Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Thu Dec 12, 2019 10:31 am

Notice
by Richard T. Greer, Deputy Commissioner, Darjeeling
August 6, 1897
from "Routes in Sikkim," Compiled in the Intelligence Branch of the Quartermaster General’s Department in India, by Captain W. F. O’Connor, Royal Garrison Artillery
Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India.
1900.

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO READ THE COPYRIGHT NOTICE AT THIS LINK BEFORE YOU READ THE FOLLOWING WORK, THAT IS AVAILABLE SOLELY FOR PRIVATE STUDY, SCHOLARSHIP OR RESEARCH PURSUANT TO 17 U.S.C. SECTION 107 AND 108. IN THE EVENT THAT THE LIBRARY DETERMINES THAT UNLAWFUL COPYING OF THIS WORK HAS OCCURRED, THE LIBRARY HAS THE RIGHT TO BLOCK THE I.P. ADDRESS AT WHICH THE UNLAWFUL COPYING APPEARED TO HAVE OCCURRED. THANK YOU FOR RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF COPYRIGHT OWNERS.


NOTICE.

1. Europeans visiting Sikkim are required to carry a pass, and, unless provided with a pass, will not be allowed beyond the Darjeeling frontier.

2. The Deputy Commissioner of Darjeeling is authorized to issue passes for the ordinary routes in Sikkim on which bungalows are situated, in accordance with the rules laid down regarding travellers’ bungalows in Darjeeling and Sikkim.

3. The Political Officer in Sikkim (head-quarters at Gantok) is authorized to issue passes to persons wishing to leave the ordinary bungalow routes in Sikkim or to visit Yatung.

Travellers’ Bungalows in Darjeeling District and Sikkim.

The following bungalows are now open, besides dak bungalows at Kurseong, Punkabari, and Siliguri:

Passes issued by the Deputy Commissioner. (Under the Deputy Commissioner and Political Officer, Sikkim)

Number / Place / Distance in miles from Darjeeling / Distance in miles to next bungalow / Height in feet above sea-level.


1 / Senchal / 6 / -- / 8,000
2 / Rangaroon / 6-1/2 / -- / 5,700
3 / Badamtam / 7-1/2 / -- / 2,500
4 / Mirig / 25 / 14 (from Jorepokri) / 5,000
5 / Kalimpong / 28 (Via Rungit; 32 via Pasboke) / 10 / 4,000
6 / Rissisum / 38 (Via Rungit) / 12 (From Kalimpong) / 6,410
7 / Jorepokri / 13 / -- / 7,400
8 / Tangin / 23 / 9 / 10,074
9 / Sandakphu / 38 / 15 / 11,929
10 / Phalut / 51 / 13 / 11,811
12 / Dentam / 64 (50 via Chakung) / 10 / 4,500
13 / Pamiongchi / 76 (42 direct) / 12 / 6,920
14* / Singlip / 38 Direct / 4 / 2,300
15 / Rinchingpong / 86 (32 Direct) / 6 / 5,000
16 / Chakung / 98 (20 Diurect) / 12 / 5,100
17 / Rhenock / 48 / 5 / 3,000
18 / Ari / 51 (Via Pedong) / 8 (From Pedong) / 4,500
19 / Sedonehen / 59 or 62 / 12 / 6,500
20 / Gnatong / 69 or 72 / 9 / 12,800
21 / Namchi / 32 / 15 (From Namchi) / 1,200
22* / Tokul / 17 / 21 (From Chakung) / 5,200
23 / Sang / 37 / 20 (15 miles to Gantok) / 4,500
24 / Pakyang / 53 / 16 (15 from Pedong) / 4,700
25 / Gantok / 65 / 12 / 5,700
26 / Tumlong / 81 / 16 / 6,300
27 / Samatek / 97 / 16 / 6,800
28 / Toong / 110 / 13 / 4,000
29 / Cheongtang / 122 / 25 / 5,100

Passes issued by the Executive Engineer, P. W. D., Darjeeling. (Under the Ex. Engr., P.W.D.

30 / Pedong / 43 / 12 From Kalimpong / 4,760
31 / Pashoke / 17 (26 frm Pedang) / 11 From Rangaroon / 3,300
32 / Teesta Bridge / 19 (Via Rungit; 22 Via Pashoke) / -- / --
33 / Riang / 25 or 27 / 6 / 625
34 / Kalijhorn / 32 (Via Teesta Bridge) / 7 / 550


4. The bungalows are available only to persons provided with passes. A separate pass must be obtained for each occupant or party for each bungalow whether going or returning.

I. Fees.

Eight annas for each person for occupation during the day up to a maximum charge of eight rupees. One rupee per night for each occupant.

1. In the case of Senchal, Rangaroon, and Badamtam the charge for occupation by day only is four annas for each person up to a maximum of four rupees.

2. Passes may be cancelled by the local authorities without payment of compensation.

3. A refund of bungalow fees is not allowed after the issue of a pass.

4. Passes must be made over to the chowkidar in charge.

5. Fees are payable in advance to the Deputy Commissioner or Executive Engineer on the submission of the application for the pass.

6. Government officers on duty are allowed to occupy the bungalows free of charge.

II. Furniture, etc.

1. Beds, tables, chairs, lamps with wicks, candlesticks, crockery, glass and kitchen utensils are provided at each bungalow.

2. Visitors must take their own bedding, cutlery, linen, candles, oil for lamps, and provisions.

III. Provisions, etc.

1. Ordinary bazaar supplies are obtainable at Jorepokri, Dentam, Kalimpong, Teesta Bridge, Pedong, Namchi, Pakyong, and Ari.

2. Firewood is provided free of charge on the Nepal frontier road bungalows. At Kalimpong four annas a maund is payable.

IV. Accommodation.

1. There is accommodation for six persons at bungalows 1 to 3, 5 to 15, 26 and 27. Nos. 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25 and 28 have three rooms.

2. Bungalows 17 and 18 to 23 have only two rooms.

3. Two persons can be accommodated at the remaining bungalows, unless visitors take their own camp beds. At No. 29 the upper part of a monastery is used.

V. Servants.

1. A sweeper can be hired on the spot at Kalimpong, Jorepokri, Teesta Bridge, Rhenock, Ari, and Gantok.

2. Elsewhere travelers must take sweepers with them, and no pass will issue, except on this condition.

3. There is no resident khansamah at any bungalow.

VI. Situation.

1. On the Nepal frontier road: Nos. 7 to 10
In Sikkim: Nos. 11 to 29
On the road to the Jelap Pass: Nos. 18 to 20
On the Teesta valley road: Nos. 32 to 34
On the road to the Lachen valley: Nos. 26 to 29
Namchi and Song are on the Darjeeling-Gantok road (via Rungeet Bazar).
Pakyong is on the Pedong-Gantok road.
Rissisum is on the Daling road to the plains.

VII. Tours.

The following tours can be made:

(a) Darjeeling to Jorepokri, Tonglu, Sandakphu, Phalut, Chiabhanjan, Dentam, Pamiongchi, Rinchimpong, Chakung and back to Darjeeling.

(b) Darjeeling to Badamtam, Teesta Bridge, Pashoke and back to Darjeeling.

(c) Darjeeling to Badamtam or Pashoke, Teesta Bridge, Riang, Kalijhora, Siliguri and back by train to Darjeeling.

(d) Darjeeling, Badamtam or Pashoke, Kalimpong, Rissisum, Pedong, Ari, Sodonchen to Gnatong (for the Jelap pass) and back.

(e) Darjeeling to Pedong, Pakyong, Gantok, Son, Namchi and back to Darjeeling.

(f) Darjeeling to Gantok, Tumlong, Samatek, Toeng and Cheongtong (for Lachen Lachung).

VIII. Rates.

For coolie rates see the prescribed table of rates separately.
Eight annas a day is an average charge for each coolie hired in Darjeeling, four annas if hired in Kalimpong, and six annas in Sikkim.

IX. Map.

A Map of the locality can be obtained at the Office of the Deputy Commissioner, Price one rupee.

Richd [Richard] T. Greer,
Deputy Commissioner,
Darjeeling

6th August 1897


_______________

Notes:

* Wooden huts only, with two small rooms in each, and no furniture, but suitable for men wishing to fish. “Singlip” is called “Lipsig” on the map.
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Fri Dec 13, 2019 7:31 am

Charles Webster Leadbeater
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 12/13/19

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

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Image
Charles Webster Leadbeater
Leadbeater in 1914 (age 60)
Born 16 February 1854
Stockport, Greater Manchester, UK
Died 1 March 1934 (aged 80)
Perth, Australia
Known for Theosophist and writer

Charles Webster Leadbeater (/ˈlɛdˌbɛtər/; 16 February 1854 – 1 March 1934) was a member of the Theosophical Society, author on occult subjects and co-initiator with J. I. Wedgwood of the Liberal Catholic Church.

Originally a priest of the Church of England, his interest in spiritualism caused him to end his affiliation with Anglicanism in favour of the Theosophical Society, where he became an associate of Annie Besant. He became a high-ranking officer of the Society, but resigned in 1906 amid a sex scandal involving adolescent boys. He was readmitted after his champion Annie Besant became President and remained one of its leading members until his death in 1934, writing at least 69 books and pamphlets and maintaining regular speaking engagements, but continued to be involved in scandals.

Early life

Leadbeater was born in Stockport, Cheshire, in 1854. His father, Charles Sr., was born in Lincoln and his mother Emma was born in Liverpool. He was an only child. By 1861 the family had relocated to London, where his father was a railway contractor's clerk.[1][non-primary source needed]

In 1862, when Leadbeater was eight years old, his father died from tuberculosis. Four years later a bank in which the family's savings were invested became bankrupt. Without finances for college, Leadbeater sought work soon after graduating from high school in order to provide for his mother and himself. He worked at various clerical jobs.[2] During the evenings he became largely self-educated. For example, he studied astronomy and had a 12-inch reflector telescope (which was very expensive at the time) to observe the heavens at night. He also studied French, Latin and Greek.

An uncle, his father's brother-in-law, was the well-known Anglican cleric William Wolfe Capes. By his uncle's influence, Leadbeater was ordained an Anglican priest in 1879 in Farnham by the Bishop of Winchester. By 1881, he was living with his widowed mother at Bramshott in a cottage which his uncle had built, where he is listed as "Curate of Bramshott".[3] He was an active priest and teacher who was remembered later as "a bright and cheerful and kindhearted man".[4] About this time, after reading about the séances of reputed medium Daniel Dunglas Home (1833–1886), Leadbeater developed an active interest in spiritualism.

Theosophical Society

His interest in Theosophy was stimulated by A.P. Sinnett's Occult World, and he joined the Theosophical Society in 1883. The next year he met Helena Petrovna Blavatsky when she came to London; she accepted him as a pupil and he became a vegetarian.[5]

Around this time he wrote a letter to Kuthumi, asking to be accepted as his pupil.[6] Shortly afterward, an encouraging response influenced him to go to India; he arrived at Adyar in 1884. He wrote that while in India, he had received visits and training from some of the "Masters" that according to Blavatsky were the inspiration behind the formation of the Theosophical Society, and were its hidden guides.[7] This was the start of a long career with the Theosophical Society.

Headmaster in Ceylon

During 1885, Leadbeater traveled with Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907), first President of the Theosophical Society, to Burma and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). In Ceylon they founded the English Buddhist Academy, with Leadbeater staying there to serve as its first headmaster under very austere conditions.[8] This school gradually expanded to become Ananda College, which now has more than 6,000 students and has a building named for Leadbeater.[9] After Blavatsky left Adyar in 1886 to return to Europe and finish writing The Secret Doctrine, Leadbeater claimed to have developed clairvoyant abilities.[10]

Return to England

In 1889, Sinnett asked Leadbeater to return to England to tutor his son and George Arundale (1878–1945). He agreed and brought with him one of his pupils, Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa (1875–1953). Although struggling with poverty himself, Leadbeater managed to send both Arundale and Jinarajadasa to Cambridge University. Both would eventually serve as International presidents of the Theosophical Society.

