.

-- Defining a 'Pseudo-Plato' Epigrammatist, by Davide Massimo

Dicaearchus of Messana (/ˌdɪkeɪˈɑːrkəs ... məˈsɑːnə/; Greek: Δικαίαρχος Dikaiarkhos; c. 370/350 – c. post 323 BC), also written Dikaiarchos (/ˈdɪkaɪɑːrk/), was a Greek philosopher, geographer and author. Dicaearchus was a student of Aristotle in the Lyceum. Very little of his work remains extant. He wrote on geography and the history of Greece, of which his most important work was his Life of Greece. Although modern scholars often consider him a pioneer in the field of cartography, this is based on a misinterpretation of a reference in Cicero[1] to Dicaearchus' tabulae, which does not refer to any maps made by Dicaearchus but is a pun on account books and refers to Dicaearchus' Descent into the Sanctuary of Trophonius.[2] He also wrote books on ancient Greek poets, philosophy and politics.

Life

He was the son of one Pheidias, and born at Messana in Sicily,[3] though he passed part of his life in Greece, and especially in Athens and the Peloponnesus.[4] He also travelled to make his measurements of mountains. He was a disciple of Aristotle[5] and a friend of Aristoxenus (a letter written to him is attested in Cicero[6]). Eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century scholarship often considered him a friend of Theophrastus as well, but this is based on the reference to a man named Theophrastus in the spurious Description of Greece, which is transmitted under Dicaearchus' name but actually consists of excerpts from a geographic poem written by Dionysius, son of Calliphon, and from a prose periegesis of Greece, written by Heraclides Criticus. It is uncertain when Dicaearchus died. The only certain terminus post quem is the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC). According to Pliny,[7] Dicaearchus measured mountains "with the support of the kings" (cura regum). Most scholars identify these kings as Cassander and Ptolemy I Soter. If this identification is correct, this would put Dicaearchus' activity between 306 and 287 BC. However, the kings might also refer to Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV, who were the nominatim kings after the death of Alexander the Great. If that identification is correct, this moves his activity to 323–317 BC.[8]

Writings

Dicaearchus was highly esteemed by the ancients as a philosopher and as a man of most extensive and learned information upon a great variety of things.[9] His work is known only from the many fragmentary quotations of later writers. His works were geographical, political, historical and philosophical; but it is difficult to draw up an accurate list of them, since some that are quoted as distinct works may have been only sections of greater ones, and many titles are only attested once. The fragments extant, moreover, do not always enable us to form a clear notion of the works to which they once belonged. The geographical works of Dicaearchus were, according to Strabo,[10] criticised in many respects by Polybius, though Strabo himself was more forgiving of Dicaearchus' ignorance of western and northern Europe, since – unlike Polybius – Dicaearchus had never visited these places.

Dicaearchus wrote on cultural history, music and literature:

• Life of Greece (Βίος Ἑλλάδος) – The Bios Hellados, in three books[11] is Dicaearchus’ most famous work. It inspired the Bios Hellados of Jason (identified as Jason of Nysa by the Suda[12] but perhaps a different historian with the same name[13]) and Varro's De vita populi Romani and De gente populi Romani. Only a few fragments actually cite the title,[14] but there are many fragments on cultural history that cite no title and might belong to this work.[15] Dicaearchus apparently attempted to write a biography of the Greek nation from earliest times to the reign of Philip II. The most famous passages are those cited by Varro[16] and Porphyry[17] on early history, which suggest a dualistic view of progress. His anthropological theory combined elements from the Hesiodic tradition of decay with progressivist theories. From Hesiod, he adopted the concept of a "golden race", which led a life of bliss but ultimately degenerated because humans became greedy, which led to war. This is combined with progressivist ideas, such as the harsh life of early man and the gradual invention of the arts. In his reconstruction, Dicaearchus distinguished three stages: the golden race, in which man lived off the spontaneously grown fruits of the earth, the pastoral life, in which man started domesticating and hunting animals, and the agricultural life, in which agriculture was introduced.[18] Dicaearchus apparently also explained the saying, "sharing stops choking", as a reference to how humans learned to distribute surplus fairly.[19] Dicaearchus also discussed the origin of the polis, which he derived from the expansion of families through marriage and the kinship of brothers and sisters.[20] According to Dicaearchus, various stages of this evolution were reflected in patrae, phratries and phylae, which were social organisations into which citizens were grouped in many poleis. Another remarkable feature of the Life of Greece is that the first book discussed Egypt and Babylon, probably as cultural predecessors of the Greeks. In the Life of Greece, Dicaearchus also stated that Euripides' Medea plagiarised the Medea play of the obscure tragedian Neophron.[21]
• On Musical Contests (Περὶ μουσικῶν ἀγώνων) and On Dionysiac Contests (Περὶ Διονυσιακῶν ἀγώνων) – These works discussed innovations in Greek music and drama. In On Dionysiac Contests, Dicaearchus probably also treated the story that, when competing at the Dionysia with the Oedipus Tyrannus, Sophocles was defeated by the tragedian Philocles,[22] and that Aristophanes' Frogs was staged twice.[23] In this work, Dicaearchus probably also stated that the third actor was introduced to Athenian tragedy by Sophocles.[24]
• On Alcaeus (Περὶ Ἀλκαίου) – This was a monograph on the Lesbian poet Alcaeus of Mitylene.
• Works on Homer and Euripides – Plutarch[25] cites Dicaearchus alongside Aristotle and Heraclides Ponticus as men who wrote on Homer and Euripides. Dicaearchus' works were probably either monographs on these poets (like his work On Alcaeus) or belonged to problemata literature (both Aristotle and Heraclides Ponticus wrote works on Homeric problems).

Among his geographical works may be mentioned:

• Circuit of the Earth (Γῆς περίοδος)[26] – This work was a geographical description of the world as it was then known. Dicaearchus divided the inhabited world into a northern and southern part, separated by a line running from the Strait of Gibraltar through Sicily to the Himalaya.[27] He attempted to calculate the distances between various points on this line. In the Circuit of the Earth, Dicaearchus also treated the famous problem of the flooding of the Nile.
• Measurements of mountains[28] – The Suda[29] cites the work as Measurements of Mountains in the Peloponnese (Καταμετρήσεις τῶν ἐν Πελοποννήσῳ ὀρῶν), but other fragments show that Dicaearchus also measured mountains in Thessaly[30] and on Rhodes.[31] The work may have been part of his Circuit of the Earth. It was the earliest known attempt to measure the heights of various mountains by triangulation, for which he used a dioptra instrument. Dicaearchus' goal was to show that mountains were not as high as people believed and therefore did not impact the sphericity of the earth. Many of his results were later adopted by Eratosthenes.

Of a political nature was:

• Tripolitikos (Τριπολιτικός)[32] – A work which has been the subject of much dispute. It was probably a political dialogue (perhaps to be identified with the "political meeting" mentioned by Cicero[33]) or a speech. Since the only extant fragment discusses the Spartan public meals, some scholars identify it with the Spartan Constitution. Many scholars consider it a work on the mixed constitution, but this is based on a misinterpretation of the εἶδος δικαιαρχικόν, mentioned in Photius;[34] the word δικαιαρχικός does not refer to Dicaearchus but simply means "relating to a just government".[35]
• Constitutions – Dicaearchus is said to have written a Spartan Constitution (Πολιτεία Σπαρτιατῶν), Pellenian Constitution (Πελληναίων πολιτεία), Corinthian Constitution (Κορινθίων πολιτεία) and Athenian Constitution (Ἀθηναίων πολιτεία).[36] No fragments survive of these works. The Spartan Constitution was apparently read annually in the council of the ephors in Sparta, in the presence of the Spartan youth.[37]

Among his other philosophical works may be mentioned:

• On the Soul (Περὶ ψυχῆς) – Dicaearchus wrote two works on the soul: the Lesbian Dialogue (Λεσβιακός) and the Corinthian Dialogue (Κορινθιακός), both in three books. The titles refer to the scene where the philosophical dialogue was set, viz. at Mytilene in Lesbos and at Corinth, respectively. The general title for these two works was On the Soul (Περὶ ψυχῆς). In the Lesbian Dialogue, Dicaearchus endeavoured to prove that the soul was mortal.[38] In the Corinthian Dialogue, Dicaearchus argued that the soul has no existence outside the body. The first book presented a discussion of learned men about the soul. In the subsequent two books, a man named Pherecrates argued for the non-existence of the soul.[39]
• On the destruction of men (Latin: de interitu hominum)[40] – This work collected the causes of human destruction and concluded that man himself was the greatest threat. It is uncertain whether "de interitu hominum" is a book title or merely describes the content of the work.[41]
• Descent into Sanctuary of Trophonius (Εἰς Τροφωνίου κατάβασις)[42] – A work which consisted of several books. It appears to have been a work on luxury.[43] The title refers to the oracle of Trophonius in Lebadea, where people who wished to consult the oracle had to descend into a cave. Cicero informs us that he translated a section from this work in his De re publica.[44] The work may have also contained an account of the degenerate and licentious proceedings of the priests in the cave of Trophonius.
• On Lives (Περὶ βίων) – This was probably a philosophical work on the right way of life.[45] The title is only attested once.[46] The fragments on philosophers (the Seven Sages, Pythagoras and Plato) are usually attributed to this work, though they may belong to other works such as the Life of Greece or the Circuit of the Earth as well. Of particular interest is the fragment on the death of Pythagoras, for which Dicaearchus claims to rely on local oral sources from Southern Italy.[47]
• On the Sacrifice at Ilium (Περὶ τῆς ἐν Ἰλίῳ ϑυσίας)[48] – The title refers to the sacrifice which Alexander the Great performed at Ilium at the start of his expedition against Darius III. Together with his beloved Hephaestion, he paid honours on the tombs of Achilles and Patroclus at Troy, probably as a proclamation of their own relationship, which was mirrored on these two mythical heroes. The sole fragment that remains of this work discusses the story that, after the march through the Gedrosian Desert, Alexander passionately kissed the eunuch Bagoas in a full theatre, to great applause. This suggests that the work may have treated Alexander's relationships, perhaps as part of a more general discussion on love.[49]

Dicaearchus also wrote speeches:

• Olympikos (Ὀλυμπικός),[50] Panathenaikos (Παναθηναϊκός)[51] – These are usually considered either works on contests held at the Olympic Games and the Panathenaic Games or philosophical dialogues. However, the most plausible interpretation is that they were speeches.[52] Indeed, the Suda explicitly calls Dicaearchus an orator (ῥήτωρ).[53]

There is lastly one spurious work and one doubtful work:

• Description of Greece (Ἀναγραφὴ τῆς Ἑλλάδος) – This work is spurious. Although it is transmitted under Dicaearchus' name, it actually consists of excerpts from two separate works. One is a geographic work dedicated to "Theophrastus", and consisting of 150 iambic lines; the acrostic of the first twenty-three lines shows that it was really the work of one "Dionysius, son of Calliphon". The other work is a prose periegesis entitled On the Cities in Greece and was written by Heraclides Criticus.[54]
• Summaries of the Tales from Euripides and Sophocles (ὑποθέσεις τῶν Εὐριπίδου καὶ Σοφοκλέους μύθων)[55] – This was a collection of plot summaries of the plays of Euripides and Sophocles. Many of these summaries survive in papyri or have been prefaced to the plays of Euripides in medieval manuscripts. This work is unlikely to have been written by the Peripatetic Dicaearchus. It was probably either wrongly attributed to him or was the work of another man named Dicaearchus, a grammarian of Lacedaemon, who, according to the Suda,[56] was a disciple of Aristarchus.[57]