Meeting with Annie Besant

After H. P. Blavatsky's death in 1891, Annie Besant, an English social activist, took over leadership of the Theosophical Society along with Colonel Olcott.[11] Besant met Leadbeater in 1894. The next year she invited him to live at the London Theosophical Headquarters, where H.P. Blavatsky died in 1891.[12]

Writing and speaking career

Leadbeater wrote 69 books and pamphlets during the period from 1895 to his death in 1934, many of which continued to be published until 1955.[13] Two noteworthy titles, Astral Plane and the Devachanic Plane (or The Heaven World) both of which contained writings on the realms the soul passes through after death.

"For the first time among occultists, a detailed investigation had been made of the Astral Plane as a whole, in a manner similar to that in which a botanist in an Amazonian jungle would set to work in order to classify its trees, plants and shrubs, and so write a botanical history of the jungle. For this reason the little book, The Astral Plane, was definitely a landmark, and the Master as Keeper of the Records desired to place its manuscript in the great Museum." [14]

Highlights of his writing career included addressing topics such as: the existence of a loving God, The Masters of Wisdom, what happens after death, immortality of the human soul, reincarnation, Karma or the Law of Consequence, development of clairvoyant abilities, the nature of thought forms, dreams, vegetarianism, Esoteric Christianity[15]

He also became one of the best known speakers of the Theosophical Society for a number of years[16] and served as Secretary of the London Lodge.[17]

Clairvoyance

Image
"Seeing" of music: a piece by Gounod (from a book Thought-Forms by Annie Besant and C. W. Leadbeater).

Clairvoyance is a book by Leadbeater originally published in 1899 in London.[18][19] It is a study of a belief in seeing beyond the realms of ordinary sight.[20][21][22] The author mainly appeals readers "convinced of the existence of clairvoyance and familiar with theosophical terms."[23] Leadbeater claims that the "power to see what is hidden from ordinary physical sight" is an extension of common reception, and "describes a wide range of phenomena."[23][note 1][note 2]

Contents

1. What clairvoyance is.
2. Simple clairvoyance: full.
3. Simple clairvoyance: partial.
4. Clairvoyance in space: intentional.
5. Clairvoyance in space: semi-intentional.
6. Clairvoyance in space: unintentional.
7. Clairvoyance in time: the past.
8. Clairvoyance in time: the future.
9. Methods of development.[26][27]

Methods of development Leadbeater writes about the importance of control over thinking and the need for skill "to concentrate thought":

"Let a man choose a certain time every day—a time when he can rely upon being quiet and undisturbed, though preferably in the daytime rather than at night—and set himself at that time to keep his mind for a few minutes entirely free from all earthly thoughts of any kind whatever and, when that is achieved, to direct the whole force of his being towards the highest spiritual ideal that he happens to know. He will find that to gain such perfect control of thought is enormously more difficult than he supposes, but when he attains it, it cannot but be in every way most beneficial to him, and as he grows more and more able to elevate and concentrate his thought, he may gradually find that new worlds are opening before his sight."[28][note 3] [note 4]


Author's personal experience

Image
"Ultramicroscopic seeing" of matter: the "ultimate" physical atom (from Occult Chemistry by A. Besant and C. W. Leadbeater).

Professor Robert Ellwood wrote that from 1884 to 1888 Leadbeater undertook a course of meditation practice "which awakened his clairvoyance."[25] One day when the Master Kuthumi visited, he asked whether Leadbeater had ever attempted "a certain kind of meditation connected with the development of the mysterious power called kundalini."[33][34] The Master recommended him to make a "few efforts along certain lines," and told him that he would himself "watch over those efforts to see that no danger should ensue." Leadbeater accepted the offer of the Master and became "day after day" working on this kind of meditation.[35] He worked on the task assigned to him for forty-two days, and it seemed to him that he was already on the verge of achieving a result when Kuthumi intervened and "performed the final act of breaking through which completed the process," and enabled Leadbeater thereafter to use astral sight while as he was retaining full consciousness in the physical body. It is equivalent to saying that "the astral consciousness and memory became continuous," whether the physical body was awake or asleep.[36][37][note 5]

Possible application In the chapter "Simple Clairvoyance: Full" the author argues that an occultist-clairvoyant can "see" the smallest particles of matter, for example, a molecule or atom, magnificating them "as though by a microscope."[40][note 6][note 7] In the chapter "Clairvoyance in Time: The Past" Leadbeater claims that before the historian who is in "full possession of this power" open up wonderful possibilities:

"He has before him a field of historical research of most entrancing interest. Not only can he review at his leisure all history with which we are acquainted, correcting as he examines it the many errors and misconceptions which have crept into the accounts handed down to us; he can also range at will over the whole story of the world from its very beginning."[43][note 8][note 9]


New editions and translations The book was reprinted several times and translated into some European languages. Second edition of the book was published in 1903, and third—in 1908.[18][note 10]

Resignation from the Theosophical Society

In 1906, critics were angered to learn that Leadbeater had given advice to boys under his care that encouraged masturbation as a way to relieve obsessive sexual thoughts. Leadbeater acknowledged that he had given this advice to a few boys approaching maturity who came to him for help. He commented, "I know that the whole question of sex feelings is the principal difficulty in the path of boys and girls, and very much harm is done by the prevalent habit of ignoring the subject and fearing to speak of it to young people. The first information about it should come from parents or friends, not from servants or bad companions."[45]

The revelations regarding Leadbeater's advice and resulting suspicion that he was sexually abusive prompted several members of the Theosophical Society to ask for his resignation. The Society held proceedings against him in 1906. Annie Besant, elected president of the Society in 1907, later stated in his defense:

"The so-called trial of Mr Leadbeater was a travesty of justice. He came before Judges, one of whom had declared before hand that 'he ought to be shot'; another, before hearing him, had written passionate denunciations of him, a third and fourth had accepted, on purely psychic testimony, unsupported by any evidence, the view that he was grossly immoral, and a danger to the Society..."[46]


Charges of misconduct that went beyond the advice he admitted giving were never proven. He nevertheless resigned.

Readmission to the Theosophical Society

After Olcott died in 1907, Annie Besant became president of the society following a political struggle. By the end of 1908, the International Sections voted for Leadbeater's readmission. He accepted and came to Adyar on 10 February 1909. At the time, Besant referred to Leadbeater as a martyr who was wronged by her and by the Theosophical Society, saying that "never again would a shadow come between her and her brother Initiate".[47]

Discovery of Krishnamurti

In 1909 Leadbeater encountered fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti at the private beach of the Theosophical Society headquarters at Adyar. Krishnamurti's family lived next to the compound; his father, a long-time Theosophist, was employed by the Society. Leadbeater believed Krishnamurti to be a suitable candidate for the "vehicle" of the World Teacher, a reputed messianic entity[48] whose imminent appearance he and many Theosophists were expecting. The proclaimed savior would then usher in a new age and religion.[49]

Leadbeater assigned the pseudonym Alcyone to Krishnamurti and under the title "Rents in the Veil of Time", he published 30 reputed past lives of Alcyone in a series in The Theosophist magazine beginning in April 1910. "They ranged from 22,662 BC to 624 AD ... Alcyone was a female in eleven of them."[50]

Leadbeater stayed in India until 1915, overseeing the education of Krishnamurti; he then relocated to Australia. During the late 1920s, Krishnamurti disavowed the role that Leadbeater and other Theosophists expected him to fulfil.[51] He disassociated himself from the Theosophical Society and its doctrines and practices,[52] and during the next six decades became known as an influential speaker on philosophical and religious subjects.

Australia and The Science of the Sacraments

Leadbeater moved to Sydney in 1915. He was responsible for the construction of the Star Amphitheatre at Balmoral Beach in 1924. While in Australia he became acquainted with J. I. Wedgwood, a Theosophist and bishop in the Liberal Catholic Church who initiated him into Co-Masonry in 1915 and later consecrated him as a bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church in 1916.

Public interest in Theosophy in Australia and New Zealand increased greatly as a result of Leadbeater's presence there and Sydney became comparable to Adyar as a centre of Theosophical activity.[53]

Image
The Manor, Sydney, Australia, where Leadbeater stayed from 1922 to 1929

In 1922, the Theosophical Society began renting a mansion known as The Manor in the Sydney suburb of Mosman. Leadbeater took up residence there as the director of a community of Theosophists. The Manor became a major site and was regarded as "the greatest of occult forcing houses".[54] There he accepted young women students. They included Clara Codd, future President of the Theosophical Society in America, clairvoyant Dora van Gelder, another future President of the Theosophical Society in America who during the 1970s also worked with Delores Krieger to develop the technique of Therapeutic touch, and Mary Lutyens, who would later write an authorized Krishnamurti biography.[55] Lutyens stayed there in 1925, while Krishnamurti and his brother Nitya stayed at another house nearby. The Manor became one of three major Theosophical Society sites, the others being at Adyar and the Netherlands. The Theosophical Society bought The Manor in 1925 and during 1951 created The Manor Foundation Ltd, to own and administer the house, which is still used by the Society.[56]

It was also during his stay in Australia that Leadbeater became the Presiding Bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church and co-wrote the liturgy book for the church which is still in use today. The work represents an adaptation of the Roman Catholic liturgy of his time, for which Leadbeater sought to remove what he regarded as undesirable elements, such as (in his view) the blatant anthropomorphisms and expressions of the fear and wrath of God, which he regarded "as derogatory alike to the idea of a loving Father and to the men He has created in His own image." "If Christians", he wrote, "had been content to take what Christ taught of the Father in heaven, they would never have saddled themselves with the jealous, angry, bloodthirsty Jehovah of Ezra, Nehemiah and the others – a god that needs propitiating and to whose 'mercy' constant appeals must be made."[57]

Thus the Credo of the Liberal Catholic Church liturgy written by Leadbeater reads:

"We believe that God is Love and Power and Truth and Light; that perfect justice rules the world; that all His sons shall one day reach His Feet, however far they stray. We hold the Fatherhood of God, the Brotherhood of man; we know that we do serve Him best when best we serve our brother man. So shall His blessing rest upon us and peace for evermore. Amen."[58]


Previously Leadbeater had written on the energies of the Christian sacraments in The Science of the Sacraments: An Occult and Clairvoyant Study of the Christian Eucharist, one of the most significant works of Christian esotericism. In his prologue to the latest edition of this book, John Kersey refers to the Eucharist proposed by Leadbeater as "a radical reinterpretation of the context of the Eucharist seen within a theological standpoint of esoteric magic and universal salvation; it is Catholicism expressing the love of God to the full without the burdens of needless guilt and fear, and the false totem of the temporal powers of the church."[59]

How Theosophy Came to Me

It is an autobiographical book by Leadbeater; it was first published in 1930.[60]

Spiritualism and Theosophy Leadbeater tells that he was interested always in a variety of anomal phenomena, and if in any newspaper report it was said about the appearance of ghosts or other curious events in the troubled house, he had been going immediately to this location. In a large number of instances it was a blank — "either there was no evidence worth mentioning, or the ghost declined to appear when he was wanted." Sometimes, however, there were signs of some success, and soon had collected "an amount of direct evidence" that could easily convince him, if would had needed, as he said, in order it was convincing.[61]

In attitude to spiritualism Leadbeater was initially set up quite skeptical, but still one day decided to conduct an experiment with his mother and a some small boy, who, as they later discovered, "was a powerful physical medium." They had a small round table with a leg in the middle and silk hat, which they put on the table, and then put their "hands upon its brim as prescribed." Surprisingly the hat gave "a gentle but decided half-turn on the polished surface of the table," and then began to spin so vigorously that it was difficult to keep on it their hands.[62]

Further, the author describes the events as follows:

"Here was my own familiar silk hat, which I had never before suspected of any occult qualities, suspending itself mysteriously in the air from the tips of our fingers, and, not content with that defiance of the laws of gravity on its own account, attaching a table to its crown and lifting that also! I looked down to the feet of the table; they were about six inches from the carpet, and no human foot was touching them or near them! I passed my own foot underneath, but there was certainly nothing there—nothing physically perceptible, at any rate."[63][64]


The author says that he was not himself thinking of the phenomenon "in the least as a manifestation from the dead," but only as the disclosure of some unknown new force.[65][note 11]

Leadbeater says that the first theosophical book that fell into his hands was Sinnett's The Occult World. Histories contained in this book were for him very interested, but "its real fascination lay in the glimpses which it gave of a wonderful system of philosophy and of a kind of inner science which really seemed to explain life rationally and to account for many phenomena," which Leadbeater has watched. He had written to Sinnett, who invited him to come to London in order to meet.[69][70][note 12] The author tells that when he had claimed of joining the Society, Sinnett "became very grave and opined that that would hardly do," since Leadbeater was a clergyman. He had asked him why the Society discriminates against members according to the cloth. Sinnett replied: "Well, you see, we are in the habit of discussing every subject and every belief from the beginning, without any preconceptions whatever; and I am afraid that at our meetings you would be likely to hear a great deal that would shock you profoundly."[71] But most members of the Council of the London Lodge approved the joining of Leadbeater. He was joined into the Theosophical Society together with professor Crookes and his wife. On that day at the Lodge meeting "have been some two hundred people present," including such as professor Myers, Stainton Moses and others.[72][note 13]

Blavatsky

Image
Blavatsky

In a section I Meet Our Founder Leadbeater describes the "triumphant" appearance of Blavatsky at a meeting of the London Lodge of the British Theosophical Society, where he saw her for the first time.[note 14]

"Suddenly and sharply the door opposite to us opened, and a stout lady in black came quickly in and seated herself at the outer end of our bench. She sat listening to the wrangling on the platform for a few minutes, and then began to exhibit distinct signs of impatience. As there seemed to be no improvement in sight, she then jumped up from her seat, shouted in a tone of military command the one word 'Mohini!'[note 15] and then walked straight out of the door into the passage. The stately and dignified Mohini came rushing down that long room at his highest speed, and as soon as he reached the passage threw himself incontinently flat on his face on the floor at the feet of the lady in black. Many people arose in confusion, not knowing what was happening; but a moment later Mr. Sinnett himself also came running to the door, went out and exchanged a few words, and then, re-entering the room, he stood up on the end of our bench and spoke in a ringing voice the fateful words: 'Let me introduce to the London Lodge as a whole—Madame Blavatsky!' The scene was indescribable; the members, wildly delighted and yet half-awed at the same time, clustered round our great Founder, some kissing her hand, several kneeling before her, and two or three weeping hysterically."[75][note 16]


According to the author, the impression which Blavatsky made "was indescribable." She was looking straight through man, and obviously saw everything that was in one, and not everyone liked it. Sometimes Leadbeater heard from her very unpleasant revelations about those with whom she spoke. He's writing: "Prodigious force was the first impression, and perhaps courage, outspokenness, and straightforwardness were the second."[76]

Leadbeater writes that Blavatsky was the best interlocutor he had ever met: "She had the most wonderful gift for repartee; she had it almost to excess, perhaps." She also had knowledge of all sorts of things that relate to very different directions. She always had something to say, and it was never empty talk. She traveled a lot, and mostly on little-known places, and did not forget anything. She has been remembering even the most insignificant cases that had happened to her. She was a wonderful storyteller, who knew how to give a good story and make the right impression. "Whatever else she may have been, she was never commonplace. She always had something new, striking, interesting, unusual to tell us."[77][78]

In connection with the accusations of Blavatsky's enemies in her alleged fraud, cheating, forgery, Leadbeater writes: "The very idea of deception of any sort in connection with Madame Blavatsky is unthinkable to anyone who knew her... Her absolute genuineness was one of the most prominent features of her marvellously complex character."[77]

Letters from Kuthumi The author tells that during the study of spiritualism his greatest confidant was medium Eglinton. On one of the spiritualistic séances Eglinton's spirit guide "Ernest" agreed to take Leadbiter's letter in order to transmit it to the Master Kuthumi. In this letter the author "with all reverence" wrote that ever since he had first heard of theosophy his one desire had been to place himself under Master as a chela (pupil).[69][79][note 17] He also wrote about his current circumstances and has asked, has a pupil need to be in India within seven years of probation.[69][82]

The response from the Master Kuthumi has arrived a few months. The mahatma said that to be in India for seven years of probation isn't necessary—a chela can pass them anywhere. He offered to work for a few months at Adyar to see, may Leadbeater to be as a servant of the headquarters, and added a significant remark: "He who would shorten the years of probation has to make sacrifices for theosophy."[83][84][note 18]
The letter was ended with the following words:

"You ask me — 'what rules I must observe during this time of probation, and how soon I might venture to hope that it could begin'. I answer: you have the making of your own future, in your own hands as shown above, and every day you may be weaving its woof. If I were to demand that you should do one thing or the other, instead of simply advising, I would be responsible for every effect that might flow from the step and you acquire but a secondary merit. Think, and you will see that this is true. So cast the lot yourself into the lap of Justice, never fearing but that its response will be absolutely true.

Chelaship is an educational as well as probationary stage and the chela alone can determine whether it shall end in adeptship or failure. Chelas from a mistaken idea of our system too often watch and wait for orders, wasting precious time which should be taken up with personal effort. Our cause needs missionaries, devotees, agents, even martyrs perhaps. But it cannot demand of any man to make himself either. So now choose and grasp your own destiny, and may our Lord's the Tathâgata's memory aid you to decide for the best."[83][85]


After reading the letter, Leadbeater hurried back to London, not doubting his decision to devote his life to the service for the Masters. He hoped to send his answer with the help of Blavatsky. At first she refused to read the letter of the mahatma, saying that such cases are purely private, but as a result of Leadbeater's insistence, she finally read and asked him what answer he had decided to give. He said he wanted to quit his priesthood career and go to India, fully dedicating himself to a serving the Masters. Blavatsky assured him that, because of her constant connection with the mahatma, he already knows about Leadbeater's decision, and will give his answer in the near time. She warned that he need to stay close to her until he get an answer.[83][86][note 19] The author tells:

"She (Blavatky) was talking brilliantly to those who were present, and rolling one of her eternal cigarettes, when suddenly her right hand was jerked out towards the fire in a very peculiar fashion, and lay palm upwards. She looked down at it in surprise, as I did myself, for I was standing close to her, leaning with an elbow on the mantel-piece: and several of us saw quite clearly a sort of whitish mist form in the palm of her hand and then condense into a piece of folded paper, which she at once handed to me, saying: 'There is your answer'."[83][87]


It was a very short note, and read it as follows:

"Since your intuition led you in the right direction and made you understand that it was my desire you should go to Adyar immediately, I may say more. The sooner you go the better. Do not lose one day more than you can help. Sail on the 5th if possible. Join Upasika[note 20] at Alexandria. Let no one know that you are going, and may the blessing of our Lord and my poor blessing shield you from every evil in your new life. Greeting to you, my new chela.

−K.H."[83][89][note 21]


In section A Message the author tells how Blavatsky received in the going train car from the mahatma Kuthumi a note, which had several words intended for him: "Tell Leadbeater that I am satisfied with his zeal and devotion."[90]

Leadbeater claims that in early days of the Theosophical Society commissions and orders from the mahatmas were common, and members lived at a "level of splendid enthusiasm which those who have joined since Madame Blavatsky’s death can hardly imagine."[91]

Tisarana and pansil

Image
Leadbeater in Adyar, 1885

During the few weeks of traveling from Egypt to India, Blavatsky radically transformed the personality of Leadbeater, who was "an ordinary lawn-tennis-playing curate—well-meaning and conscientious... incredibly shy and retiring," making him a worthy disciple of mahatmas.[92][note 22]

During a brief stop in Ceylon, Blavatsky who together with Olcott even earlier became a Buddhist invited Leadbeater to follow the example of the founders of the Theosophical Society. The author writes that she believed that since he was a Christian priest, his public demonstration of Buddhism could convince both Hindus and Buddhists of the honesty of his intentions and would allow him to become more useful for the mahatmas.[94]

After three times pronouncing of a praise to the Lord Buddha: "I reverence the Blessed One, the Holy One, the Perfect in Wisdom," Leadbeater recitated on the Pali sacred formula of the Tisarana and then the Pancha Sila.[95][note 23]

Upon arrival in Madras, Blavatsky has spoke in front of the Hindustanies who filled the room, indignant at the actions of the Christian missionaries.

"When at last she was allowed to speak, she began very well by saying how touched she was by this enthusiastic reception, and how it showed her what she had always known, that the people of India would not accept tamely these vile, cowardly, loathsome and utterly abominable slanders, circulated by these unspeakable—but here she became so vigorously adjectival that the Colonel hurriedly intervened, and somehow persuaded her to resume her seat, while he called upon an Indian member to offer a few remarks."[96][note 24]


The author informs that his life at Adyar was ascetic; there were practically no servants, except two gardeners and a boy who has been working in the office. Leadbeater ate every day porridge from wheat flakes, which he brewed himself, also he was being brought milk and bananas.[98] At the headquarters of the Society, Leadbeater had been taking post of the recording secretary, since that allowed him to remain in the center of the Theosophical movement, where, as he knew, in the materialized forms, the Masters were often shown themselves.[99][note 25]

One day the author had met with the mahatma Kuthumi on the roof of the headquarters, next to Blavatsky's room. He was near a balustrade which "running along the front of the house at the edge of the roof" when the Master "materialized," stepping over the balustrade, as if before that he had been flying through the air. Leadbeater says:

"Naturally I rushed forward and prostrated myself before Him; He raised me with a kindly smile, saying that though such demonstrations of reverence were the custom among the Indian peoples, He did not expect them from His European devotees, and He thought that perhaps there would be less possibility of any feeling of embarrassment if each nation confined itself to its own methods of salutation."[100]


Occult training

Image
Subba Row

The author claims that when he arrived in India, he did not have any clairvoyant abilities. One day when Kuthumi "honoured" him with a visit, he asked whether Leadbeater had ever attempted "a certain kind of meditation connected with the development of the mysterious power called kundalini."[34][note 26] Leadbeater had heard of that power, but thinked it to be certainly out of reach for Western people. Yet Kuthumi recommended him to make a "few efforts along certain lines," and told him that he would himself "watch over those efforts to see that no danger should ensue." He accepted the offer of the Master and became "day after day" working on this kind of meditation. He was told that on average it would take forty days, if he do it constantly and vigorously.[35]

Leadbeater worked on the task assigned to him for forty-two days, and it seemed to him that he was already on the verge of achieving a result when Kuthumi intervened and "performed the final act of breaking through which completed the process," and enabled the author thereafter to use astral sight while as he was retaining full consciousness in the physical body. It is equivalent to saying that "the astral consciousness and memory became continuous," whether the physical body was awake or asleep.[102][37][note 27]

A lot of care and work was spent on occult training of the author by the Master Djwal Khul. Leadbeater tells:

"Over and over again He would make a vivid thought-form, and say to me: 'What do you see?' And when I described it to the best of my ability, would come again and again the comment: 'No, no, you are not seeing true; you are not seeing all; dig deeper into yourself, use your mental vision as well as your astral; press just a little further, a little higher.'"[103]


To participate in the training of Leadbeater, often came to headquarters swami Subba Row, "our great pandit," as the author calls him. And Leadbeater claims that he will forever remain an obligor to these "two great people" — Djwal Khul and Subba Row — for all the help which they gave him "at this critical stage" of his life.[104]

Legacy

Leadbeater remains well-known and influential in New Age circles for his many works based on his clairvoyant investigations of life, including such books as Outline of Theosophy, Astral Plane, Devachanic Plane, The Chakras and Man, Visible and Invisible dealing with, respectively, the basic principles of theosophy, the two higher worlds humanity passes through after "death", the chakra system, and the human aura.

His writings on the sacraments and Christian esotericism remain popular, with a constant stream of new editions and translations of his magnum opus The Science of the Sacraments. His liturgy book is still used by many Liberal and Independent Catholic Churches across the world.