References

1. Cicero, Ad Atticum, vi. 2. 3
2. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 34–35, 279–280.
3. Suda, δ 1062.
4. Cicero, Ad Atticum, vi. 2. 3.
5. FGrHist 1400 T 7a–f.
6. Cicero, ad Atticum, xiii. 32. 2.
7. Pliny, Naturalis historia, ii. 162.
8. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 5, 196–198.
9. Cicero, Tusculanae disputationes, i. 41, De officiis, ii. 16; Varro, Res rusticae, i. 2. 16; Pliny, Naturalis historia, ii. 162.
10. Strabo, ii. 4. 2.
11. Mirhady 1.7a
12. Suda, ι 52.
13. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 9–10.
14. FGrHist 1400 F 1–9.
15. FGrHist 1400 F 24–35.
16. Varro, Res rusticae, i. 2. 15–16, ii. 1. 3–5 = Mirhady 54–55.
17. Porphyry, De abstinentia, iv. 2. 1–9 = Mirhady 56A.
18. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 9, 231–241.
19. Zenobius, v. 23 = Mirhady 57
20. Stephanus Byzantius, π 68.
21. Hypothesis A 2 on Euripides' Medea (Dain-Mazon-Irigoin).
22. Hypothesis 2 on Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus (Dain-Mazon-Irigoin).
23. Hypothesis 1 on Aristophanes' Frogs (Wilson).
24. Vita of Aeschylus, 15 (Radt).
25. Plutarch, Non posse suaviter vivi secundum Epicurum, xii. 1095a.
26. Lydus, de Mensibus, iv. 107.
27. Agathemerus, Geographiae informatio, 5.
28. Pliny, H. N. ii. 65; Geminus, Elem. Astron. 14.
29. Suda, δ 1062.
30. Pliny, Naturalis historia, ii. 162.
31. Geminus, Elementa astronomiae, xvii. 5.
32. Athenaeus, iv. 141a–c; Cicero, Ad Atticum, xiii. 32. 2.
33. Cicero, Ad Atticum, xiii. 30. 2.
34. Photius, Bibliotheca, codex 37 p. 8a Bekker.
35. Fotiou, A. S. (1981), "Dikaiarchos and the mixed constitution in sixth century Byzantium: new evidence from a treatise on "political science."” Byzantion 51: 533–547; Verhasselt 2018, pp. 24–25, 581–583.
36. Cicero, Ad Atticum, ii. 2. 2.
37. Suda, δ 1062.
38. Cicero, Tusculanae disputationes, i. 77.
39. Cicero, Tusculanae disputationes, i. 21.
40. Cicero, De officiis, ii. 16.
41. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 12–13.
42. Cicero, Ad Atticum, vi. 2. 3, xiii. 31. 2, xiii. 32. 2, xiii. 33. 2; Athenaeus, xiii. 594e, xiv. 641e.
43. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 14–15.
44. Cicero, Ad Atticum, vi. 2. 3. The passage is De re publica, ii. 7–9.
45. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 21–24.
46. Diogenes Laertius, iii. 4–5.
47. Porphyry, Vita Pythagorae, 56–57.
48. Athenaeus, xiii. 603a–b.
49. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 13–14, 272–273.
50. Athenaeus, xiv. 620d.
51. Scholion ad Aristophanis Vespis 544b (Koster).
52. Verhasselt 2018, pp. 15–17.
53. Suda, δ 1062.
54. FGrHist 2022 = BNJ 369A.
55. Sextus Empiricus, Adversus mathematicos, iii. 3.
56. Suda, δ 1063.
57. Verhasselt (2015). "The Hypotheses of Euripides and Sophocles by 'Dicaearchus'". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 55: 608–636.

Sources

• David C. Mirhady, "Dicaearchus of Messana: The Sources, Texts and Translations," in Fortenbaugh, W., Schütrumpf, E., (editors) Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion. Transaction Publishers. (2001). ISBN 0-7658-0093-4
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Further reading

Editions

• Fortenbaugh, W., Schütrumpf, E., (editors) Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion. Transaction Publishers. (2001). ISBN 0-7658-0093-4
• Verhasselt, G. Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker Continued. IV. Biography and antiquarian literature, B. History of literature, music, art and culture. Fasc. 9 Dikaiarchos of Messene No. 1400. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2018. ISBN 9789004357419
• Wehrli, F., Dikaiarchos. Die Schule des Aristoteles. Texte und Kommentar, Hft. 1. Schwabe. 2nd edition (1967)
Studies
• Alonso-Núñez, J.M., 'Approaches to world history in the Hellenistic period: Dicaearchus and Agatharchides' Athenaeum 85 (1997) 53–67
• Bodei Giglioni, G., 'Dicearco e la riflessione sul passato' Rivista Storica Italiana 98 (1986) 629–652
• Cooper, C., 'Aristoxenus, Περὶ Βίων and Peripatetic biography' Mouseion 2(3) (2002) 307–339
• Purcell, N., 'The way we used to eat: diet, community, and history at Rome' American Journal of Philology 124 (2003) 329–358
• Verhasselt, G. , ᾿Dicaearchus on Alcaeus: A Peripatetic approach to archaic poetry' Rivista di filologia e istruzione classica 144 (2016) 266–299
• Verhasselt, G., 'What were works Περὶ βίων? A study of the extant fragments' Philologus 160 (2016) 59–83

External links

• Fragments des poemes géographiques de Scymnus de Chio et du faux Dicéarque, M. Letronne (ed.), Paris, Librairie de Gide, 1840.

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Stephanus of Byzantium
by Wikipedia
11/19/22

Stephanus or Stephan of Byzantium (Latin: Stephanus Byzantinus; Greek: Στέφανος Βυζάντιος, Stéphanos Byzántios; fl. 6th century AD), was a Byzantine grammarian and the author of an important geographical dictionary entitled Ethnica (Ἐθνικά). Only meagre fragments of the dictionary survive, but the epitome is extant, compiled by one Hermolaus, not otherwise identified.

Life


The Byzantine Empire during Stephanus' lifetime, with Justinian's conquests in green

Nothing is known about the life of Stephanus, except that he was a Greek grammarian[1] who was active in Constantinople, and lived after the time of Arcadius and Honorius, and before that of Justinian II. Later writers provide no information about him, but they do note that the work was later reduced to an epitome by a certain Hermolaus, who dedicated his epitome to Justinian; whether the first or second emperor of that name is meant is disputed, but it seems probable that Stephanus flourished in Byzantium in the earlier part of the sixth century AD, under Justinian I.[2]

The Ethnica

Even as an epitome, the Ethnica is of enormous value for geographical, mythological, and religious information about ancient Greece. Nearly every article in the epitome contains a reference to some ancient writer, as an authority for the name of the place. From the surviving fragments, we see that the original contained considerable quotations from ancient authors, besides many interesting particulars, topographical, historical, mythological, and others. Stephanus cites Artemidorus, Polybius, Aelius Herodianus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Strabo and other writers.[3]

The chief fragments remaining of the original work are preserved by Constantine Porphyrogennetos, De administrando imperio, ch. 23 (the article Ίβηρίαι δύο) and De thematibus, ii. 10 (an account of Sicily); the latter includes a passage from the comic poet Alexis on the Seven Largest Islands. Another respectable fragment, from the article Δύμη to the end of Δ, exists in a manuscript of the Fonds Coislin, the library formed by Pierre Séguier.[4]

The first modern printed edition of the work was that published by the Aldine Press in Venice, 1502. The complete standard edition is still that of Augustus Meineke (1849, reprinted at Graz, 1958), and by convention, references to the text use Meineke's page numbers. A new completely revised edition in German, edited by B. Wyss, C. Zubler, M. Billerbeck, J.F. Gaertner, was published between 2006 and 2017, with a total of 5 volumes.[5]

Editions

• Aldus Manutius (pr.), 1502, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων (Peri poleōn) = Stephanus. De urbibus ("On cities") (Venice). Google Books
• Guilielmus Xylander, 1568, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων = Stephanus. De urbibus (Basel).
• Thomas de Pinedo, 1678, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων = Stephanus. De urbibus (Amsterdam). Contains parallel Latin translation. Google Books
• Claudius Salmasius (Claude Saumaise) and Abraham van Berkel, 1688, Στεφάνου Βυζαντίου Ἐθνικὰ κατ' ἐπιτομήν Περὶ πόλεων = Stephani Byzantini Gentilia per epitomen, antehac De urbibus inscripta (Leiden). Contains parallel Latin translation. Google Books
• Lucas Holstenius, 1692, Notae & castigationes in Stephanum Byzantium De urbibus (Leiden). Google Books
• Thomas de Pinedo, 1725, Stephanus de urbibus (Amsterdam). Google Books
• Karl Wilhelm Dindorf, 1825, Stephanus Byzantinus. Opera, 4 vols, (Leipzig). Incorporating notes by L. Holsteinius, A. Berkelius, and T. de Pinedo. Google Books
• Anton Westermann, 1839, Stephani Byzantii ethnikon quae supersunt (Leipzig). Google Books
• Augustus Meineke, 1849, Stephani Byzantii ethnicorum quae supersunt (Berlin). Google Books
• Margarethe Billerbeck et al. (edd), Stephani Byzantii Ethnica. 5 volumes: 2006–2017. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, (Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae 43/1)[5][6][7]

References

1. Browning, Robert (2016-03-07). "Stephanus of Byzantium". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6074. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Retrieved 2021-10-02.
2. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Stephanus Byzantinus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 880.
3. J. S. Richardson, Hispaniae: Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC: "In four places, the lexicographer Stephanus of Byzantium refers to towns and ... Artemidorus as source, and in three of the four examples cites Polybius.; From political architecture to Stephanus Byzantius
4. Chisholm 1911, p. 880.
5. Jump up to:a b de Gruyter
6. Reviewed by C. Neri in
7. Reviewed by Martin L. West

Further reading

• Smith, W., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 3, s.v. "Stephanus" (2) of Byzantium.
• Diller, Aubrey 1938, "The tradition of Stephanus Byzantius", Transactions of the American Philological Association 69: 333–48.
• E.H. Bunbury, 1883, History of Ancient Geography (London), vol. i. 102, 135, 169; ii. 669–71.
• Holstenius, L., 1684 (posth.), Lucae Holstenii Notae et castigationes postumae in Stephani Byzantii Ethnika, quae vulgo Peri poleōn inscribuntur (Leiden).
• Niese, B., 1873, De Stephani Byzantii auctoribus (Kiel)
• Johannes Geffcken, 1886, De Stephano Byzantio (Göttingen)
• Whitehead, D. (ed.), 1994, From political architecture to Stephanus Byzantius : sources for the ancient Greek polis (Stuttgart).

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Diogenes Laertius
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/19/22

For other people named Diogenes, see Diogenes (disambiguation).

Diogenes Laërtius (/daɪˌɒdʒɪniːz leɪˈɜːrʃiəs/ dy-OJ-in-eez lay-UR-shee-əs;[1] Greek: Διογένης Λαέρτιος, Laertios; [fl. 3rd century AD) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is definitively known about his life, but his surviving Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. His reputation is controversial among scholars because he often repeats information from his sources without critically evaluating it. He also frequently focuses on trivial or insignificant details of his subjects' lives while ignoring important details of their philosophical teachings and he sometimes fails to distinguish between earlier and later teachings of specific philosophical schools. However, unlike many other ancient secondary sources, Diogenes Laërtius generally reports philosophical teachings without attempting to reinterpret or expand on them, which means his accounts are often closer to the primary sources. Due to the loss of so many of the primary sources on which Diogenes relied, his work has become the foremost surviving source on the history of Greek philosophy.