Selected writings

• Dreams (What they are and how they are caused) (1893)
• Theosophical Manual Nº5: The Astral Plane (Its Scenery, Inhabitants and Phenomena) (1896)
• Theosophical Manual Nº6: The Devachanic Plane or The Heaven World Its Characteristics and Inhabitants (1896)
• Invisible Helpers (1896)
• Reincarnation (1898)
• Our Relation to Our Children (1898)
• Clairvoyance (1899)
• Thought Forms (with Annie Besant) (1901)
• An Outline of Theosophy (1902)
• Man Visible and Invisible (1902)
• Some Glimpses of Occultism, Ancient and Modern (1903)
• The Christian Creed (1904)
• Occult Chemistry (with Annie Besant) (1908)
• The Inner Life (1911)
• The Perfume of Egypt and Other Weird Stories (1911)
• The Power and Use of Thought (1911)
• The Life After Death and How Theosophy Unveils It (1912)
• A Textbook of Theosophy (1912)
• Man: Whence, How and Whither (with Annie Besant) (1913)
• Vegetarianism and Occultism (1913)
• The Hidden Side of Things (1913)
• Australia & New Zealand: Home of a new sub-race (1916)
• The Monad and Other Essays Upon the Higher Consciousness (1920)
• The Inner Side Of Christian Festivals (1920)
• The Science of the Sacraments (1920)
• The Lives of Alcyone (with Annie Besant) (1924)
• The Liturgy According to the Use of the Liberal Catholic Church (with J.I. Wedgwood) (Second Edition) (1924)
• The Masters and the Path (1925)
• Talks on the Path of Occultism (1926)
• Glimpses of Masonic History (1926) (later pub 1986 as Ancient Mystic Rites)
• The Hidden Life in Freemasonry (1926)
• The Chakras (1927) (published by the Theosophical Publishing House, Wheaton, Illinois, USA)
• Spiritualism and Theosophy Scientifically Examined and Carefully Described (1928)
• The Noble Eightfold Path (1955)
• Messages from the Unseen (1931)

See also

• Chakras
• Clairvoyance
• Christian mythology
• K.H. Letters to C.W. Leadbeater
• Reincarnation
• Root race
• Theosophy and Christianity
• Theosophy and visual arts

Notes

1. When the Theosophical Society was created the investigation "the unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in man" was proclaimed its third major task.[24]
2. Professor Robert Ellwood stated, "The key to Leadbeater's teaching and theosophical style is the idea of clairvoyance, the capacity to see things that are hidden from ordinary eyes."[25]
3. "He (Leadbeater) suggests that if the aspirant should concentrate on living the pure and unselfish life and practice meditation, then possibly some form of psychic power may emerge spontaneously with little risk."[29]
4. Professor Radhakrishnan wrote: "By following the principles of the Yoga, such as heightening the power of concentration, arresting the vagaries of mind by fixing one's attention on the deepest sources of strength, one can master one's soul even as an athlete masters his body. The Yoga helps us to reach a higher level of consciousness, through a transformation of the psychic organism, which enables it to get beyond the limits set to ordinary human experience."[30] Uncommon power of the senses, by which man "can see and hear at a distance, follow as a result of concentration."[31] According to Buddhist philosophy, extra-sensory abilities achieved primarily "through meditation and wisdom."[32]
5. "The awakening of the kundalini arouses an intense heat, and its progress through the cakras is manifested by the lower part of the body becoming as inert and cold as a corpse, while the part—through which the kundalini passes—is burning hot."[38] Professor Olav Hammer wrote that in the most authoritative interpretation chakras were introduced to the Western audience by the Theosophists, mainly by Leadbeater.[39]
6. "The power of 'magnification' is said to be one of the powers, or siddhis, of the great yogi, meaning that he is able to look at small objects and see them greatly enlarged."[41]
7. "Leadbeater had first used his psychic powers in delving in to the atom at the request of Mr. Sinnett, and thus discovered that he possessed 'ultramicroscopic' vision."[42]
8. "Through concentration on the threefold modifications which all objects constantly undergo, we acquire the power to know the past, present and the future."[31]
9. See also: Man: Whence, How and Whither#Explorations of past lives
10. "19 editions published between 1899 and 2014 in 5 languages and held by 23 WorldCat member libraries worldwide."[44]
11. Tillett stated: "Leadbeater's interest in spiritualism increased after the death of his mother on May 24, 1882."[66] Also Matley wrote that Leadbeater has been on "few spiritualistic séances" of the mediums Husk[67] and Eglinton.[68]
12. His new life had started in 1883, when he has had read Sinnett's The Occult World. It had led the "young curate" to contact with the Theosophical Society in London.[25]
13. Leadbeater "was welcomed into the London Lodge on February 21, 1884."[25]
14. Senkevich wrote: "The appearance of Blavatsky at the meeting was triumphant, some of its participants fell down in front of her to their knees.... At this re-election meeting she was deservedly represented by the queen of occultism, all were obeying her will unquestioningly."[73]
15. Mohini Mohun Chatterji (1858–1936) was a private secretary to Henry Steel Olcott.[74]
16. "Then, on April 7, 1884, Leadbeater met Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott at a turbulent election meeting of the London Lodge. Deeply impressed by Blavatsky, from that day on Leadbeater's commitment tilted more and more away from Anglicanism and toward theosophy."[25]
17. Goodrick-Clarke wrote that "the very concept of the Masters" is the Rosicrucian idea of "invisible and secret adepts, working for the advancement of humanity."[80] And Tillett stated: "The concept of Masters or Mahatmas as presented by HPB involved a mixture of western and eastern ideas; she located most of them in India or Tibet. Both she and Colonel Olcott claimed to have seen and to be in communication with Masters. In Western occultism the idea of 'Supermen' has been found in such schools as... the fraternities established by de Pasqually and de Saint-Martin."[81]
18. Leadbeater "received a letter from the Master Koot Hoomi (K.H.) in October 31, 1884, just prior to Blavatsky's return to India. Leadbeater responded by writing a letter on November 1 in which he offered to give up his career in the Church and go to India with her to serve theosophy."[25]
19. Leadbeater passed the mahatma's letter to Blavatsky in London and asked her to read it, that she did unwillingly, since she believed so it was a confidential correspondence. He "then accompanied her to the home of the Cooper-Oakleyswhere, 'after midnight' (i.e., early November 2, 1884) a reply materialized on Blavatky's upturned hand while Leadbeater was watching."[25]
20. "Upasika is a name often used for H.P.B. in the Letters; the word is from Buddhism, where it denotes a Lay Disciple."[88]
21. With this note mahatma ordered to Leadbeater to leave England immediately, since it was his desire, and to join Blavatsky in Alexandria. "This he did, precipitously resigning his priesthood, putting his affairs in order, and sailing for India on November 5."[25]
22. Senkevich wrote: "The last trip of Blavatsky to India was described in memoirs by Charles Leadbeater, who was a young rural Anglican priest that had just joined the Theosophical Society. He had been accompanying Blavatsky from England to Port Said, from there — to Colombo, and then — to Madras."[93]
23. Leadbeater "took pansil, formally becoming a Buddhist, in Colombo, Ceylon, and then arrived in Adyar in December 1884."[25]
24. "As soon as the audience was quiet, Blavatsky began her fierce speech directed against Christian missionaries. In it, she used such an obscene word that Olcott jumped up in terror and looked pleadingly at her."[97]
25. "From 1884 to 1888, Leadbeater was recording secretary of the Theosophical Society, assistant to Olcott and a student of the Ancient Wisdom called theosophy."[25]
26. "Leadbeater and later Esotericists up to and including New Age writers have reinterpreted kundalini as simply a form of energy."[101]
27. Robert Ellwood wrote that from 1884 to 1888 Leadbeater has had a course of meditation practice "which awakened his clairvoyance."[25]
References[edit]
1. 1861 Census of England
2. Tillett, Gregory John; Charles Webster Leadbeater 1854–1934, A Biographical Study, 1986, http://hdl.handle.net/2123/1623
3. 1881 Census of England
4. Warnon, Maurice H., "Charles Webster Leadbeater, Biographical Notes". "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
5. Lutyens, Mary (1975). Krishnamurti: The Years of Awakening. New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux. p. 13. ISBN 0-374-18222-1.
6. How Theosophy Came To Me, C. W. Leadbeater, Chpt 2 – A letter to the master, The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Chennai 600 020, India, First Edition 1930
7. Leadbeater, C.W. (1930). "How Theosophy Came To Me". The Theosophical Publishing House. Retrieved 26 March2008.
8. Lutyens 1975 p. 13.
9. Oliveira, Pedro, CWL Bio, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
10. How Theosophy Came To Me, C. W. Leadbeater, chpt 9 – Unexpected development; Psychic Training, The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Chennai 600 020, India, First Edition 1930
11. Theosophical Society – World Headquarters, Adyar, Channai, India [1].
12. Astral Plane, CW Leadbeater, p. xviii, http://anandgholap.net/Astral_Plane-CWL.htm
13. Blavatskyarchives.com, "A Chronological Listing of C.W. Leadbeater's Books and Pamphlets", [2]
14. Astral Plane, CW Leadbeater[3]; Introduction by C. JINARAJADASA, p. xviii
15. [4]
16. Warnon, Maurice H.Biographical Notes Archived 16 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine
17. A Description of the Work of Annie Besant and C W Leadbetter Archived 19 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine, by Jinarajadasa
18. Editions.
19. Tillett 1986, p. 1078.
20. Britannica2.
21. Shepard 1991.
22. Melton 2001c.
23. Cambridge Books.
24. Kuhn 1992, p. 113.
25. Ellwood.
26. Leadbeater 1899.
27. Monograph.
28. Leadbeater 1899, p. 152; Tillett 1986, p. 907.
29. Harris.
30. Radhakrishnan 2008, Ch. 5/1.
31. Radhakrishnan 2008, Ch. 5/16.
32. Britannica1.
33. Tillett 1986, p. 161.
34. Melton 2001a.
35. Leadbeater 1930, pp. 131–32; Tillett 1986, pp. 161–62.
36. Leadbeater 1930, p. 133; Tillett 1986, p. 162.
37. Motoyama 2003, p. 190.
38. Eliade 1958, p. 246.
39. Hammer 2003, p. 184.
40. Leadbeater 1899, p. 42.
41. Tillett 1986, p. 220.
42. Tillett 1986, p. 221.
43. Leadbeater 1899, p. 106; Tillett 1986, pp. 197–98.
44. WorldCat.
45. Charles Webster Leadbeater 1854–1934 – A Biographical Study, Gregory John Tillett, First Edition: University of Sydney, Department of Religious Studies, March 1986, 2008 Online Edition published at [Leadbeater.Org], chpt 10, p. 247.
46. Charles Webster Leadbeater 1854–1934 – A Biographical Study, Gregory John Tillett, First Edition: University of Sydney, Department of Religious Studies, March 1986, 2008 Online Edition published at [Leadbeater.Org], chpt 11, p. 395.
47. Charles Webster Leadbeater 1854–1934 – A Biographical Study, Gregory John Tillett, First Edition: University of Sydney, Department of Religious Studies, March 1986, 2008 Online Edition published at [Leadbeater.Org], chpt 11, pg 398
48. Lutyens 1975 pp. 20–21.
49. Lutyens 1975 pp. 11–12.
50. Lutyens 1975 pp. 23–24.
51. Lutyens 1975 "Chapter 33: Truth is a Pathless Land", pp. 272–275.
52. Lutyens 1975 pp. 276–278, 285.
53. Tillet, 1986, "supra"
54. Lutyens 1975 p. 191.
55. Tillet, 1982, "supra".
56. The Theosophist, August 1997, pp. 460–463.
57. The Liturgy according to the Use of the Liberal Catholic Church (Preface), p. 11.
58. The Liturgy according to the Use of the Liberal Catholic Church (Preface), p. 249.
59. The Science of the Sacraments, New 2007 edition (Preface by John Kersey), p. 11.
60. Formats and editions.
61. Leadbeater 1967, p. 8; Tillett 1986, pp. 99–100.
62. Leadbeater 1967, pp. 10–11; Tillett 1986, p. 101.
63. Leadbeater 1967, pp. 11–12; Tillett 1986, p. 102.
64. Melton 2001b.
65. Leadbeater 1967, p. 12; Tillett 1986, p. 102.
66. Tillett 1986, p. 107.
67. Melton 2001.
68. Matley 2013.
69. Leadbeater 1930, Ch. II.
70. Tillett 1986, pp. 112–13, 122.
71. Leadbeater 1930, p. 22; Tillett 1986, pp. 122–23.
72. Leadbeater 1930, pp. 24–5; Tillett 1986, pp. 124–25.
73. Сенкевич 2012, pp. 404–5.
74. Tillett 1986, p. 970.
75. Leadbeater 1930, pp. 43–4; Tillett 1986, pp. 131–32.
76. Leadbeater 1930, p. 50; Tillett 1986, p. 133.
77. Leadbeater 1930, Ch. IV.
78. Oliveira.
79. Tillett 1986, p. 126.
80. Goodrick-Clarke 2004, p. 6.
81. Tillett 1986, p. 966.
82. Tillett 1986, pp. 126–27.
83. Leadbeater 1930, Ch. V.
84. Jinarajadasa 1919, p. 33.
85. Jinarajadasa 1919, pp. 33–5.
86. Tillett 1986, p. 138.
87. Jinarajadasa 2013, First phenomenon.
88. Jinarajadasa 1919, p. 113.
89. Jinarajadasa 1919, p. 35; Tillett 1986, p. 139.
90. Leadbeater 1930, p. 62; Washington 1995, p. 117.
91. Leadbeater 1930, p. 91; Tillett 1986, pp. 144–45.
92. Leadbeater 1930, p. 92; Tillett 1986, p. 145.
93. Сенкевич 2012, p. 414.
94. Leadbeater 1930, p. 101; Tillett 1986, p. 147.
95. Leadbeater 1930, pp. 103–6; Tillett 1986, p. 148.
96. Leadbeater 1930, p. 118; Tillett 1986, p. 150.
97. Сенкевич 2012, pp. 416–17.
98. Leadbeater 1930, pp. 130–31; Tillett 1986, pp. 160–61.
99. Leadbeater 1930, p. 149; Tillett 1986, p. 158.
100. Leadbeater 1930, p. 151; Tillett 1986, p. 155.
101. Hammer 2003, p. 185.
102. Leadbeater 1930, p. 133; Tillett 1986, p. 162; Wessinger 2013, p. 36.
103. Leadbeater 1930, pp. 133–34; Tillett 1986, p. 163.
104. Leadbeater 1930, p. 134; Tillett 1986, p. 165.
https://diedrei.org/tl_files/hefte/2015 ... D_1509.pdf letter of J. Krishnamurti´s father to Rudolf Steiner dated 12.3.1912 talking about his efforts to avoid his sons having any future contact to Leadbeater