Life


17th-century engraving

Laërtius must have lived after Sextus Empiricus (c. 200), whom he mentions, and before Stephanus of Byzantium and Sopater of Apamea (c. 500), who quote him. His work makes no mention of Neoplatonism, even though it is addressed to a woman who was "an enthusiastic Platonist".[2] Hence he is assumed to have flourished in the first half of the 3rd century, during the reign of Alexander Severus (222–235) and his successors.[3]

The precise form of his name is uncertain. The ancient manuscripts invariably refer to a "Laertius Diogenes", and this form of the name is repeated by Sopater[4] and the Suda.[5] The modern form "Diogenes Laertius" is much rarer, used by Stephanus of Byzantium,[6] and in a lemma to the Greek Anthology.[7] He is also referred to as "Laertes"[8] or simply "Diogenes".[9]

The origin of the name "Laertius" is also uncertain. Stephanus of Byzantium refers to him as "Διογένης ὁ Λαερτιεύς" (Diogenes ho Laertieus),[10] implying that he was the native of some town, perhaps the Laerte in Caria (or another Laerte in Cilicia). Another suggestion is that one of his ancestors had for a patron a member of the Roman family of the Laërtii.[11] The prevailing modern theory is that "Laertius" is a nickname (derived from the Homeric epithet Diogenes Laertiade, used in addressing Odysseus) used to distinguish him from the many other people called Diogenes in the ancient world.[12]

His home town is unknown (at best uncertain, even according to a hypothesis that Laertius refers to his origin). A disputed passage in his writings has been used to suggest that it was Nicaea in Bithynia.[13][14]

It has been suggested that Diogenes was an Epicurean or a Pyrrhonist. He passionately defends Epicurus[15] in Book 10, which is of high quality and contains three long letters attributed to Epicurus explaining Epicurean doctrines.[16] He is impartial to all schools, in the manner of the Pyrrhonists, and he carries the succession of Pyrrhonism further than that of the other schools. At one point, he even seems to refer to the Pyrrhonists as "our school."[13] On the other hand, most of these points can be explained by the way he uncritically copies from his sources. It is by no means certain that he adhered to any school, and he is usually more attentive to biographical details.[17]

In addition to the Lives, Diogenes refers to another work that he had written in verse on famous men, in various metres, which he called Epigrammata or Pammetros (Πάμμετρος).[3]

Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers


Dionysiou monastery, codex 90, a 13th-century manuscript containing selections from Herodotus, Plutarch and (shown here) Diogenes Laertius

The work by which he is known, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (Greek: Βίοι καὶ γνῶμαι τῶν ἐν φιλοσοφίᾳ εὐδοκιμησάντων; Latin: Vitae Philosophorum), was written in Greek and professes to give an account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers.

Although it is at best an uncritical and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight into the private lives of the Greek sages, led Montaigne to write that he wished that instead of one Laërtius there had been a dozen.[18] On the other hand, modern scholars have advised that we treat Diogenes' testimonia with care, especially when he fails to cite his sources: "Diogenes has acquired an importance out of all proportion to his merits because the loss of many primary sources and of the earlier secondary compilations has accidentally left him the chief continuous source for the history of Greek philosophy".[19]

Organization of the work

Diogenes divides his subjects into two "schools" which he describes as the Ionian/Ionic and the Italian/Italic; the division is somewhat dubious and appears to be drawn from the lost doxography of Sotion. The biographies of the "Ionian school" begin with Anaximander and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the "Italian" begins with Pythagoras and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, is classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and Pyrrhonists are treated under the Italic. He also includes his own poetic verse, albeit pedestrian, about the philosophers he discusses.

Books 1–7: Ionian Philosophy
Book 1: The Seven Sages
Thales, Solon, Chilon, Pittacus, Bias, Cleobulus, Periander, Anacharsis, Myson, Epimenides, Pherecydes
Book 2: Socrates, with predecessors and followers
Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Socrates, Xenophon, Aeschines, Aristippus, Phaedo, Euclides, Stilpo, Crito, Simon, Glaucon, Simmias, Cebes, Menedemus of Eretria
Book 3: Plato
Plato
Book 4: The Academy
Speusippus, Xenocrates, Polemo, Crates of Athens, Crantor, Arcesilaus, Bion, Lacydes, Carneades, Clitomachus
Book 5: The Peripatetics
Aristotle, Theophrastus, Strato, Lyco, Demetrius, Heraclides
Book 6: The Cynics
Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Monimus, Onesicritus, Crates of Thebes, Metrocles, Hipparchia, Menippus, Menedemus
Book 7: The Stoics
Zeno of Citium, Aristo, Herillus, Dionysius, Cleanthes, Sphaerus, Chrysippus
Books 8–10: Italian Philosophy
Book 8: Pythagoreans
Pythagoras, Empedocles, Epicharmus, Archytas, Alcmaeon, Hippasus, Philolaus, Eudoxus
Book 9: (Eleatics, Atomists, Pyrrhonists)
Heraclitus, Xenophanes, Parmenides, Melissus, Zeno of Elea, Leucippus, Democritus, Protagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, Anaxarchus, Pyrrho, Timon
Book 10: Epicurus
Epicurus

The work contains incidental remarks on many other philosophers, and there are useful accounts concerning Hegesias, Anniceris, and Theodorus (Cyrenaics);[20] Persaeus (Stoic);[21] and Metrodorus and Hermarchus (Epicureans).[22] Book VII is incomplete and breaks off during the life of Chrysippus. From a table of contents in one of the manuscripts (manuscript P), this book is known to have continued with Zeno of Tarsus, Diogenes, Apollodorus, Boethus, Mnesarchus, Mnasagoras, Nestor, Basilides, Dardanus, Antipater, Heraclides, Sosigenes, Panaetius, Hecato, Posidonius, Athenodorus, another Athenodorus, Antipater, Arius, and Cornutus. The whole of Book X is devoted to Epicurus, and contains three long letters written by Epicurus, which explain Epicurean doctrines.

His chief authorities were Favorinus and Diocles of Magnesia, but his work also draws (either directly or indirectly) on books by Antisthenes of Rhodes, Alexander Polyhistor, and Demetrius of Magnesia, as well as works by Hippobotus, Aristippus, Panaetius, Apollodorus of Athens, Sosicrates, Satyrus, Sotion, Neanthes, Hermippus, Antigonus, Heraclides, Hieronymus, and Pamphila.[23][24]

Oldest extant manuscripts

There are many extant manuscripts of the Lives, although none of them are especially old, and they all descend from a common ancestor, because they all lack the end of Book VII.[25] The three most useful manuscripts are known as B, P, and F. Manuscript B (Codex Borbonicus) dates from the 12th century, and is in the National Library of Naples.[a] Manuscript P (Paris) is dated to the 11th/12th century, and is in the Bibliothèque nationale de France.[27] Manuscript F (Florence) is dated to the 13th century, and is in the Laurentian Library.[27] The titles for the individual biographies used in modern editions are absent from these earliest manuscripts, however they can be found inserted into the blank spaces and margins of manuscript P by a later hand.[27]

There seem to have been some early Latin translations, but they no longer survive. A 10th-century work entitled Tractatus de dictis philosophorum shows some knowledge of Diogenes.[28] Henry Aristippus, in the 12th century, is known to have translated at least some of the work into Latin, and in the 14th century an unknown author made use of a Latin translation for his De vita et moribus philosophorum[28] (attributed erroneously to Walter Burley).

Printed editions


Title page of an edition in Greek and Latin, 1594


1611 Italian edition

The first printed editions were Latin translations. The first, Laertii Diogenis Vitae et sententiae eorum qui in philosophia probati fuerunt (Romae: Giorgo Lauer, 1472), printed the translation of Ambrogio Traversari (whose manuscript presentation copy to Cosimo de' Medici was dated February 8, 1433[29]) and was edited by Elio Francesco Marchese.[30] The Greek text of the lives of Aristotle and Theophrastus appeared in the third volume of the Aldine Aristotle in 1497. The first edition of the whole Greek text was that published by Hieronymus Froben in 1533.[31] The Greek/Latin edition of 1692 by Marcus Meibomius divided each of the ten books into paragraphs of equal length, and progressively numbered them, providing the system still in use today.[27]

The first critical edition of the entire text, by H.S. Long in the Oxford Classical Texts, was not produced until 1964;[25] this edition was superseded by Miroslav Marcovich's Teubner edition, published between 1999 and 2002. A new edition, by Tiziano Dorandi, was published by Cambridge University Press in 2013.[32]

English translations

Thomas Stanley's 1656 History of Philosophy adapts the format and content of Laertius' work into English, but Stanley compiled his book from a number of classical biographies of philosophers.[33] The first complete English translation was a late 17th-century translation by ten different persons.[34] A better translation was made by Charles Duke Yonge (1853),[35] but although this was more literal, it still contained many inaccuracies.[36] The next translation was by Robert Drew Hicks (1925) for the Loeb Classical Library,[37] although it is slightly bowdlerized. A new translation by Pamela Mensch was published by Oxford University Press in 2018.[38]

Legacy and assessment


The Italian Renaissance scholar, painter, philosopher, and architect Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) modeled his own autobiography on Diogenes Laërtius's Life of Thales.[39]

Henricus Aristippus, the archdeacon of Catania, produced a Latin translation of Diogenes Laertius's book in southern Italy in the late 1150s, which has since been lost or destroyed.[39]

Henry Aristippus of Calabria (born in Santa Severina in 1105–10; died in Palermo in 1162), sometimes known as Enericus or Henricus Aristippus, was a religious scholar and the archdeacon of Catania (from c. 1155) and later chief familiaris of the triumvirate of familiares who replaced the admiral Maio of Bari as chief functionaries of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1161.

While the historian of Norman Sicily, John Julius Norwich, believes him to have probably been of Norman extraction despite his Greek surname, Donald Matthew considers it self-evident, based on both his name and occupations, that he was Greek. He was first and foremost a scholar and, even if Greek, he was an adherent of the Latin church.

Aristippus was an envoy to Constantinople (1158-1160) when he received from the emperor Manuel I Comnenus a Greek copy of Ptolemy's Almagest. A student of the Schola Medica Salernitana tracked down Aristippus and his copy on Mount Etna (observing an eruption) and proceeded to give a Latin translation. Though this was the first translation of the Almagest into Latin, it was not as influential as a later translation into Latin made by Gerard of Cremona from the Arabic. The original manuscript is probably in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice.

Aristippus himself produced the first Latin translation of Plato's Phaedo (1160) and Meno and the fourth book of Aristotle's Meteorologica. He also translated Gregory of Nazianzus at the request of William I of Sicily.

In 1161, William appointed three familiares—Aristippus, Sylvester of Marsico, and the Bishop Palmer—to replace the assassinated Maio. In 1162, Aristippus was suspected of disloyalty by the king and imprisoned. He died probably soon after in that very year. He may have helped himself to some of the royal concubines during the rebellion of 1161.

-- Henry Aristippus, by Wikipedia

Geremia da Montagnone used this translation as a source for his Compedium moralium notabilium (circa 1310) and an anonymous Italian author used it as a source for work entitled Liber de vita et moribus philosophorum (written c. 1317–1320), which reached international popularity in the Late Middle Ages.[39] The monk Ambrogio Traversari (1386–1439) produced another Latin translation in Florence between 1424 and 1433, for which far better records have survived.[39] The Italian Renaissance scholar, painter, philosopher, and architect Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) borrowed from Traversari's translation of the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers in Book 2 of his Libri della famiglia[39] and modeled his own autobiography on Diogenes Laërtius's Life of Thales.[39]

Diogenes Laërtius's work has had a complicated reception in modern times.[40] The value of his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers as an insight into the private lives of the Greek sages led the French Renaissance philosopher Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) to exclaim that he wished that, instead of one Laërtius, there had been a dozen.[41] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) criticized Diogenes Laërtius for his lack of philosophical talent and categorized his work as nothing more than a compilation of previous writers' opinions.[39] Nonetheless, he admitted that Diogenes Laërtius's compilation was an important one given the information that it contained.[39] Hermann Usener (1834–1905) deplored Diogenes Laërtius as a "complete ass" (asinus germanus) in his Epicurea (1887).[39] Werner Jaeger (1888–1961) damned him as "that great ignoramus".[42] In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, however, scholars have managed to partially redeem Diogenes Laertius's reputation as a writer by reading his book in a Hellenistic literary context.[40]

Nonetheless, modern scholars treat Diogenes's testimonia with caution, especially when he fails to cite his sources. Herbert S. Long warns: "Diogenes has acquired an importance out of all proportion to his merits because the loss of many primary sources and of the earlier secondary compilations has accidentally left him the chief continuous source for the history of Greek philosophy."[19] Robert M. Strozier offers a somewhat more positive assessment of Diogenes Laertius's reliability, noting that many other ancient writers attempt to reinterpret and expand on the philosophical teachings they describe, something which Diogenes Laërtius rarely does.[43] Strozier concludes, "Diogenes Laertius is, when he does not conflate hundreds of years of distinctions, reliable simply because he is a less competent thinker than those on whom he writes, is less liable to re-formulate statements and arguments, and especially in the case of Epicurus, less liable to interfere with the texts he quotes. He does, however, simplify."[43]

Despite his importance to the history of western philosophy and the controversy surrounding him, according to Gian Mario Cao, Diogenes Laërtius has still not received adequate philological attention.[39] Both modern critical editions of his book, by H. S. Long (1964) and by M. Marcovich (1999) have received extensive criticism from scholars.[39]

He is criticized primarily for being overly concerned with superficial details of the philosophers' lives and lacking the intellectual capacity to explore their actual philosophical works with any penetration. However, according to statements of the 14th-century monk Walter Burley in his De vita et moribus philosophorum, the text of Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we now possess.