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• Leadbeater, C. W. (1899). Clairvoyance. London: Theosophical Publishing Society. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
• Leadbeater, C. W. (1930). How Theosophy Came to Me. Adyar: Theosophical Pub. House. OCLC 561055008. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
• ———— (1967) [1930]. How Theosophy Came to Me (3rd ed.). Madras: Theosophical Pub. House. OCLC 221982801. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
• Matley, J. W. (2013) [1941]. "C. W. Leadbeater at Bramshott Parish". The K. H. Letters to C. W. Leadbeater. Literary Licensing, LLC. pp. 105–108. ISBN 9781258882549. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
• Motoyama, H. (2003) [1981]. Theories of the Chakras: Bridge to Higher Consciousness (Reprint ed.). New Age Books. ISBN 9788178220239. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
• Oliveira, P. "With Madame Blavatsky". CWL World. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
• Radhakrishnan, S. (2008). Indian Philosophy. 2 (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195698428.
• Tillett, Gregory J. (1986). Charles Webster Leadbeater 1854–1934: a biographical study (PhD thesis). Sydney: University of Sydney (published 2007). OCLC 220306221. Retrieved 16 June 2018 – via Sydney Digital Theses.
• Washington, P. (1995). Madame Blavatsky's baboon: a history of the mystics, mediums, and misfits who brought spiritualism to America. Schocken Books. ISBN 9780805241259. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
• Wessinger, C. (2013). "The Second Generation Leaders of the Theosophical Society (Adyar)". In Hammer, O.; Rothstein, M. (eds.). Handbook of the Theosophical Current. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Boston: Brill. pp. 33–50. ISBN 9789004235960. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
• Сенкевич, А. Н. (2012). Елена Блаватская. Между светом и тьмой [Helena Blavatsky. Between Light and Darkness]. Носители тайных знаний (in Russian). Москва: Алгоритм. ISBN 978-5-4438-0237-4. OCLC 852503157. Retrieved 14 June 2018.

Further reading

• Caldwell, Daniel. Charles Webster Leadbeater: His Life, Writings & Theosophical Teachings.
• Kersey, John. Arnold Harris Matthew and the Old Catholic Movement in England: 1908–52
• Kersey, John. The Science of the Sacraments by Charles Webster Leadbeater. New 2007 Edition with a Preface by John Kersey
• Michel, Peter. Charles W. Leadbeater:Mit den Augen des Geistes ISBN 3-89427-107-8 (In German; No English translation available)
• Tillett, Gregory. The Elder Brother: A Biography of Charles Webster Leadbeater.
• Lutyens, Mary. Krishnamurti: The Years of Awakening; Avon Books (Discus), New York. 1983 ISBN 0-380-00734-7
• Oliveira, Pedro. CWL Speaks: C.W. Leadbeater's Correspondence concerning the 1906 Crisis in the Theosophical Society Foreword by Robert Ellwood ISBN 978-0-646-97305-0

External links

• How Theosophy Came to Me
• Works by Charles Webster Leadbeater at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Charles Webster Leadbeater at Internet Archive
• Works by Charles Webster Leadbeater at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• A chronological listing of C.W. Leadbeater's books and pamphlets
• C.W. Leadbeater life, writings and theosophical teachings at the Blavatsky Study Center
• Articles by and about C.W. Leadbeater
• C.W. Leadbeater articles and media
• Leadbeater in Sydney: Garry Wotherspoon (2011). "Leadbeater, Charles". Dictionary of Sydney. Dictionary of Sydney Trust. Retrieved 9 October 2015. [CC-By-SA]
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Fri Dec 13, 2019 7:58 am

Tallapragada Subba Row
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Accessed: 12/13/19

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Tallapragada Subba Row
తల్లాప్రగడ సుబ్బారావు
Subba Row
Born Tallapragada Subba Row
July 6, 1856
Died June 24, 1890 (aged 33)
Nationality Indian
Occupation Vakil

Tallapragada Subba Row(తల్లాప్రగడ సుబ్బారావు) (July 6, 1856 – June 24, 1890) was a Theosophist from a Hindu background and originally worked as a Vakil (Pleader) within the Indian justice system. His primary instructors in this field were Messrs. Grant and Laing, who saw to his establishment as a Vakil, a profession which became highly profitable for the time that he held it.

However, Subba Row's interest in the law paled when compared to the way he devoured philosophy, especially after an event in which he met two particular individuals. In 1882, he invited Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott to Madras (now Chennai), where he convinced them to make Adyar the permanent headquarters for the Theosophical Society. Prior to this meeting however, Subba Row was not known for any esoteric or mystical knowledge, even by his closest friends and parents. It was only after meeting the pair that he began to expound on metaphysics, astounding most of those who knew him.

Upon this meeting and thereafter, Subba Row became able to recite whatever passage was so requested of him from the Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, and many other sacred texts of India. He had, apparently, never studied these things prior to the fateful meeting, and it is stated that when meeting Blavatsky and Damodar K. Mavalankar, all knowledge from his previous lives came flooding back.


Theosophy in Adyar

Subba Row had initial problems with instructing non-Hindus. It was his distinct belief at the time that Hindu knowledge should remain with India, and not be extended to foreigners. In fact, even after passing over this hurdle, he was still especially private regarding his spiritual life, even to his mother and close friends. Unless the person he was speaking to had a deep understanding of mysticism, it was a fairly mute topic for him.

For many years then, Subba Row was instrumental in establishing Theosophy in India, and continued to work hard until the first draft of the Secret Doctrine was given to him. It was his initial compulsion to edit the piece when it had been proposed, but upon reading it, he utterly and completely refused to have anything to do with it. It was his opinion that the piece contained so many mistakes that he might as well be writing a completely new book were he to edit it.

Decline

In 1888, T. Subba Row resigned from the Theosophical Society along with J.N. Cook. Tensions between himself and many of the members, as well as with HPB, had grown too stressful to maintain. It was only slightly thereafter that he contracted a cutaneous disease, a sickness which manifested itself in an outbreak of boils in 1890 during his last visit to the Theosophical Society's headquarters in Madras. Eventually he would succumb to the disease that year, and died on June 24, 1890, saying that his guru had called him, and that it was time for his departure. He was cremated the morning after as per Hindu tradition.

Memorable works

Among the many memorable works he left to humanity, they include his commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita, Esoteric Writings, and his Collected Writings in two volumes.

• T. Subba Row Collected Writings, Compiled and Annotated by Henk J. Spierenburg, Volume 1 en 2. Point Loma Publications, 2001, 2002. ISBN 1-889598-30-5 and ISBN 1-889598-31-3

Articles

• Notes on the Bhagavad Gita [1]
• On the Bhagavad Gita [2]
• Philosophy of the Gita [3]
• First Ray in Buddhism [4]
• What Is Occultism? [5]
• Comments on the Idyll of the White Lotus [6]
• Occultism of Southern India [7]
• Personal and impersonal God [8]
• Places of Pilgrimage [9]
• 12 signs of Zodiac [10]
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sat Dec 14, 2019 4:47 am

Sacred Books of the East
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Accessed: 12/13/19

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The Sacred Books of the East is a monumental 50-volume set of English translations of Asian religious texts, edited by Max Müller and published by the Oxford University Press between 1879 and 1910. It incorporates the essential sacred texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and Islam.

All of the books are in the public domain in the United States, and most or all are in the public domain in many other countries.[1] Electronic versions of all fifty volumes are widely available online.

Volumes of the Sacred Books of the East
Vol. / Group / Published / Translator / Title and contents