Editions and translations

• Diogenis Laertii Vitae philosophorum edidit Miroslav Marcovich, Stuttgart-Lipsia, Teubner, 1999–2002. Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana, vol. 1: Books I–X ISBN 9783598713163; vol. 2: Excerpta Byzantina; v. 3: Indices by Hans Gärtner.
• Lives of Eminent Philosophers, edited by Tiziano Dorandi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013 (Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries, vol. 50, new radically improved critical edition).
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1688). The lives, opinions, and remarkable sayings of the most famous ancient philosophers. The first volume written in Greek, by Diogenes Laertius ; made English by several hands. Vol. 1. Translated by Fetherstone, T.; White, Sam.; Smith, E.; Philips, J.; Kippax, R.; Baxter, William; M., R. (2 volumes ed.). London: Edward Brewster.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1853). Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers. Translated by Yonge, Charles Duke. London: G.H. Bohn.
• Translation by R.D. Hicks:
o "Index" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. 1925.
o Lives of Eminent Philosophers. Vol. I. Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library. 1925. ISBN 978-0-674-99203-0.
o Lives of Eminent Philosophers. Vol. II. Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library. 1925. ISBN 978-0-674-99204-7.
• Translations based on the critical edition by Tiziano Dorandi:
o Lives of Eminent Philosophers. Translated by Pamela Mensch. Oxford University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-0-19-086217-6.
o Lives of Eminent Philosophers. Translated by Stephen White. Cambidge University Press. 2020. ISBN 978-0-521-88335-1.

See also

• Mochus

Notes

1. The statement by Robert Hicks (1925) that "the scribe obviously knew no Greek",[26] was later rejected by Herbert Long. The more recent opinion of Tiziano Dorandi, however, is that the scribe had "little knowledge of Greek ... and limited himself to reproducing it in a mechanical way exactly as he managed to decipher it". A few years later an "anonymous corrector" with good knowledge of Greek rectified "many errors or readings that, rightly or wrongly, he considered erroneous" (Dorandi 2013, p. [page needed]).
1. "Diogenes Laërtius", The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2013
2. Laërtius 1925a, § 47.
3. Chisholm1911, p. 282.
4. Sopater, ap. Photius, Biblioth. 161
5. Suda, Tetralogia
6. Stephanus of Byzantium, Druidai
7. Lemma to Anthologia Palatina, vii. 95
8. Eustathius, on Iliad, M. 153
9. Stephanus of Byzantium, Enetoi
10. Stephanus of Byzantium, Cholleidai
11. Smith 1870, p. 1028.
12. Long 1972, p. xvi.
13. Laërtius 1925b, § 109. Specifically, Diogenes refers to "our Apollonides of Nicaea". This has been conjectured to mean either "my fellow-citizen" or "a Sceptic like myself".
14. Craig 1998, p. 86.
15. Laërtius 1925c, § 3–12.
16. Laërtius 1925c, § 34–135.
17. Long 1972, pp. xvii–xviii.
18. Montaigne, Essays II.10 "Of Books" Archived 2009-02-14 at the Wayback Machine.
19. Long 1972, p. xix.
20. Laërtius 1925b, § 93–104.
21. Laërtius 1925c, § 36.
22. Laërtius 1925d, § 22–26.
23. Friedrich Nietzsche, Gesammelte Werke, 1920, p. 363.
24. Long 1972, p. xxi.
25. Long 1972, p. xxv.
26. Hicks 1925, p. [page needed].
27. Dorandi 2013, p. [page needed].
28. Long 1972, p. xxvi.
29. de la Mare 1992, p. [page needed].
30. Tolomio 1993, pp. 154, ff.
31. Long 1972, p. xxiv.
32. "Diogenes Laertius: Lives of Eminent Philosophers". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
33. Stanley, Thomas (1656). The History of Philosophy. London: J. Mosely and T. Dring.
34. Fetherstone et al 1688, Volume 1, Volume 2 (published 1696).
35. Yonge 1853.
36. Long 1972, p. xiii.
37. Laërtius 1925.
38. Lives of the Eminent Philosophers - Diogenes Laertius. Oxford University Press. 14 May 2018. ISBN 978-0-19-086217-6. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
39. Cao 2010, p. 271.
40. Cao 2010, pp. 271–272.
41. Montaigne, Essays II.10 "Of Books" Archived February 14, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
42. Jaeger 1947, p. 330 n.2.
43. Strozier 1985, p. 15.

References

• Cao, Gian Mario (2010), "Diogenes Laertius", in Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.), The Classical Tradition, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, pp. 271–272, ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0
• Dorandi, Tiziano, ed. (2013). "Introduction". Diogenes Laertius: Lives of Eminent Philosophers. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521886819.
• Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). "Diogenes Laertius (c. AD 300–50)". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 4. p. 86.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1925a). "Plato" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 1:3. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "Others: Timon" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:9. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1925c). "Epicurus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:10. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Index" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1925b). "Socrates, with predecessors and followers: Aristippus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 1:2. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 65–104.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1925c). "The Stoics: Zeno" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:7. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–160.
• Laërtius, Diogenes (1925d). "Epicurus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:10. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–154.
• Long, Herbert S. (1972). Introduction. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. By Laërtius, Diogenes. Vol. 1 (reprint ed.). Loeb Classical Library. p. xvi.
• Hicks, Robert Drew (1925). Introduction. Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. By Laërtius, Diogenes. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (reprint ed.). Loeb Classical Library.[clarification needed]
• Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Diogenes Laertius". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
• de la Mare, Albinia Catherine (1992). "Cosimo and his Books". In Ames-Lewis, F. (ed.). Cosimo 'il Vecchio' de' Medici, 1389–1464. Oxford.
• Strozier, Robert M. (1985), Epicurus and Hellenistic Philosophy, Lanham, Maryland and London, England: University Press of America, ISBN 978-0-8191-4405-8
• Jaeger, Werner (1947). Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture. Vol. III. Translated by Highet, Gilbert. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Tolomio, Ilario (1993). "Editions of Diogenes Laertius in the Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries". In Santinello, G.; et al. (eds.). Models of the History of Philosophy. Vol. 1. Dordrecht: Kluwer. pp. 154, ff.

Further reading

• Barnes, Jonathan. 1992. "Diogenes Laertius IX 61–116: The Philosophy of Pyrrhonism." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2: 36.5–6. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4241–4301. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.
• Barnes, Jonathan. 1986. "Nietzsche and Diogenes Laertius." Nietzsche-Studien 15:16–40.
• Dorandi, Tiziano. 2009. Laertiana: Capitoli sulla tradizione manoscritta e sulla storia del testo delle Vite dei filosofi di Diogene Laerzio. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter.
• Eshleman, Kendra Joy. 2007. "Affection and Affiliation: Social Networks and Conversion to Philosophy." The Classical Journal 103.2: 129–140.
• Grau, Sergi. 2010. "How to Kill a Philosopher: The Narrating of Ancient Greek Philosophers' Deaths in Relation to the Living. Ancient Philosophy 30.2: 347-381
• Hägg, Tomas. 2012. The Art of Biography in Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
• Kindstrand, Jan Frederik. 1986. "Diogenes Laertius and the Chreia Tradition." Elenchos 7:217–234.
• Long, Anthony A. 2006. "Diogenes Laertius, Life of Arcesilaus." In From Epicurus to Epictetus: Studies in Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy. Edited by Anthony A. Long, 96–114. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
• Mansfeld, Jaap. 1986. "Diogenes Laertius on Stoic Philosophy." Elenchos 7: 295–382.
• Mejer, Jørgen. 1978. Diogenes Laertius and his Hellenistic Background. Wiesbaden: Steiner.
• Mejer, Jørgen. 1992. "Diogenes Laertius and the Transmission of Greek Philosophy." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2: 36.5–6. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 3556–3602. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.
• Morgan, Teresa J. 2013. "Encyclopaedias of Virtue?: Collections of Sayings and Stories About Wise Men in Greek." In Encyclopaedism from Antiquity to the Renaissance. Edited by Jason König and Greg Woolf, 108–128. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Sassi, Maria Michela. 2011. Ionian Philosophy and Italic Philosophy: From Diogenes Laertius to Diels. In The Presocratics from the Latin Middle Ages to Hermann Diels. Edited by Oliver Primavesi and Katharina Luchner, 19–44. Stuttgart: Steiner.
• Sollenberger, Michael. 1992. The Lives of the Peripatetics: An Analysis of the Content and Structure of Diogenes Laertius’ “Vitae philosophorum” Book 5. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. 2: 36.5–6. Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 3793–3879. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.
• Vogt, Katja Maria, ed. 2015. Pyrrhonian Skepticism in Diogenes Laertius. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
• Warren, James. 2007. "Diogenes Laertius, Biographer of Philosophy." In Ordering Knowledge in the Roman Empire. Edited by Jason König and Tim Whitmars, 133–149. Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press.

Attribution:

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Diogenes Laërtius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 282.

External links

• Works by Diogenes Laertius at Perseus Digital Library
• Works by Diogenes Laertius in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
• Works by Diogenes Laertius at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Diogenes Laertius at Internet Archive
• Works by Diogenes Laertius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Ancient Greek text of Diogenes's Lives
• Article on the Manuscript versions at the Tertullian Project
• A bibliography of the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers
• Libro de la vita de philosophi et delle loro elegantissime sentencie. Venice, Joannes Rubeus Vercellensis, 20 May 1489. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
• Digitized Manuscript of Diogenes Laertius' Vitae Philosophorum (Arundel MS 531) at the British Library website

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Oded Golan
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/22/22

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

-- Into the Land: The Forgery Scandal, created by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier
-- King Solomon's Tablet Of Stone, directed by Sean Smith
-- Oded Golan, by Wikipedia
-- False Testament: Archaeology Refutes the Bible's Claim to History, by Daniel Lazare
-- The Bible Unearthed: The Making of a Religion, directed by Thierry Ragobert
-- The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History, by Keith W. Whitelam
-- The Age of Reason, by Thomas Paine
-- Letting Go of God, by Julia Sweeney
-- The God Delusion, by Richard Dawkins
-- Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid, by Jimmy Carter

Oded Golan (Hebrew: עודד גולן) (born 1951 in Tel Aviv) is an Israeli engineer, entrepreneur, and antiquities collector. He owns one of the largest collections of Biblical archaeology in the world.[1]

Golan was accused by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) of involvement in the forgery of one half of the James Ossuary inscription, the Jehoash Inscription and other items. Golan denied any involvement in forgery, and argued that he purchased the two items from licensed antiquities dealers in 1976 and 1999 respectively.[2]

Four other defendants were indicted along with Golan, including two of the largest antiquities dealers in Israel. In 2012, the court acquitted Golan of forgery and fraud, but convicted him of illegal trading in antiquities. [3] In late 2013, the Supreme Court ordered the State to return to Golan the James Ossuary, the Jehoash Inscription and hundreds of other items that had been confiscated by the IAA “for the purpose of investigation."[4]

Background

The son of an engineer and a professor of microbiology, Golan served as an officer in the Israel Defense Forces before studying industrial and management engineering at the Technion, graduating with honors.