1 / Hindu / 1879 / Max Müller / The Upanishads, Part 1 of 2. Chandogya Upanishad. Talavakara (Kena) Upanishad. Aitareya Upanishad. Kausitaki Upanishad. Vajasaneyi (Isa) Upanishad.
2 / Hindu / 1879 / Georg Bühler / The Sacred Laws of the Aryas, vol. 1 of 2. The sacred laws of the Aryas as taught in the school of Apastamba, Gautama, Vâsishtha, and Baudhâyana. pt. I. Apastamba and Gautama. (The Dharma Sutras).
3 / China / 1879 / James Legge / The Sacred Books of China, vol. 1 of 6. Part I of The Texts of Confucianism. The Shû king (Classic of History). The religions portions of the Shih king (Classic of Poetry). The Hsiâo king (Xiao Jing).
4 / Zor / 1880 / James Darmesteter / The Zend-Avesta, vol. 1 of 3. The Vendîdâd.
5 / Zor / 1880 / E. W. West Pahlavi Texts, vol. 1 of 5. The Bundahis, Bahman Yast, and Shayast La-Shayast.
6 / Islam / 1880 / E. H. Palmer / The Qur'an, vol. 1 of 2.
7 / Hindu / 1880 / Julius Jolly / The Institutes of Visnu.
8 / Hindu / 1882 / Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang / The Bhagavadgita With the Sanatsugâtiya and the Anugitâ.
9 / Islam / 1880 / E. H. Palmer / The Qur'an, vol. 2 of 2.
10 / Bud / 1881 / F. Max Müller (Dhammapada) Viggo Fausböll (Sutta-Nipata) / The Dhammapada and The Sutta-Nipâta, a collection of discourses; being one of the canonical books of the Buddhists, translated from Pāli; and The Dhammapada, a collection of verses, translated from Pāli.
11 / Bud / 1881 / T. W. Rhys Davids / Buddhist Suttas. The Mahâ-parinibbâna Suttanta, The Dhamma-kakka-ppavattana Sutta, The Tevigga Sutta'anta, The Âkankheyya Sutta'a, The Ketokhila Sutta'a, The Mahâ-Sudassana Sutta'anta, The Sabbâsava Sutta'a.
12 / Hindu / 1882 / Julius Eggeling / The Satapatha Brahmana according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 1 of 5.
13 / Bud / 1881 / T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg / Vinaya Texts, vol. 1 of 3. The Patimokkha. The Mahavagga, I–IV.
14 / Hindu / 1882 / Georg Bühler / The Sacred Laws of the Aryas, vol. 2 of 2. The sacred laws of the Aryas as taught in the school of Apastamba, Gautama, Vâsishtha, and Baudhâyana. pt. II. Vâsishtha and Baudhâyana.
15 / Hindu / 1884 / Max Müller / The Upanishads, part 2 of 2. Katha Upanishad. Mundaka Upanishad. Taittiriya Upanishad. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. Svetasvatara Upanishad. Prasña Upanishad. Maitrayani Upanishad.
16 / China / 1882 / James Legge / The Sacred Books of China, vol. 2 of 6. Part II of The Texts of Confucianism. The Yi King: (I Ching).
17 / Bud / 1882 / T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg / Vinaya Texts, vol. 2 of 3. The Mahavagga, V–X, the Kullavagga I–II.
18 / Zor / 1882 / E. W. West / Pahlavi Texts, vol. 2 of 5. The Dâdistân-î Dinik and the Epistles of Mânûskîhar.
19 / Bud / 1883 / Samuel Beal / /The Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king, a life of Buddha, by Ashvaghosha, Bodhisattva; translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Dharmaraksha, A. D. 420./
20 / Bud / 1885 / T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg / Vinaya Texts, vol. 3 of 3. The Kullavagga, IV–XII.
21 / Bud / 1884 / H. Kern / The Saddharma-Pundarika or The Lotus of the True Law.
22 / Jain / 1884 / Hermann Jacobi / Jaina Sûtras, vol. 1 of 2, translated from the Prâkrit. The Âkârânga sûtra. The Kalpa sûtra.
23 / Zor / 1883 / James Darmesteter / The Zend-Avesta, vol. 2 of 3. The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis.
24 / Zor / 1884 / E. W. West / Pahlavi Texts, vol. 3 of 5. Dinai Mainög-i khirad, Sikand-Gümanik Vigar, Sad Dar.
25 / Hindu / 1886 / Georg Bühler / The Laws of Manu. Translated, with extracts from seven commentaries.
26 / Hindu / 1885 / Julius Eggeling / The Satapatha Brahmana according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 2 of 5, Books III–IV.
27 / China / 1885 / James Legge / The Sacred Books of China, vol. 3 of 6. Part III of the texts of Confucianism. The Lî Kî (Book of Rites), part 1 of 2.
28 / China / 1885 / James Legge / The Sacred Books of China, vol. 4 of 6. Part IV of the texts of Confucianism. The Lî Kî (Book of Rites), part 2 of 2.
29 / Hindu / 1886 / Hermann Oldenberg / The Grihya-sutras; rules of Vedic domestic ceremonies. vol. 1 of 2. Sankhyayana-Grihya-sutra. Asvalayana-Grihya-sutra. Paraskara-Grihya-sutra. Khadia-Grihya-sutra.
30 / Hindu / 1892 / Hermann Oldenberg, Max Müller / The Grihya-sutras; rules of Vedic domestic ceremonies. vol. 2 of 2. Gobhila, Hiranyakesin, Apastamba (Olderberg); Yajña Paribhashasutras (Müller).
31 / Zor / 1887 / Lawrence Heyworth Mills / The Zend-Avesta, vol. 3 of 3. The Yasna, Visparad, Afrînagân, Gâhs, and miscellaneous fragments.
32 / Hindu / 1891 / Max Müller / Vedic Hymns, vol. 1 of 2. Hymns to the Maruts, Rudra, Vâyu, and Vâta., with a bibliographical list of the more important publications on the Rig-veda.
33 / Hindu / 1889 / Julius Jolly / The Minor Law-Books: Brihaspati. (Part 1 of 1).
34 / Hindu / 1890 / George Thibaut The Vedanta-Sutras, vol. 1 of 3. Commentary by Sankaracharya, part 1 of 2. Adhyâya I–II (Pâda I–II).
35 / Bud / 1890 / T. W. Rhys Davids / The Questions of King Milinda, vol. 1 of 2. Milindapañha.
36 / Bud / 1894 / T. W. Rhys Davids / The Questions of King Milinda, vol. 2 of 2. Milindapañha.
37 / Zor / 1892 / E. W. West / Pahlavi Texts, vol. 4 of 5. Contents of the Nasks.
38 / Hindu / 1896 / George Thibaut / The Vedanta-Sutras, vol. 2 of 3, commentary by Sankaracharya, part 1 of 2. Adhyâya II (Pâda III–IV)–IV.
39 / China / 1891 / James Legge / The Texts of Taoism, Part 1 of 2. The Sacred Books of China, vol. 5 of 6. Also: The Tâo the king (Tao te Ching): The writings of Kwang-tze, books I–XVII.
40 / China / 1891 / James Legge / The Texts of Taoism, Part 2 of 2. Includes The Writings of Kwang Tse, books XVII–XXXIII, The Thâi-shang tractate of actions and their retributions, other Taoist texts, and the Index to vols. 39 and 40.
41 / Hindu / 1894 / Julius Eggeling / The Satapatha Brahmana according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 3 of 5. Books V–VII.
42 / Hindu / 1897 / Maurice Bloomfield / Hymns of the Atharvaveda, Together With Extracts From the Ritual Books and the Commentaries.
43 / Hindu / 1897 / Julius Eggeling / The Satapatha Brahmana according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 4 of 5, Books VII, IX, X.
44 / Hindu / 1900 / Julius Eggeling The Satapatha Brahmana according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 5 of 5, Books XI–XIV.
45 / Jain / 1895 / Hermann Jacobi / Jaina Sûtras, vol. 2 of 2, translated from Prâkrit. The Uttarâdhyayana Sûtra, The Sûtrakritânga Sûtra.
46 / Hindu / 1897 / Hermann Oldenberg / Vedic Hymns, vol. 2 of 2. Hymns to Agni (Mandalas I–V).
47 / Zor / 1897 / E. W. West / Pahlavi Texts, vol. 5 of 5. Marvels of Zoroastrianism.
48 / Hindu / 1904 / George Thibaut / The Vedanta-Sutras, vol. 3 of 3, with the commentary of Râmânuja.
49 / Bud / 1894 / Edward Byles Cowell, F. Max Müller and Takakusu Junjiro / Buddhist Mahâyâna Texts. Part 1. The Buddha-karita of Asvaghosha, translated from the Sanskrit by E. B. Cowell. Part 2. The larger Sukhâvatî-vyûha, the smaller Sukhâvatî-vyûha, the Vagrakkhedikâ, the larger Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra, the smaller Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra, translated by F. Max Müller. The Amitâyur dhyâna-sûtra, translated by J. Takakusu.
50 / Index / 1910 / Moriz Winternitz, with a preface by Arthur Anthony Macdonell / General index to the names and subject-matter of the sacred books of the East.


References

1. sacred-texts.com

External links

• Sacred Books of the East, PDF ebooks at holybooks.com
• Sacred Books of the East, at sacred-texts.com
• Scanned pdfs of complete set of Sacred Books of the East
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sat Dec 14, 2019 4:56 am

Georg Bühler
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 12/13/19

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The Rigveda hymns were composed and preserved by oral tradition. They were memorized and verbally transmitted with "unparalleled fidelity" across generations for many centuries. According to Barbara West, it was probably first written down about the 3rd-century BCE. The manuscripts were made from birch bark or palm leaves, which decompose and therefore were routinely copied over the generations to help preserve the text.

There are, for example, 30 manuscripts of Rigveda at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, collected in the 19th century by Georg Bühler, Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different parts of India, including Kashmir, Gujarat, the then Rajaputana, Central Provinces etc. They were transferred to Deccan College, Pune, in the late 19th century. They are in the Sharada and Devanagari scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of the Pune collection is dated to 1464.

-- Rigveda, by Wikipedia


Image

Professor Johann Georg Bühler (July 19, 1837 – April 8, 1898) was a scholar of ancient Indian languages and law.

Early life and education

Bühler was born to Rev. Johann G. Bühler in Borstel, Hanover, attended grammar school in Hanover, where he mastered Greek and Latin, then university as a student of theology and philosophy at Göttingen, where he studied classical philology, Sanskrit, Zend, Persian, Armenian, and Arabic. In 1858 he received his doctorate in eastern languages and archaeology; his thesis explored the suffix -tês in Greek grammar. That same year he went to Paris to study Sanskrit manuscripts, and in 1859 onwards to London, where he remained until October 1862. This time was used mainly for the study of the Vedic manuscripts at the India Office and the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. While in England, Bühler was first a private teacher and later (from May 1861) assistant to the Queen's librarian in Windsor Castle.[1]

Academic career

In Fall 1862 Bühler was appointed assistant at the Göttingen library; he moved there in October. While settling in, he received an invitation via Prof. Max Müller to join the Benares Sanskrit College in India. Before this could be settled, he also received (again via Prof. Müller) an offer of Professor of Oriental Languages at the Elphinstone College, Bombay (now Mumbai). Bühler responded immediately and arrived on February 10, 1863 in Bombay. Noted Sanskrit and legal scholar Kashinath Trimbak Telang was then a student at the college. In the next year Bühler became a Fellow of Bombay University and member of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. He was to remain in India until 1880. During this time he collected a remarkable number of texts for the Indian government and the libraries of Berlin, Cambridge University, and Oxford University.

In the year 1878 he published his translations of the Paiyalachchhi, the oldest Prakrit dictionary, with glossary and translation. He also took responsibility for the translation of the Apastamba, Dharmasutra etc. in Professor Max Müller's monumental compilation and translation, the Sacred Books of the East, vols. 2, 14, and 25.

On 8 April 1898 Bühler drowned in Lake Constance, under somewhat mysterious circumstances. Contemporary accounts mostly attributed it to an accident, but it has been speculated that it was a suicide motivated by Bühler's connections to a scandal involving his former student Alois Anton Führer.[2]

Selected publications

• Prakrit dictionary Paiyalacchinamamala ("Beiträge zur kunde der indogermanischen sprachen", Göttingen 1878)
• Erklärung der Ashokainschriften ("Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen gesellschaft", 1883–1893)
• The roots of the Dhatupatha not found in literature ("Wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes", 1894)
• On the origin of the Kharosthi alphabet (ibid. 1895)
• Digest of Hindu law cases (1867–1869; 1883)
• Panchatantra with English notes ("The Bombay sanscrit series", 1868; 1891)
• Apastambiya Dharmasutra (1868–1871; 1892–1894)
• Catalogue of Sanskrit manuscripts from Gujarat (4 vol., 1871–1873)
• Dachakumaracharita, with English notes ("Sanscrit series" no. 10, 1873, 1887; II, with P. Peterson)
• Vikramankacharita with an introduction (1875)
• Detailed report of a tour in Kashmir (1877)
• Sacred laws of the Aryas (I, 1879; II, 1883; vols. 2 and 14, "The Sacred Books of the East")
• Third book of sanscrit (1877; 1888)
• Leitfaden für den Elementarcursus des Sanskrit (1883)
• Inscriptions from the caves of the Bombay presidency ("Archaeological reports of Western India", 1883)
• Paleographic remarks on the Horrinzi palmleaf manuscript ("Anecdota oxoniensia", 1884)
• The laws of Manu translated ("The Sacred Books of the East", vol. 25, 1886)
• Translation of the Dhauli and Jaugada versions of the Ashoka edicts ("Archeological reports of Southern India", vol. I, 1887)
• On the Origin of the Indian Brahma Alphabet (German 1895, English 1898)

In the Schriften der Wiener Akademie der Wissenschaften:

• Über eine Sammlung von Sanskrit- und Prakrit-Handschriften (1881)
• Über das Zeitalter des Kashmirischen Dichters Somadeva (1885)
• Über eine Inschrift des Königs Dharasena von Valabhi (1886)
• Über eine neue Inschrift des Gurjara königs Dadda II (1887)
• Über eine Sendrakainschrift
• Über die indische Sekte der Yainas
• Über das Navasahasankacharita des Padmagupta (1888, with Th. Zachariae)
• Über das Sukrtasamkirtana des Arisimha (1889)
• Die indischen Inschriften und das Alter der indischen Kunstpoesie (1890)
• Indian studies: I. The Jagaducarita of Sarvananda, a historical romance from Gujarat (1892); II. Contributions to the history of the Mahabharata (with J. Kirste); III. On the origin of the Brahmi alphabet (1895)

References

1. Jolly, J.; Thite, G. U. (2010). "GEORG BÜHLER (1837-1898)". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 91: 155–186. JSTOR 41692167.
2. Charles Allen (2010), The Buddha and Dr. Führer: An Archaeological Scandal, Penguin Books India, pp. 173–176, ISBN 9780143415749

Bibliography

• Kirfel, Willibald (1955), Bühler, Johann Georg. In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB) Vol. 2, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, ISBN 3-428-00183-4, S. 726 f.
• Winternitz, Moritz (1903), Bühler, Georg. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Vol. 47, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 339–348.
• Jolly, Julius (1899). Georg Bühler 1837 - 1898, Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, 1. Band, 1. Heft, A; Strassburg : Trübner

External links

• Works by Georg Bühler at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Georg Bühler at Internet Archive
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sat Dec 14, 2019 5:38 am

Kashinath Trimbak Telang
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Accessed: 12/13/19

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Kashinath Trimbak Telang CIE (20 August 1850, Bombay – 1 September 1893, Bombay) was an Indologist and Indian judge at Bombay High Court.