He was then involved with several hi-tech ventures, developed and operated global professional training seminars and tour programs, and subsequently went on to be involved in real estate development in Israel. Since childhood, Golan has had a keen interest in archeology and antiquities. At the age of 10, during a visit to the ancient site of Tel Hatzor, he discovered the world’s oldest dictionary, which was later published by Professor Yigael Yadin. At the age of 12, Golan participated in excavations at Masada.[5]

Golan's Collection

Golan's collection, amassed over a period of more than 50 years, contains thousands of archaeological artifacts, the vast majority of which were purchased from antiquities dealers, mostly in East Jerusalem.[6]

Golan’s collection includes a wide range of artifacts which together represent the culture of Israel and TransJordan from the fifth millennium BCE to the fifth century AD.[7] Among the items that attracted international attention is the James Ossuary, the bone box possibly used to intern the bones of James, brother of Jesus.

IAA claims and trial

Following statements made by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) in June 2003 challenging the authenticity of the inscriptions or the patina on the inscriptions of the James Ossuary and the Jehoash Tablet, the IAA confiscated both items from Golan, along with hundreds of other items of antiquity, allegedly for the purposes of the investigation.

The IAA publicly stated that Golan and numerous antiquity dealers were involved in forgery, assisted by experts in ancient Semitic languages, and cautioned that according to IAA policy all items discovered outside official excavations should be suspected as being forged. Media coverage and documentary films which reported the IAA claims were accompanied by rumors, creating what Golan called a “media circus".[8]

The BBC reported that when the police took Oded Golan into custody and searched his apartment they discovered a workshop with a range of tools, materials, and half finished 'antiquities'. This was presented as evidence for an operation on a great scale. According to other allegations, collectors around the world have paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for artifacts that came through Oded Golan's associates. Dozens of these items were examined. Police then suspected that artefacts made by the same team of forgers have found their way into leading museums around the world.[9]

The documentary film The History Merchants alleged Golan (working with a team of people, including an expert in ancient semitic languages and an artisan) had produced a number of forged artifacts for sale on the religious antiquities market. In 2004, Horizon aired King Solomon's Tablet of Stone on the BBC. This program included allegations of forgery and fraudulent activity by Golan.[10]

King Solomon's Tablet Of Stone
directed by Sean Smith
Producer: Lara Acaster
Narrator: Jack Fortune
Horizon wishes to thank Israel Antiquities Authority, Tel Aviv University, Ma ariv Newspaper, Haaretz Daily Newspaper, English Edition, The City of David Visitors Center
by BBC Science & Nature
February 5, 2015

King Solomon's Tablet of Stone
by BBC Science & Nature
October 1, 2014

The authenticity of many Holy Land artefacts is thrown into doubt.



2001. A clandestine meeting of leading Israeli archaeologists are shown a remarkable artefact. It's a stone tablet, apparently from 1,000BC. The writing on its face describes repairs to the temple of King Solomon. It is the first archaeological evidence ever found of this legendary building.

The relic caused a sensation. But this was only just the start.

For authentification, the tablet was taken to the Geological Survey of Israel. Here, after a battery of tests, including radiocarbon dating, scientists officially pronounced the stone to be genuine. The tests even revealed microscopic particles of gold in the outer layer of stone. These were apparently the result of the tablet surviving the fire which, according to the bible, destroyed the temple when the Babylonians sacked Jerusalem in 586BC.

The stone tablet was offered for sale to the Israel Museum, home to many of Israel's greatest treasures. Rumours suggested the asking price was as high as $10million.

Suspicions aroused

But the museum needed to know where the stone had come from. Even its owner was a mystery. To make matters more complex, the stone itself had disappeared again. The Israeli Antiquities Authority wanted answers. A nine month search for the mysterious stranger who had first appeared with the stone eventually led them to a private detective who had been hired by a well known antiquities collector, Oded Golan.

Golan insisted he too was just a front man for another collector. But the authorities were suspicious. He was known to be the owner of the James Ossuary, another extraordinary artefact which had appeared a couple of years earlier. This was a burial box with an inscription linking it to Jesus' brother.

The authorities raided Golan's apartment and recovered both the ossuary and the elusive stone. It was time to establish once and for all if both were genuine. So they set up a committee of linguists and scientists to examine them.

Looking at the stone, several linguists said 'fake'. Some of the Hebrew, they claimed, was not ancient. Other experts claimed that so little is known of ancient Hebrew that it's impossible to be sure.

The geological evidence

The committee turned to geology. Dr Yuval Goren, a geo-archaeologist and head of the Archaeological Institute at Tel-Aviv University, soon found evidence that a team of sophisticated forgers had led the earlier experts astray.

• The patina on the stone had in fact been manufactured artificially
• The charcoal particles which produced the convincing radiocarbon date had been added by hand
• The gold fragments hinting at an ancient fire were a clever final addition

The authorities presented their conclusions. They announced that the stone tablet, and the James Ossuary, were elaborate fakes.

But who was producing these fakes and how? Dr Goren decided to piece together how the stone tablet had been made. He tracked the origin of the stone itself - apparently a building block taken from a Crusader castle. It was even possible to work out how the fake patina had been manufactured and the ingredients used. What was clear was the team of forgers included experts in a range of disciplines.

More fakes suspected

When the police took Oded Golan into custody and searched his apartment they discovered a workshop with a range of tools, materials, and half finished 'antiquities'. This was evidence for an operation of a scale far greater than they had suspected.

Investigators have established that collectors around the world have paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for artefacts that came through Oded Golan's associates. Dozens of these items have now been examined by Dr Goren, and all have been revealed to be forgeries. Police now suspect that artefacts made by the same team of forgers have found their way into leading museums around the world.

Some archaeologists have now concluded that everything that came to market in the last 20 years without clear provenance should be considered a fake. Many of these objects, like the stone tablet which started the investigation, were cynically playing on the desire of many of the collectors to see the bible confirmed as history. For those in search of the temple of Solomon - their goal is as far away as ever.

On December 29, 2004, Golan was indicted in an Israeli court along with three antiquities dealers; Robert Deutsch, one of Israel’s most important licensed antiquities dealer and an inscriptions expert who has lectured at the University of Haifa; dealer and conservator Refael Braun; and dealer Shlomo Cohen; Faiz al-Amla, a Palestinian dealer from the village of Beit Ula in the Hebron Hills was charged with trading in antiquities without a license. Early in the trial, charges were dropped against Braun and Cohen,[11] leaving Golan and Deutsch as the only defendants.

Golan denied any involvement in forgery and argued that he had purchased the inscriptions from licensed antiquities dealers. In the trial, Golan presented evidence that proved that he had purchased the James Ossuary in 1976 and the Jehoash Table in 1999.[12][13][14] Golan stated that to the best of his understanding and judgment, these are authentic ancient inscriptions.

Court ruling and acquittal

In a trial that lasted almost eight years (2004-2012), the District Court of Jerusalem heard testimony relating to the authenticity of the inscriptions on the James Ossuary and the Jehoash Tablet from over 50 experts from a wide range of fields, who examined the inscriptions and submitted dozens of scientific reports, and 70 other witnesses including antiquities dealers and well-known collectors. Trial transcripts covered over 12,000 pages, and the court ruling was 438 pages long.[15]

Trial aftermath

The IAA announced that they accept the court’s ruling.[16] The State accepted the main decision of the District Court and did not appeal against the judgment. After the judgment, the State moved to confiscate the James Ossuary and the Jehoash Tablet for the State Treasury, arguing that these items may well be of enormous historic, religious and archeological significance and therefore should not remain in private hands. The District Court and the Supreme Court denied this motion and ordered the State to return to Golan all the antiquities that had been taken from him. The James Ossuary and the Jehoash Tablet, as well as hundreds of other antiquities, were returned to Golan in late 2013.[17][18]

Further reading

Nina Burleigh, (2008): Unholy Business: A True Tale of Faith, Greed and Forgery in the Holy Land

See also

• Three shekel ostracon

Three shekel ostracon
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/22/22

The three shekel ostracon is a pottery fragment bearing a forged text supposedly dating from between the 7th and 9th century BCE.[1] It is 8.6 centimeters high and 10.9 centimeters wide and contains five lines of ancient Hebrew writing.[2] The inscription mentions a king named Ashyahu [x]) donating three shekels (about 20–50 grams of silver) to the House of Yahweh. No king named Ashyahu is mentioned in the Bible, but some scholars believe it may refer to Jehoash ([x]), who ruled Judea 802–787 BCE.[3]

The ostracon was purchased by Shlomo Moussaieff from the Jerusalem antiquities dealer Oded Golan. Doubts about the authenticity of this and other artefacts sold by Golan began to be expressed in the late 1990s, and in 2003 Professor Christopher Rollston, a leading authority on Northwest Semitic inscriptions, said he is "confident beyond a reasonable doubt" that the "three shekel ostracon" is a forgery.[4] The same negative conclusion was reached on the basis of scientific examination of the patina.[5]

Text

‎
According to your order, Ashyahu the king, to give by the hand of [Z]ekaryahu silver of Tarshish for the House of Yahweh three shekels.[6][2]

See also

• House of Yahweh ostracon

References

1. John Noble Wilford Published: November 11, 1997 (1997-11-11). "Temple Receipt for a 3-Shekel Donor - New York Times". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2012-06-26. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
2. Jump up to:a b "Byt Yhwh Ostracon". Kchanson.com. 2007-04-18. Archived from the original on 2012-07-28. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
3. Stieglitz, Robert. "Ashyahu: He's Josiah | The BAS Library". Members.bib-arch.org. Archived from the original on 2014-08-21. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
4. "The Moussaieff Ostraca, Bibliographic Notes". Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
5. Yuval Goren, Miryam Bar-Matthews, Avner Ayalon and Bettina Schilman (2005). "Authenticity Examination of Two Iron Age Ostraca from the Moussaieff Collection". Israel Exploration Journal. 55 (1): 21–34.
6. Translation according to Shanks, Hershel: "Three Shekels for the Lord. Ancient Inscription Records Gift to Solomon's Temple Archived 2019-01-16 at the Wayback Machine." Biblical Archaeology Review 23.6 (Nov/Dec 1997) 28-32.

Notes

1. Books written on the subject included: ‘The Brother of Jesus’ by Hershel Shanks and Ben Witherington, ‘Resurrecting the Brother of Jesus’, edited by Byrne & Mcnary-zak, ‘The Jesus Family Tomb’ by Jacobovici and Pellegrino, and ‘The Jehoash Tablet: King Jehoash and the Mystery of the Temple of Solomon Inscription’ by By Prof. Victor Sasson. Films created for Discovery on the subject included ‘James, Brother of Jesus’ (2003), ‘The Jesus Discovery/The Resurrection Tomb Mystery’ (2012), and ‘The Lost Tomb of Jesus’ (2007).

References

1. Hasson, Nir (2012-03-30). "Israeli Antiquities Collector Talks About His Trial – and His Acquittal". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2016-03-15. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
2. "Oded Golan: I never faked any antiquity". jpost.com. June 12, 2009. Archived from the original on March 14, 2016. Retrieved March 14, 2016.
3. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
4. Hasson, Nir (2013-10-17). "Ending a 7-year Saga Court: Israel Must Return Biblical-era 'Jehoash's Tablet' to Owner". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2016-03-15. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
5. Kalman, Matthew (8 April 2012). "Why I believe this box contains Jesus's brother". Express.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
6. Section 1211, p.411, http://www.news1.co.il/uploadFiles/485637843608857.doc
7. Hasson, Nir (2012-03-30). "Israeli Antiquities Collector Talks About His Trial – and His Acquittal". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2016-03-15. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
8. Randall, Michael. "The Bible and Interpretation". http://www.bibleinterp.com. Original design: Andreas Viklund. Archived from the original on 2019-12-09. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
9. "BBC - Science & Nature - Horizon". Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
10. "King Solomon's Tablet of Stone". Archived from the original on 15 October 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
11. Thomas D. Bazley (2010). Crimes of the Art World. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-313-36047-3.
12. Sections 231-48 and 555-64, p.95-102 and 183-8, http://www.news1.co.il/uploadFiles/485637843608857.doc Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
13. "Forged in faith". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Archived from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
14. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-05-13. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
15. P.12, http://www.news1.co.il/uploadFiles/485637843608857.doc
16. "Israel Antiquities Authority". http://www.antiquities.org.il. Archived from the original on 2016-04-21. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
17. חסון, ניר (2013-10-17). "סוף לסאגת לוח יהואש: העליון הורה למדינה להשיבו לאספן עודד גולן" [End to the saga of the Jehoash Tablet: The Supreme Court ordered the state to return it to collector Oded Golan]. הארץ (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 2016-03-08. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
18. "Israel Antiquities Authority Returns "Jesus Brother" Bone Box to Owner - Biblical Archaeology Society". Biblical Archaeology Society. 11 November 2013. Archived from the original on 2016-04-02. Retrieved 2016-03-29.

External links

• Alleged forger of Holy Land antiquities held 23/07/2003, Haaretz,
• "Written in Stone," David Samuels, A Reporter at Large, The New Yorker, April 12, 2004, p. 48
• Oded Golan's refutation of the documentary's claims
• Review of The History Merchants
• UK Daily Telegraph investigative article (May 2005)
• The art of authentic forgery by Nadav Shragai, 14/04/2008 Haaretz,
• King Solomon's Tablet of Stone
• The Authenticity of the James Ossuary and the Jehoash Tablet Inscriptions – Summary of Expert Trial Witnesses, Oded Golan (2011)

[admin]

Part 1 of 4

Into the Land: The Forgery Scandal
Created by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier
Research and Script by Natan Odenheimer
Narrated by Natan Odenheimer
Times of Israel
Jul 22, 2022

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO READ THE COPYRIGHT NOTICE AT THIS LINK BEFORE YOU READ THE FOLLOWING WORK, THAT IS AVAILABLE SOLELY FOR PRIVATE STUDY, SCHOLARSHIP OR RESEARCH PURSUANT TO 17 U.S.C. SECTION 107 AND 108. IN THE EVENT THAT THE LIBRARY DETERMINES THAT UNLAWFUL COPYING OF THIS WORK HAS OCCURRED, THE LIBRARY HAS THE RIGHT TO BLOCK THE I.P. ADDRESS AT WHICH THE UNLAWFUL COPYING APPEARED TO HAVE OCCURRED. THANK YOU FOR RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF COPYRIGHT OWNERS.

-- Into the Land: The Forgery Scandal, created by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier
-- King Solomon's Tablet Of Stone, directed by Sean Smith
-- Oded Golan, by Wikipedia
-- False Testament: Archaeology Refutes the Bible's Claim to History, by Daniel Lazare
-- The Bible Unearthed: The Making of a Religion, directed by Thierry Ragobert
-- The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History, by Keith W. Whitelam
-- The Age of Reason, by Thomas Paine
-- Letting Go of God, by Julia Sweeney
-- The God Delusion, by Richard Dawkins
-- Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid, by Jimmy Carter

Highlights:

This man comes to me one day, he's an antiquities dealer. And this guy tells me he's got this find. His story was that he got it from a Palestinian antiquities dealer in East Jerusalem. He tells me, "It's one of the most important finds for the State of Israel." It's a stone, inscribed with specifications for renovating the Holy Temple. And if that's true, if it's authentic, it could be one of the greatest archaeological finds ever. He asked me to take the stone, and my mission was to go around and show it to whoever it needed to be shown to, and then disappear with it immediately so no one would know it existed until it got some sort of seal of authenticity....

It had an inscription that mentions historical figures that every child knows from reading the Bible...

Not only does it mention King Jehoash from the Bible, it also details constructions and renovations in the Holy Temple. If true, it's the only physical proof for the existence of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, and supports the Jewish claim for the most contested hilltop in the Middle East....

The ossuary, a small stone bone box with an inscription that reads, "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus," attracted top experts from all over the world who came to observe the item up close in disbelief. Some experts were excited, even suggesting that the ossuary may hold specks of Jesus's DNA....

It's done beautifully. If it's forged, it's by a genius....

The people that got really riled up were the then-heads of the Israel Antiquities Authority. And suddenly they were talking about fake....

You know, there is enough money to be made by everyone who is involved with antiquities that he doesn't need to make fakes. But some people are too greedy....

There's a very, very sophisticated manipulation here that someone carried out today, to create an artifact that is ostensibly ancient, and ultimately make a lot of money from it....

Coincidentally, both investigations led to one man....

His name is Oded Golan....

"I bought the ossuary when I was a university student at the Technion from an antiquities dealer in Silwan... [A]lmost all the Jameses in the world are named after him, from James Bond to James Baker, to many other people, of course, with that name.... The stone itself had been in an antiquities dealer's shop for a very long time.... And the IAA wasn't even interested! It didn't set off a warning bell, let alone an alarm, or anything like that."...

How much did you pay for it? Are you free to say?

"First of all, I'm not at liberty to say."...

Even the Israel Museum got involved in some sort of negotiation to buy one of these artifacts.

Front-page news around the world. And the IAA wasn't part of it, right? ... And they didn't even know what was happening. So, one way to look at it, was that the reason they got so aggressive with Oded Golan, and on the whole issue, was because they were embarrassed. They're supposed to be the experts. Nobody kept them in the loop...

"[H]ow is it that the State of Israel's most important items are exported to an exhibition abroad, and these items weren't even found in an official archaeological excavation? And that frustration later turned into a desire to confiscate these items, and seize them from me without any compensation."...

[O]nly after searching his parents' home did they find the ossuary. The Jehoash Inscription was nowhere to be found. Under pressure, Golan agreed to bring in the inscription for examination, hoping he wouldn't be charged with any crime in return. ...

The Materials Committee determined quite clearly, based on scientific parameters, that the Jehoash Inscription was forged. When it came to the ossuary, there was a question as to whether part of the inscription was authentically ancient, and another part was added later on....

"And what they wanted, in effect, was to take the important items from me."...

In my opinion, this is just the tip of the iceberg. No one -- listen carefully to what I say -- has contradicted the findings of the committees to this date, not in this country, or anywhere else. The Jehoash Inscription was offered to the Israel Museum for $4 million. And it's nothing more than a stone....Indiana Jones pales by comparison....

The prosecution claimed that together with top-tier dealers, including the former chief renovator of the Israel Museum, Golan had led an international network of forgers for over 20 years....

And they came up with pseudo-scholarly things, "Look, you know, it doesn't look right. It's a dot. No, it's a scratch."...

Soon, a trial that had started as a criminal investigation unfolded into an academic symposium, with over 120 witnesses, many of whom were world-renowned geologists, archaeologists, chemists, geochemists, linguists, epigraphers, polygraphers, Bible experts, as well as the former head of one of the FBI's forensic labs. ...

If they appeared as exhibits in a court case, and experts renowned throughout the world, some of them said they were genuine, and some said they were fake, then they are good forgeries. If they are forgeries, then they are good forgeries....

There's no dispute: This was the work of consummate artists....

The experts disagree....

Ultimately, the judge said, "Look, my dear friends from the academia, I'm a judge, I know how to judge by evidence. I can't determine for scientists whether their scientific conclusions are correct or not."...

Over time, I learned that this world of archaeological excavations and findings is a world full of what we like to call "monkey business."...

Ten years on, the institutional conviction is that both items were at least partially forged.

-- Into the Land: The Forgery Scandal, Created by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier

Does a private individual hold two of the most important archeological items ever discovered in Israel? In 2002, antiquities collector Oded Golan was accused of forging two items of the highest importance: the ossuary of James, brother of Jesus, and the Jehoash Inscription - the only physical proof of Solomon’s Temple. Twenty years on, after repeated expert examination, it’s still unclear if these items are authentic or fake.

In this second episode of The Times of Israel’s new, original ‘Into the Land’ docuseries, we explore the international controversy behind this alleged archeological forgery -- and the uncertainty and interests that appear inherent to historical verification.



Transcript



[Tzaki Tzuriel, Private Investigator hired by antiquities collector Oded Golan.] This man comes to me one day, he's an antiquities dealer. And this guy tells me he's got this find.



His story was that he got it from a Palestinian antiquities dealer in East Jerusalem.



He tells me, "It's one of the most important finds for the State of Israel." It's a stone, inscribed with specifications for renovating the Holy Temple. And if that's true, if it's authentic, it could be one of the greatest archaeological finds ever.



He asked me to take the stone, and my mission was to go around and show it to whoever it needed to be shown to, and then disappear with it immediately so no one would know it existed until it got some sort of seal of authenticity. One day, I'm sitting in my office, I hear a knock on my door, "Hello, we're from the Israel Antiquities Authority." And they ask me, "Do you know Oded Golan?" I said yes. They took out a camera like this one, and started questioning me. I know that later on Oded Golan was put on trial. Truth is, I'd love to hear where this stone is, what happened to it, and is it really authentic?

NARRATOR: For millions of people of different faiths the authentification of the Stone Tablet was a fantastic affirmation of their belief. Here was a genuine archaeological find that correlated almost word for word with a biblical episode that happened nearly 3,000 years ago. But for the stone itself, the next stage was to find a fitting home. And one place seemed ideal: the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. This remarkable museum is home to a stunning collection of biblical antiquities. They have the Dead Sea Scrolls, the most important biblical manuscripts in existence. They also have Israel's only other royal inscription from close to the time of Solomon -- The 'House of David' Stele. This is the only reference to Solomon's father, David, that exists outside the bible. The Stone would be a fitting companion for these priceless artefacts.

JAMES SNYDER: We would of course be interested in acquiring something if we felt that it would help to amplify the story which our museum is meant to tell, and our story is the story of biblical archaeology in the ancient Holy Land, so if something were to surface of great significance for the full telling of that story we would be interested.

NARRATOR: With its authenticity confirmed the stone was offered for sale to the Israel Museum. The price was rumoured to be high.

BOAZ GAON: There was a series of meetings with the Israel Museum, initial negotiations going on between the two parties, all sorts of sums are thrown around. It's difficult to know exactly what the sum was at that point -- some people say three million, some people say four million, some people say ten million.

NARRATOR: But before the museum would part with several million dollars, it wanted to know just one more thing -- where exactly had the stone been found? The Bible said that Solomon's temple had been situated on Jerusalem's temple mount. So the stone must have come from there originally.

JAMES SNYDER: If an object is excavated then you have a much simpler time verifying its authenticity because you are taking it from its source of excavation.

NARRATOR: However, there are no official excavations on the Temple Mount -- because it is home to one of Islam's holiest shrines, the Dome of the Rock. The whole area is politically far too sensitive for archaeology. Still, rumours said the stone had been found in rubble left from recent illegal building projects being carried out on the Temple Mount. But James Snyder needed more than rumour. He wanted the full story of the stone after it had been found.

JAMES SNYDER: You want to be able to track the history of the object from the time of its excavation, if it is possible to do so, through its history of ownership until it comes to you.

NARRATOR: It was then that the saga of the stone became very mysterious indeed. Just when the museum wanted to do their own checks, both the private investigator who had first revealed it -- and the stone -- disappeared.

NARRATOR: So Amir Ganor an investigator with the Israeli Antiquities Authority was called in. For nine months he searched for the man who had first taken the stone to the Jerusalem hotel.

AMIR GANOR: (VO translation): We travelled all over Israel from the north to the south. That detective was a very wily person, he left us very few clues. In the end we found him in an office in Ramat Gan and he told us that he'd been hired by Oded Golan.

NARRATOR: Oded Golan is a businessman and renowned collector, owner of Israel's largest private collection of antiquities. He explained that he wasn't the owner of the stone and that he didn't know where it was. He had just been involved as a middleman.

-- King Solomon's Tablet Of Stone, directed by Sean Smith

So what tipped off the investigators? "We got some information in September 2002 about a stone with an inscription about the third temple of Joash in Jerusalem," says Amir Ganor, head of investigations at the IAA. "This stone would be very important to the Jewish people and to the antiquities community." At that point the investigators were looking for a rumoured relic, not a forgery. Informers said that it had been offered to several institutions, including the Israel museum. "We heard that some guy, ex-Shin Bet [the Israeli security service], had been showing the stone, but we didn't know anything more," says Ganor.