Biography

By profession an advocate of the high court, he also took a vigorous share in literary, social, municipal and political work, as well as in the affairs of the University of Bombay, over which he presided as vice-chancellor from 1892 until his death.[1]

At the age of five Telang was sent to the Amarchaud Wadi vernacular school, and in 1859 entered the high school in Bombay which bears the name of Mountstuart Elphinstone. Here he came under the influence of Narayan Mahadev Purmanand, a teacher of fine intellect and force of character, afterwards one of Telang's most intimate friends.[1]

From this school he passed to the Elphinstone College, of which he became a fellow, and after taking the degree of M.A. and LL.B., decided to follow the example of Bal Mangesh Wagle, the first Indian admitted by the judges to practise on the original side of the high court, a position more like the status of a barrister than a vakil or pleader. He passed the examination and was enrolled in 1872.[1]

His learning and other gifts soon brought him an extensive practice. He had complete command of the English language, and his intimacy with Sanskrit enabled him to study and quote the Hindu law-books with an ease not readily attained by European counsel. Telang, finding his career assured, declined an offer of official employment. But in 1889 he accepted a seat on the high court bench, where his judgments are recognized as authoritative, especially on the Hindu law.[1]

He was syndic of the university from 1881, and vice-chancellor from 1892 until his death. In that year also he was elected President of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. These two offices had never been held by a native of India before.The decoration of C.I.E. [Order of the Indian Empire] conferred on him in the 1884 Birthday Honours[2] was a recognition of his services as a member of a mixed commission appointed by the government to deal with the educational system of the whole of India. He was nominated to the Bombay legislative council in 1884, but declined a similar position on the viceroy's council. He was the first secretary of the Indian National Congress.[1]


Along with Pherozshah Mehta, he was the originator of the Bombay Presidency Association. When a student he had won the Bhugwandas scholarship in Sanskrit, and in this language his later studies were profound. His translation of the Bhagavad Gita into English prose and verse is a standard work, and available in Max Müller's monumental compilation, the Sacred Books of the East, vol. 8, as the Bhagavadgita With the Sanatsugâtiya and the Anugitâ (published 1882). Also notable is his publication, in 1884, of the historical Sanskrit play, Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta under the auspices of the Education Department and the Government Central Book Depot, Bombay. He criticized Albrecht Weber's hypothesis that the story of the Ramayana was influenced by the Homeric epics. While devoted to the sacred classics of the Hindus, Telang did not neglect his own vernacular, Marathi literature being enriched by his translation of Lessing's Nathan the Wise, and an essay on Social Compromise.[1]

Works

• The Bhagavadgîtâ With the Sanatsugâtîya and the Anugîtâ (1882)
• Rise of the Maráthá Power (1900)
• Mudrarakshasa With the Commentary of Dhundiraja (1915)

Notes

1. Chisholm 1911.
2. "No. 25357". The London Gazette. 23 May 1884. p. 2287.

References

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Telang, Kashinath Trimbak". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Vasant Narayan Naik (1895). Kashinath Trimbak Telang, the Man and His Times. G. A. Natesan.
[1]

External links

• Works by or about Kashinath Trimbak Telang at Internet Archive
• Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta (critical notes and introduction in English) includes 1713 CE commentary of Dhundhiraj; at google books [1]
• The Bhagvadgita with the Sanatsugatiya and Anugita Vol.8, The Sacred Books of the East. Translated by Kashinath Trimbak Telang [2]
• Brief biography at Bombay High Court
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sat Dec 14, 2019 5:56 am

Mountstuart Elphinstone
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 12/13/19

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

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The manuscript of the Divine Comedy, a poem composed by Dante Alighieri in the 14th century, was written in the second half of the 15th century. It is a beautiful codex on parchment and richly illustrated. It was given to the Society by Mountstuart Elphinstone, governor of Bombay and President of the Society from 1819–1827 and bears his signature.[3] In 1930, the Italian government under Benito Mussolini offered the society one million pounds, calling the book a national treasure.[3] Mussolini believed that the offer could not be refused, but to his shock, the Society turned down his request stating that it was donated by an ex-member of the Society and hence it was their property.

-- The Asiatic Society of Mumbai, by Wikipedia


Image
Mountstuart Elphinstone
Governor of Bombay
In office: 1 November 1819 – 1 November 1827
Governor-General: The Marquess of Hastings
The Earl Amhurst
Preceded by: Sir Evan Nepean, Bt
Succeeded by: Sir John Malcolm
Personal details
Born: 6 October 1779, Dumbarton, Dumbartonshire, Scotland
Died: 20 November 1859 (aged 80), Hookwood, Surrey, England
Nationality: British
Alma mater: Royal High School
Occupation: Statesman, historian

Image
Mountstuart Elphinstone's memorial in St Paul's Cathedral

The Hon Mountstuart Elphinstone FRSE (6 October 1779 – 20 November 1859) was a Scottish statesman and historian, associated with the government of British India. He later became the Governor of Bombay (now Mumbai) where he is credited with the opening of several educational institutions accessible to the Indian population. Besides being a noted administrator, he wrote books on India and Afghanistan.

Early life

Born in Dumbarton, Dumbartonshire (now Dunbartonshire) in 1779, and educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, he was the fourth son of the 11th Baron Elphinstone in the peerage of Scotland. Having been appointed to the civil service of the British East India Company, of which one of his uncles was a director, he arrived at Calcutta (now Kolkata) early in 1796 where he filled several subordinate posts. In 1799, he escaped massacre in Benares (now Varanasi) by the followers of the deposed Nawab of Awadh Wazir Ali Khan. In 1801 he was transferred to the Diplomatic Service where he was posted as the assistant to the British resident at the court of the Peshwa ruler Baji Rao II.

Envoy

In the Peshwa court he obtained his first opportunity of distinction, being attached in the capacity of diplomatist to the mission of Sir Arthur Wellesley to the Marathas. When, on the failure of negotiations, war broke out, Elphinstone, though a civilian, acted as virtual aide-de-camp to Wellesley. At the Battle of Assaye, and throughout the campaign, he displayed rare courage and knowledge of tactics such that Wellesley told him he ought to have been a soldier. In 1804, when the war ended, Elphinstone was appointed British resident at Nagpur.[1] This gave him plenty of leisure time, which he spent in reading and study. Later, in 1807, he completed a short stint at Gwalior.

In 1808 he was appointed the first British envoy to the court of Kabul, Afghanistan, with the object of securing a friendly alliance with the Afghans against Napoleon's planned advance on India. However this proved of little value, because Shah Shuja was driven from the throne by his brother before it could be ratified. The most valuable permanent result of the embassy was in Elphinstone's work titled Account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependencies in Persia and India (1815).[1]

After spending about a year in Calcutta arranging the report of his mission, Elphinstone was appointed in 1811 to the important and difficult post of resident at Pune (formerly known as Poona). The difficulty arose from the general complication of Maratha politics, and especially from the weakness of the Peshwas, which Elphinstone rightly read from the first. The tenuous peace between the Peshwas was broken in 1817 with the Marathas declaring war on the British. Elphinstone assumed command of the military during an important crisis during the Battle of Khadki and managed to secure a victory[1] despite his non-military background. As reparations, Peshwa territories were annexed by the British. Elphinstone became the Commissioner of the Deccan in 1818.

Governor

Image
Elphinstone College, Mumbai, established in 1856

In 1819, Elphinstone was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Bombay, a post he held until 1827. During his tenure, he greatly promoted education in India, at a time when opinion in Britain was against educating the "natives". He may fairly be regarded as the founder of the system of state education in India. One of his principal achievements was the compilation of the "Elphinstone code."[1] He also returned many lands that had appropriated by the British to the Raja of Satara.

He built the first bungalow in Malabar Hill during this time, and following his example, many prominent people took up residence here. It soon became a fashionable locality, and remains so to the present.[2]

His connection with the Bombay Presidency is commemorated in the endowment of Elphinstone College by local communities, and in the erection of a marble statue by the European inhabitants.[1] However, the Elphinstone Road railway station and the Elphinstone Circle, both in Mumbai city, are not named after him but in honour of his nephew, John, 13th Lord Elphinstone, who later also became Governor of Bombay in the 1850s.

The township of Elphinstone, Victoria, Australia, was named after him. The suburb of Mount Stuart, Tasmania, Australia, and its main road, Elphinstone Road, were also named after him.[3]

There is a statue of him in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral in London.[4]

Return to Great Britain

Returning to Britain in 1829, after an interval of two years' travel, Elphinstone continued to influence public affairs,[1] but based in England rather than Scotland. Nevertheless, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1830 with his proposer being Sir John Robison.[5]

Sir John Robison KH FRSE FRSSA (11 June 1778 – 7 March 1843) was a Scottish inventor and writer on scientific subjects. He was the son of the physicist and mathematician, Professor John Robison.

-- John Robison (inventor), by Wikipedia


He twice refused appointment as Governor-General of India, preferring to finish his two-volume work, History of India (1841). He died in Hookwood, Surrey, England, on 20 November 1859. He is buried in Limpsfield churchyard.[6]

James Sutherland Cotton later wrote his biography as part of the Rulers of India series in 1892.[7]

The historian James Grant Duff named his son after Elphinstone.

Works

• Elphinstone, Mountstuart. The History of India. Full text online at ibiblio.org (Both volumes in HTML form, complete, chapter-by-chapter, with all footnotes)
• Elphinstone, Mountstuart (1843) [1841]. The History of India (Vol. 1). London : J. Murray.
• Elphinstone, Mountstuart (1841). The History of India (Vol. 2). London : J. Murray.
• Elphinstone, Mountstuart (1905). History of India (9th ed.). London: J. Murray. (Index)
• The Rise of British Power in the East (1887)

See also

• Asiatic Society of Bombay
• Horniman Circle Gardens

References

1. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Elphinstone, Mountstuart". Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 298–299.
2. "Malabar Hill: How a jungle turned into a posh address". DNA India. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
3. http://www.mountstuarttas.org.au/?q=con ... rt-history
4. St Paul's – The New Church
5. Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002 (PDF). The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN 0 902 198 84 X.
6. Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002 (PDF). The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN 0 902 198 84 X.
7. "Rulers of India: Mountstuart Elphinstone by J. S. Cotton". The English Historical Review. 7 (28): 813. October 1892. JSTOR 547455.