The IAA eventually discovered the identity of the former security service man (How? "Using our methods," says Ganor), who in turn led them to Oded Golan, a leading Israeli collector and one of the five men alleged by the IAA to be part of the forgery ring. Israel's Ha'aretz newspaper describes Golan as a 51-year-old production engineer, based in Tel Aviv, who has worked in engineering, tourism, real estate, and who now describes himself as the "head of a of a hi-tech company". He told the IAA that he collects antiquities as a hobby, and has been doing so since the age of 14. A search of Golan's home took place in February 2003. "We found a lot of documents about the stone, and pictures, but not the stone itself," says Ganor. "Oded said that he was not the owner, but was representing some Arab guy." One month later, threatened with another search warrant for another of his premises, Golan handed over the stone.

-- Israel Faking it: The discovery that ancient artefacts sacred to Jewish history are forgeries has sent shockwaves through the museum world. But was the gang behind the scam only interested in cash, or did they have other motives?, by Rachel Shabi

The Times of Israel
Is the James Ossuary for Real?
by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier

***

Court: Israel Can't hold Jehoash tablet
by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier

***

Dealer is fined for illegal trading
by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier

***

Antiquities fraud case continues in court
by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier

***

Surprising end to antiquities case
by Eiv Kristal and Natan Odenheier

The Times of Israel presents an original docuseries

Into the Land: The Forgery Scandal

[Narrator] Twenty years ago, two seemingly unrelated archaeological finds surfaced in Israel. Both items were of unprecedented importance. That was the starting point to what turned into the biggest archaeology-related scandal in the history of the country.



[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] I documented it before the world knew about it.



I got this scoop, I brought the tools of an investigative journalist, you know, how do we know it's not forged? And then I saw the difference between what was really happening, and how it was being manipulated and reported.





[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] There were reports about an artifact circulating among collectors in the antiquities market, about how it was of great significance, because it had an inscription that mentions historical figures that every child knows from reading the Bible.

2002

Item 01

The Jehoash Inscription

[Narrator] The first of the two items, known as The Jehoash Inscription, is an ancient Hebrew tablet, made of heavy dark stone.

[ I]t's nothing more than a stone. I suggest you follow this affair as it plays out in court.It's going to be very special. Indiana Jones pales by comparison. -- Yehoshua (Shuka) Dorfman, Head of the IAA, 2000-2014

Not only does it mention King Jehoash from the Bible, it also details constructions and renovations in the Holy Temple.





If true, it's the only physical proof for the existence of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, and supports the Jewish claim for the most contested hilltop in the Middle East.

[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] Is it authentic? Is it really from 2,000 years ago? That's one story. The second story, which miraculously unfolded at the exact same time ...



[Lenny Wolfe, Antiquities Dealer] I heard about it from one of the dealers that said to me, "there's an ossuary on the marketplace."

[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] And I said, "What's an ossuary?"



And he said, "It's a bone box, and on it it says, "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus."



Front page news around the world, the first concrete, carved in stone proof that Jesus even existed.

Item 02

The James Ossuary

Biblical Archaeology Review
World Exclusive!
The Ossuary of Jesus' Brother James
Spectacular Find in Jerusalem

[Narrator] The news made headlines around the world, and shortly after, the ossuary was displayed as a centerpiece in a blockbuster exhibition at Toronto's Royal Ontario Museum. The ossuary, a small stone bone box with an inscription that reads, "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus," attracted top experts from all over the world who came to observe the item up close in disbelief.



Some experts were excited, even suggesting that the ossuary may hold specks of Jesus's DNA. But others were skeptical, immediately raising questions about its authenticity.



[Expert] It's done beautifully. If it's forged, it's by a genius.



[Robert Hager, NBC News] Could the box, just now coming to public attention, really have once held the bones of that James?

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Part 2 of 4

[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] Did we really discover the real tomb? Of course, this aroused great interest.

[Narrator] And there were those who were not just skeptical, but downright upset.

[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] The people that got really riled up were the then-heads of the Israel Antiquities Authority.



And suddenly they were talking about fake.

[Narrator] The IAA manages all official archaeological excavations, and oversees the antiquities market. Some call them the police of archaeology, and generally speaking, they don't like to see archaeological items in the hands of private collectors.



[Lenny Wolfe, Antiquities Dealer] You know, there is enough money to be made by everyone who is involved with antiquities that he doesn't need to make fakes.



But some people are too greedy.



[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] There's a very, very sophisticated manipulation here that someone carried out today, to create an artifact that is ostensibly ancient, and ultimately make a lot of money from it. And that's when it becomes a police/criminal matter.

[Narrator] The magnitude of these items, together with their peculiar appearance, raised suspicions of illegal activities, which led the IAA to initiate two separate investigations: the first, to trace down the mysterious Jehoash Inscription, whose whereabouts were still unknown, and a second, to look into the origins of the ossuary.



Coincidentally, both investigations led to one man.



[Tzaki Tzuriel, Private Investigator hired by antiquities collector Oded Golan.] He's a quiet person, talks a lot through his nose. Seeing him on the street, you'd think he was a metalworker, or an electrician. His name is Oded Golan.





[Oded Golan, Private Collector] I started collecting antiques at a very young age, I think when I was about eight, something like that. I doubt there is anyone else in Israel, and when I say anyone, I'm talking about archaeologists who've been working in the profession for 30, 40 years, who has seen the things I've seen.



[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] Oded Golan, he's an authentic collector with a passion for the stuff that he buys.

Jiri Frel was a Czech and American archaeologist. Between 1973 and 1986 he served as a curator for the J. Paul Getty Museum. He is credited with the expansion of the collection of antiquities of the museum, but he was also involved in a number of controversies, including a tax manipulation scheme to buy artifacts of dubious provenance and purchase of a number of artifacts widely considered to be fake.

-- Jiri Frel [Jiri Frohlich], by Wikipedia

***

In 1982, [Marion] True joined The Getty as a curatorial assistant and later became a curator in 1986....

In 2005, True was indicted by the Italian government, along with renowned American antiquities dealer, Robert E. Hecht, for conspiracy to traffic in illicit antiquities. She was accused of participating in a conspiracy that laundered stolen objects through private collection in order to create a fake paper trail that would serve as the items' provenance.

-- Marion True, by Wikipedia

***

Robert Emmanuel Hecht, Jr. (3 June 1919 – 8 February 2012) was an American antiquities art dealer based in Paris... [He] was a naval officer during World War II, and after it spent a stint as interpreter at the War Crimes Investigation in Nuremberg ...

In 2005 Hecht was indicted by the Italian government, together with Marion True, the former curator of antiquities at the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, for conspiracy to traffic in illegal antiquities. The primary evidence in the case came from the 1995 raid of a Geneva, Switzerland warehouse which had contained a fortune in stolen artifacts.

Italian art dealer Giacomo Medici was eventually arrested in 1997; his operation was thought to be "one of the largest and most sophisticated antiquities networks in the world, responsible for illegally digging up and spiriting away thousands of top-drawer pieces and passing them on to the most elite end of the international art market". Medici was sentenced in 2004 by a Rome court to ten years in prison and a fine of 10 million euros, "the largest penalty ever meted out for antiquities crime in Italy".

-- Robert E. Hecht, by Wikipedia

[Lenny Wolfe, Antiquities Dealer] My initial impression of him was that he was a serious collector. I sold him some pieces.



[Oded Golan, Private Collector] I bought the ossuary when I was a university student at the Technion from an antiquities dealer in Silwan.

Silwan or Siloam is a predominantly Palestinian neighborhood in East Jerusalem, on the outskirts of the Old City of Jerusalem. It is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament; in the latter it is the location of Jesus' healing the man blind from birth.

-- Silwan, by Wikipedia

It's a very simple ossuary. What intrigued me was that it had a Hebrew inscription. By the way, this is the ossuary, as you can imagine. You can move it to the stage if you want. Jacob, Diego in Spanish, and James in English.



In fact, almost all the Jameses in the world are named after him, from James Bond to James Baker, to many other people, of course, with that name.

[Item 01: The Jehoash Inscription. Men move the 2 boxes to a table] Yes, better that way, leave it with the gap. Great.



[Narrator] When you first saw this item, were you excited?

[Oded Golan, Private Collector] Very much. Very much. The stone itself had been in an antiquities dealer's shop for a very long time.



I asked to see the antiquities dealer's inventory report, and it turned out that in his inventory report, he noted that he had an inscribed stone, that's what he wrote, [Arabic] hajar maktub.



And the IAA wasn't even interested! It didn't set off a warning bell, let alone an alarm, or anything like that. So it was in his inventory.

[Narrator] How much did you pay for it? Are you free to say?



[Oded Golan, Private Collector] First of all, I'm not at liberty to say. But circumstances were much more complicated than the matter of how much I paid.

ODED GOLAN: Sometime during 1999 I was called by a very reliable Palestinian dealer that I knew for many many years who ask me to assist him in selling an inscription. It seemed to be very interesting and I was ready to assist him only under one condition, that it will be offered only within Israel and to a museum in Israel after they will authentisize it.

NARRATOR: Golan said that the owner hadn't wanted to be identified, which was why he'd hired a private detective. However, the owner had since died and his widow had the stone. But she was somewhere in the occupied territories and Golan didn't know how to contact her. But Oded Golan did reveal one vital piece of information -- where the stone had been discovered.

ODED GOLAN: It was found very near to the Eastern Wall in the Muslim cemetery in Old Jerusalem outside the Temple Mount.

NARRATOR: It was stunning news. Here was confirmation that the stone had been unearthed just yards from where the Bible said that Solomon's Temple had once stood.

-- King Solomon's Tablet Of Stone, directed by Sean Smith

So what tipped off the investigators? "We got some information in September 2002 about a stone with an inscription about the third temple of Joash in Jerusalem," says Amir Ganor, head of investigations at the IAA. "This stone would be very important to the Jewish people and to the antiquities community." At that point the investigators were looking for a rumoured relic, not a forgery. Informers said that it had been offered to several institutions, including the Israel museum. "We heard that some guy, ex-Shin Bet [the Israeli security service], had been showing the stone, but we didn't know anything more," says Ganor.

The IAA eventually discovered the identity of the former security service man (How? "Using our methods," says Ganor), who in turn led them to Oded Golan, a leading Israeli collector and one of the five men alleged by the IAA to be part of the forgery ring. Israel's Ha'aretz newspaper describes Golan as a 51-year-old production engineer, based in Tel Aviv, who has worked in engineering, tourism, real estate, and who now describes himself as the "head of a of a hi-tech company". He told the IAA that he collects antiquities as a hobby, and has been doing so since the age of 14. A search of Golan's home took place in February 2003. "We found a lot of documents about the stone, and pictures, but not the stone itself," says Ganor. "Oded said that he was not the owner, but was representing some Arab guy." One month later, threatened with another search warrant for another of his premises, Golan handed over the stone.

-- Israel Faking it: The discovery that ancient artefacts sacred to Jewish history are forgeries has sent shockwaves through the museum world. But was the gang behind the scam only interested in cash, or did they have other motives?, by Rachel Shabi

[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] These two artifacts were eventually shown to the public. They were photographed, displayed.



Even the Israel Museum got involved in some sort of negotiation to buy one of these artifacts.

[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] Front-page news around the world. And the IAA wasn't part of it, right? People ask, so what do you think?



And they didn't even know what was happening. So, one way to look at it, was that the reason they got so aggressive with Oded Golan, and on the whole issue, was because they were embarrassed. They're supposed to be the experts. Nobody kept them in the loop.



[Oded Golan, Private Collector] Especially when they were asked, how is it that the State of Israel's most important items are exported to an exhibition abroad, and these items weren't even found in an official archaeological excavation?

[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] In the IAA, there's an Antiquities Robbery Prevention Unit that, among other things, oversees the antiquities market and private collectors.



[Oded Golan, Private Collector] And that frustration later turned into a desire to confiscate these items, and seize them from me without any compensation.

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Part 3 of 4

[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] The IAA wasn't sure what to do. It could have said, there's something suspicious here, we advise against treating these items as authentic artifacts, and leave it at that.

[Narrator] Instead, the IAA and Israeli police raided Golan's home, office and storage unit, confiscating hundreds of items.



But only after searching his parents' home did they find the ossuary. The Jehoash Inscription was nowhere to be found.



Under pressure, Golan agreed to bring in the inscription for examination, hoping he wouldn't be charged with any crime in return. It didn't end there.

When police searched Golan's apartment they found a hidden workshop filled with tools and half made artefacts.

There was this large dark stone -- very like the stone used for the Temple of Solomon Inscription. Then there were these tools, including a drill and drill bits. And there were also boxes of soil that could be used in a fake patina. But what was most suspicious were the artefacts. Some were in the early stages of preparation, like this casting for a bronze statue. And some appeared finished, like these royal seals, or bullae.

-- King Solomon's Tablet Of Stone, directed by Sean Smith

[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority] Mainly because of the vast public interest in Israel and worldwide, the IAA director at the time eventually decided to set up two professional expert committees.

[Narrator] The first committee was made up of natural scientists, and tested the material aspects of the items. The second committee, spearheaded by Professor Avni, was populated by scholars of ancient languages and script.





[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority, Head of the IAA's Content & Writing Committee] And this led to a long and complex scientific testing process. The Materials Committee determined quite clearly, based on scientific parameters, that the Jehoash Inscription was forged.



When it came to the ossuary, there was a question as to whether part of the inscription was authentically ancient, and another part was added later on. And there were several disagreements on that. The Content and Writing Committee failed to reach an unequivocal conclusion.

[Librarian's Comment: Contrast increased to show how the word "Ashoka" was added to the end of the first line in a rough-uneven area that the original writer was careful to avoid with respect to the entirety of the remaining inscription, that has all been rendered on the flattest-available portions of the rock face. If stones could speak, this one would cry "foul!"]



Maski is a town and an archaeological site in the Raichur district of the state of Karnataka, India. It lies on the bank of the Maski river which is a tributary of the Tungabhadra. Maski derives its name from Mahasangha or Masangi. The site came into prominence with the discovery of a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka by C. Beadon in 1915. It was the first edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Ashoka in it instead of the earlier edicts that referred him as Devanampiye piyadasi. This edict was important to conclude that many edicts found earlier in the Indian sub-continent in the name of Devanampiye piyadasi, all belonged to Emperor Ashoka....

The Maski version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 was historically especially important in that it confirmed the association of the title "Devanampriya" ("Beloved-of-the-Gods") with Ashoka:

[A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka.
Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a Buddha-Sakya.
[A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the Samgha and have shown zeal.
Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in Jambudvipa, have how become mingled (with them).
This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality.
One must not think thus, — (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this.
Both the lowly and the exalted must be told: "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half.

— Maski Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka.

-- Maski, by Wikipedia

[Oded Golan, Private Collector] That was the breaking point on this matter. The court ruled that they must give me back all the items unless they file a lawsuit against me by a certain date. And that's essentially what pushed the State of Israel, or the IAA, to file an indictment on a certain date. For if they hadn't filed an indictment, they would have had to return all the items back to me.



And what they wanted, in effect, was to take the important items from me.



[Yehoshua (Shuka) Dorfman, Head of the IAA, 2000-2014] In my opinion, this is just the tip of the iceberg.



No one -- listen carefully to what I say -- has contradicted the findings of the committees to this date, not in this country, or anywhere else. The Jehoash Inscription was offered to the Israel Museum for $4 million.



And it's nothing more than a stone. I suggest you follow this affair as it plays out in court.



It's going to be very special. Indiana Jones pales by comparison.

[Indiana Jones] One of the great dangers of archaeology -- not to life and limb, although that does sometimes take place -- no, I'm talking about folklore. Any questions, then?

-- Raiders of the Lost Ark, directed by Steven Spielberg, starring Harrison Ford

[Dr. Gideon Avni, Head of the Archaeological Division, Israeli Antiquities Authority, Head of the IAA's Content & Writing Committee] It's one of the more interesting cases, because the judge was required to rule on a matter of an academic and scientific nature.

[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] They said they had smoking guns. They went not just after Oded Golan, but after a whole bunch of people.



[Narrator] And so began the first and only forgery trial in Israel.





The prosecution claimed that together with top-tier dealers, including the former chief renovator of the Israel Museum, Golan had led an international network of forgers for over 20 years. As the trial unfolded, evidence to support this conspiracy theory fizzled out, so instead, the prosecution focused on proving the inscription and the ossuary had been forged.

[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] You know, the "anti" forces said the ossuary is real. The first part of the inscription is real: Jacob, son of Joseph. But this crafty collector added the words, "Achui de Yeshua', the brother of Jesus.



And they came up with pseudo-scholarly things, "Look, you know, it doesn't look right.



It's a dot. No, it's a scratch."

In addition to his excavation activities, Luigi Pernier was also employed in Florence as an antiques inspector. His jurisdiction included the city's archaeological museum. Finds from the Etruscan period have pride of place in the collection here. The Etruscans were among the most powerful people around the Mediterranean. Paola Rendini is a specialist in a Etruscan script. In the magazine, Dr. Rendini and the museum director study one of the most valuable items, the Magliano Disc. It represents one of the most important examples of Etruscan script. Today, the 70 words can be read, while in the days of Luigi Pernier this was not possible. At eight centimeters in diameter, it is half the size of the Phaistos Disc. The words and sentence sections are separated by dots, while on the Phaistos Disc, vertical lines are used.

[url=x]-- Was Europe's First Advanced Civilization Faked? The Secret of the Phaistos Code, A Film by Michael Gregor[/url]

Diamonds and squares with dots and dashes ― French archaeologists came across these geometric characters as early as 1903 when they were excavating ancient ruins in the city of Susa in southwestern Iran. Researchers quickly realized that the language was one of the four oldest scripts known to humankind, along with Mesopotamian cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphics and the Indus script. The Elamite civilization used the writing system during the Bronze Age in the late 3rd and early 2nd millennia BCE. The characters were given the name "Linear Elamite."

-- Mysterious ancient script finally deciphered?, by Katrin Ewert. dw.com

[Oded Golan, Private Collector] By the way, it makes no sense to forge a long inscription such as the Jehoash Inscription, because the longer the inscription, the higher the chance of catching the so-called "forger" in some blunder. There is no practical way to forge elements found on this specific inscription.

[Narrator] Golan's claim here refers to the patina: a thin layer that forms on stone and metal over time. Some experts argued that Golan had fabricated the patina, so as to fake the items' antiquity. However, there were other experts, including one of the founders of geomircrobiology, Professor Wolfgang E. Krumbein, who testified in court, asserting the patina is authentic.

Addendum: Final blow or just a blow?

Avner Ayalon* and Yuval Goren**

* Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem, Israel.
** Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel-Aviv University, Israel

Recently, geologist James A. Harrell reviewed (in the non-peer reviewed BAR) our analytical results concerning the James Ossuary under the flaunting heading: "Final blow to IAA report: flawed geochemistry used to condemn James inscription."[36] Despite this dramatic heading that was presumably put there by the editors, Harrell's "final blow" to our conclusions is that the patina covering the inscription on the James Ossuary was either faked or recreated by cleaning. Harrell's arguments for the "flawed geochemistry" seem to be as strong as the final conclusion of his commentary. In what follows, we address them in short:

1. "Both scientists specifically point out that their statements are not final reports and that they will publish their complete findings later in a professional journal."

Harrell refers in his article to the abstract published by the IAA in the June 2003 press conference. Harrell never bothered to contact any of us for the data nor for clarifying some misunderstandings that he seemingly had. We assume that Harrell knows that it takes some time for a scientific article to be refereed and accepted for publication in a prestigious peer-reviewed journal. Still, between the press conference (June 2003) and now, our scientific paper was accepted for publication in the Journal of Archaeological Science.[37] Harrell could easily have asked for a pre-print of the article and received it (as did the BAR managing editor per his request).

2. "Ayalon assumed (but did not demonstrate) that calcite is the primary, if not the only, mineral on both the ancient patina and the inscription coating."

Based on EDS analyses, the "letters' patina" as well as the "non-inscriptional parts" are composed of CaCO3.

3. "For Ayalon's hot-water scheme to work, the limestone would have to be dissolved in a hot acid-water solution and then the calcite crystallized by evaporating the solution. However, a coating made this way would have an acid residue and so give away its origin. To test for this possibility, the inscription coating needs to be chemically analyzed, but this has not yet been done."

(a) The calcite could have precipitated directly from the hot water itself (the same as the "cattle-stone" precipitates). There is no need to dissolve ground calcite.

(b) The acid involved in patina formation in nature is carbonic acid (H2CO3) formed as rainwater passes through the coil and dissolves soil-CO2. Once this acid is used, heating the water will result in CO2-degassing and CaCO3 precipitation with no acid residue. This could have been done artificially by using the same acid and without leaving any trace for it.

4. "…the ancient patina is clearly not pure calcite — its brownish color must be due to either iron oxides, clay minerals, and/or organic matter, all of which contain oxygen. The inscription coating also may not be pure calcit."

Harrell is completely wrong. The ancient patina is made of CaCO3, the same as the inscription coating. Moreover, to liberate CO2 gas from the CaCO3 for mass-spectrometric analysis, we use dry phosphoric acid (H3PO4). In this reaction, iron oxides, clay minerals, and other silicate minerals, which may be present in very small amounts, do not react with the acid. Harrell, as a stable-isotope geochemist, should also know that in the mass-spectrometer we analyzed the isotopic composition of CO2 gas liberated in the reaction and NOT the isotopic composition of oxygen (O2) gas.

5. "Ayalon dismisses out of hand the one sample of inscription coating whose δ18O value fell within the range of the ancient patina…. Ayalon is showing his bias by not allowing for the other possibility: that the word Jesus (where the samples came from) is truly ancient. This, plus the fact that one member of the IAA committee observed traces of ancient patina in the "brother of Jesus" part of the inscription, provide two solid pieces of evidence supporting the inscription is antiquity."

Carried away with his arguments, Harrell forgot to mention that luckily we have analyzed three letters from the word "Yeshua" (Jesus). The δ18O of the patina sampled from the other letters was very negative, -10.2 permil (for the letter "Shin" of "Yeshua") and -7.7 permil (for the letter "Vav"). Only the last letter ("Ain") had a normal value; hence, our interpretation for this phenomenon is not the result of bias but the only logical possibility.

6. "For the moment, all we can say is that the oxygen isotope results are equally consistent with two possible interpretations:

1. The inscription is a modern forgery that was coated with faked patina; OR

2. The inscription is ancient but was cleaned in modern times with the coating produced either inadvertently as a result of cleaning or intentionally to disguise the cleaning."

Both options suggested by Harrell agree with our conclusion that the "letters' patina" was not formed under natural conditions that prevailed in the Jerusalem area in the last 2000 years. Therefore, the title of his article "flawed geochemistry used to condemn James inscription" is strange/puzzling, to say the least.

-- The Jerusalem Syndrome in Archaeology: Jehoash to James: Is it possible that over a century after Sir William Mathew Flinders-Petrie established the scientific methodology of biblical archaeology, the discipline is still controlled by dilatants [dilettantes] and charlatans?, by Yuval Goren

Soon, a trial that had started as a criminal investigation unfolded into an academic symposium, with over 120 witnesses, many of whom were world-renowned geologists, archaeologists, chemists, geochemists, linguists, epigraphers, polygraphers, Bible experts, as well as the former head of one of the FBI's forensic labs.

[Simcha Jacobovici, Journalist & Filmmaker] Pick any item you want in the British Museum, or the Israel Museum, any item you want. There's less proof for its authenticity than there is for the James Ossuary.