Further reading

• "Elphinstone, Mountstuart". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8752.(Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
• J. S. Cotton, Mountstuart Elphinstone (Rulers of India series), (1892)
• T. E. Colebrooke, Life of Mountstuart Elphinstone (1884)
• G. W. Forrest, Official Writings of Mountstuart Elphinstone (1884)
• Harrington, Jack (2010), Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India, Ch. 5, New York: Palgrave Macmillan., ISBN 978-0-230-10885-1
• Montstuart Elphinstone (GFDL site)
• William Dalrymple, White Mughals Oxford UP 2002.
• Gautam Chandra, Veerendra Kumar Mishra & Pranjali. (2018) From inactivity to encouragement: the contribution of Lord Elphinstone to the educational development of the Madras Presidency (1837–1842), History of Education, 47:6, 763-778, DOI: 10.1080/0046760X.2018.1484181

External links

• The harsh lesson of Afghanistan: little has changed in 200 years, Ben Macintyre, November 13, 2008, The Times of London, Times Online, timesonline.co.uk
• "Archival material relating to Mountstuart Elphinstone". UK National Archives.
• Mountstuart Elphinstone, and the making of southwestern India by J S Cotton (1911)
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sat Dec 14, 2019 6:28 am

The Asiatic Society of Mumbai
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 12/13/19

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO READ THE COPYRIGHT NOTICE AT THIS LINK BEFORE YOU READ THE FOLLOWING WORK, THAT IS AVAILABLE SOLELY FOR PRIVATE STUDY, SCHOLARSHIP OR RESEARCH PURSUANT TO 17 U.S.C. SECTION 107 AND 108. IN THE EVENT THAT THE LIBRARY DETERMINES THAT UNLAWFUL COPYING OF THIS WORK HAS OCCURRED, THE LIBRARY HAS THE RIGHT TO BLOCK THE I.P. ADDRESS AT WHICH THE UNLAWFUL COPYING APPEARED TO HAVE OCCURRED. THANK YOU FOR RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF COPYRIGHT OWNERS.


Image

The Asiatic Society of Mumbai
Predecessor •Literary Society of Bombay
•Asiatic Society of Bombay
Formation 1804
Founder Sir James Mackintosh
Founded at Mumbai
Type Learned Society
Literary Society
Location
Town Hall, Shahid Bhagat Singh Marg, Fort, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Coordinates 18.931589°N 72.836131°E
Membership
2649
President
Prof. Vispi Balaporia
Website http://www.asiaticsociety.org.in

The Asiatic Society of Mumbai (formerly Asiatic Society of Bombay) is a learned society in the field of Asian studies based in Mumbai, India. It can trace its origin to the Literary Society of Bombay which first met in Mumbai on 26 November 1804, and was founded by Sir James Mackintosh. It was formed with the intention of "promoting useful knowledge, particularly such as is now immediately connected with India". After the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was established in London in 1823, the Literary Society of Bombay became affiliated with it and was known as the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (BBRAS) since 1830. The Bombay Geographical Society merged with it in 1873, followed by the Anthropological Society of Bombay in 1896. In 1954, it was separated from the Royal Asiatic Society and renamed the Asiatic Society of Bombay.[1] In 2002,[2] it acquired its present name.[1] It is funded by an annual grant from the Central Government of India.

Aims and Objectives

The aims and objectives of the Society when it was formed in the year 1804 were "to promote useful knowledge particularly such as is now immediately connected with India". Thereafter, on several occasions, some more aims and objectives were added such as encouraging the research studies in the language, philosophy, arts and natural and social sciences in relation to India and Asia, publishing journals, maintaining a library and museum, establishing institutes and centres which fulfill aims and objects of the Society.

Holdings

Image
'The Society in its early days'

The library of the Society has over a hundred thousand books out of which 15,000 are classified as rare and valuable. It also has priceless artifacts and over 3,000 ancient manuscripts in Persian, Sanskrit and Prakrit, mostly on paper but some on palm leaf. The numismatic collection of 11,829 coins includes a gold coin of Kumaragupta I, a rare gold mohur of Akbar and coins issued by Shivaji. Its map collection comprises 1300 maps.[1] The collection of the Society include:

1. One of only two known original copies of Dante's Divine Comedy.[1]
2. The manuscript of Vasupujyacharita (1242), a Sanskrit text on the life of the Jain Tirthankara Vasupujya.
3. The manuscript of Shahnama of Firdausi (1853), written in Persian.
4. The Aranyakaparvan (16th century) manuscript contains illustrated text from the Mahabharat and is written in Sanskrit.
5. Five Buddhist caskets excavated in the ancient port town of Sopara near the suburb of Nala Sopara.

The Divine Comedy

Image
'Asiatic Library, Fort, Mumbai'

The manuscript of the Divine Comedy, a poem composed by Dante Alighieri in the 14th century, was written in the second half of the 15th century. It is a beautiful codex on parchment and richly illustrated. It was given to the Society by Mountstuart Elphinstone, governor of Bombay and President of the Society from 1819–1827 and bears his signature.[3] In 1930, the Italian government under Benito Mussolini offered the society one million pounds, calling the book a national treasure.[3] Mussolini believed that the offer could not be refused, but to his shock, the Society turned down his request stating that it was donated by an ex-member of the Society and hence it was their property.

Functions of the society

Image
'Close-up picture of the building'

• Holding: Preserving, conserving, cataloguing and documenting holdings.
• Research: Generating supporting and disseminating research in its chosen fields.
• Public interface: Providing a forum for debate and discussions on topics of public interest.

The adopt-a-book scheme was recently introduced by the Society which allows patrons to fund the upkeep of rare books. The Society is financially in the red with a loss of Rs 1 crore (10 million). Due to the availability of information from the internet, membership has dropped significantly in recent years.

Journal

Image
Located at Fort, Mumbai

Initially, the Literary Society of Bombay published its transactions under the title, Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay. In 1841, the Asiatic Society of Bombay commenced publishing its journal titled, Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. From 1955 to 2002, it published its journal under the name, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay and from 2002, its journal has been published under the name, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Mumbai.

Digitization of Collection

The Society has undertaken digitization of all its collection including books, newspapers, manuscripts, government publications, journals and maps and has made them available on the Society's digital platform ‘Granth Sanjeevani'.[4][5]

Awards[6]

Campbell Memorial Gold Medal


The Campbell Memorial Gold Medal was established in 1907 and is awarded to recognize distinguished services on the subject of Oriental History, Folklore or Ethnology which further the investigation and encouragement of Oriental Arts, Sciences and Literature.

The first winner was archaeologist Aurel Stein in 1908.

MM.Dr. P.V.Kane Gold Medal

Established in 1946, the medal is awarded for valuable research work in Vedic Studies or in Classical Sanskrit with special reference to Dharma Shastra and Poetics.

Silver Medal

The Silver Medal is awarded to a member of the Society who has written a book adjudged as the best in the given 3-year period.

Town Hall

Main article: [[:Town Hall Mumbai]]

Image
Town Hall Mumbai Building

The Asiatic Society of Mumbai Town Hall or just Town Hall (colloquially Called "Tondal" in the 19th century) that houses the Asiatic Society of Mumbai was not built in 1804, the year in which the Literary Society of Bombay was formed. Though Sir James Mackintosh mooted the proposal for a grand edifice, it was not completed until the year 1833 after many fits and starts, when the Government of Bombay agreed to make up for the shortfall in funds in return for office-space.

Apart from the Asiatic Society of Mumbai, the building also houses State Central Library and a museum, Maharashtra Women's Association, and the Additional Stamp Controller Office.

The edifice is in the prime Fort area of South Mumbai overlooking the Horniman Circle Gardens and the Reserve Bank of India.

Administration

The Managing Committee looks after the administration of the Society. The Managing Committee consists of a President, Four Vice Presidents, an Hon. Secretary, who is also the Chief Executive Officer of the Society, and Fifteen members who are elected from among the Resident members. In addition to the elected members, the Central Government and State Government have one representative each.

In September 2019, Vispi Balaporia became the first woman president of The Asiatic Society of Mumbai in its 215-year-old history.[7]

Early Presidents

Literary Society of Bombay (1804)


• 1804 Hon. Sir James Mackintosh
• 1811 Dr R. Stewart
• 1815 William Taylor Money
• 1818 Olyett Woodhouse
1819 Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone (Governor of Bombay)
• 1827 Sir John Malcolm (Governor of Bombay)

Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1829)

• 1830 John Romer (Acting Governor of Bombay)
• 1831 Lt-Col Vans Kennedy
• 1835 Rev. John Wilson, FRS
• 1843 Hon. George William Anderson (Acting Governor of Bombay)
• 1846 Hon. Lestock Robert Reid (Acting Governor of Bombay)
• 1849 Hon. John Pollard Willoughby
• 1853 Rev. John Stevenson
• 1855 Hon. William Edward Frere
• 1864 Hon. Justice Henry Newton
• 1869 Hon. Henry Pendock St George Tucker
• 1875 Hon. James J. Gibbs
• 1881 Hon. Sir Raymond West
1893 Hon. Justice Kashinath Trimbak Telang
• 1894 Hon. Herbert Mills Birdwood (Acting Governor of Bombay)
• 1895 Hon. Justice Sir John Jardine
• 1897 Dr. Peter Peterson
• 1900 Hon. Justice Edward Townshend Candy
• 1903 Hon. E.M.H. Fulton

See also

• The Asiatic Society

Notes and References[edit]

1. Bavadam, Lyla (8–21 May 2010). "Treasure house". Frontline. 27 (10). Retrieved 21 May 2010.
2. According to its official website, it was renamed in 2005
3. Tharoor, Ishaan (2 January 2009). "The Divine Comedy of Mumbai" TIME. Retrieved on 14 February 2011
4. "Granth Sanjeevani". granthsanjeevani.com. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
5. "Granth Sanjeevani". granthsanjeevani.com. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
6. "Honorary Fellowships and Medals". The Asiatic Society of Mumbai. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
7. "Asiatic Society of Mumbai gets first woman president". The Indian Express. 2 September 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2019.

External links

• official website
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sat Dec 14, 2019 6:50 am

James Mackintosh
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 12/13/19

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

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Image
Sir James Mackintosh
—by Sir Thomas Lawrence.
Born 24 October 1765
Aldourie, Inverness-shire
Died 30 May 1832 (aged 66)
Citizenship United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
Education University of Aberdeen
Occupation Political philosopher and politician
Political party:
Whig

Sir James Mackintosh FRS FRSE (24 October 1765 – 30 May 1832) was a Scottish jurist, Whig politician and historian. His studies and sympathies embraced many interests. He was trained as a doctor and barrister, and worked also as a journalist, judge, administrator, professor, philosopher and politician.

Early life

Mackintosh was born at Aldourie, 7 miles from Inverness, the son of Captain John Mackintosh of Kellachie.[1] Both his parents were from old Highland families. His mother died while he was a child, and his father was frequently abroad, so he was brought up by his grandmother, and then schooled at Fortrose Seminary academy. At age thirteen he proclaimed himself a Whig, and during playtime he persuaded his friends to join him in debates modelled on those of the House of Commons.[2]

He went in 1780 to King's College, University of Aberdeen, where he made a lifelong friend of Robert Hall, later a famous preacher. In 1784 he began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. He participated to the full in the intellectual ferment, became friendly with Benjamin Constant, but did not quite neglect his medical studies, and took his degree in 1787.

In 1788 Mackintosh moved to London, then agitated by the trial of Warren Hastings and the first lapse into insanity of George III. He was much more interested in these and other political events than in his professional prospects. He was also a founder member of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (later the RSPCA).[3]

Marriages and children

In 1789 he married Catherine Stuart, whose brother Daniel later edited the Morning Post. His wife's prudence counteracted Mackintosh's own unpractical temperament, and his efforts in journalism became fairly profitable. They had a son, who died in infancy, and three daughters:

• Mary Mackintosh (1789–1876) married Claudius James Rich
• Maitland Mackintosh (1792–1861), married William Erskine
• Catherine Mackintosh (1795-18??) married Sir William Wiseman, 7th Baronet (1794–1845), was the mother of Sir William Wiseman, 8th Baronet.

In 1797 his wife died, and next year he married Catherine Allen (died 6 May 1830), sister-in-law of Josiah II and John Wedgwood, through whom he introduced Coleridge to the Morning Post. They had two sons, one of whom died in infancy, and two daughters:

• Frances Emma Elizabeth Mackintosh (Fanny) (1800–1889), married Hensleigh Wedgwood.
• Robert Mackintosh (1803), died in infancy.
• Bessy Mackintosh (1804–1823)
• Robert James Mackintosh (1806–1864), colonial governor.

French Revolution

Mackintosh was soon absorbed in the question of the time, the French Revolution. In April 1791, after long meditation, he published his Vindiciae Gallicae: A Defence of the French Revolution and its English Admirers, a reply to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France. It placed the author in the front rank of European publicists, and won him the friendship of some of the most distinguished men of the time. The success of the Vindiciae finally decided him to give up the medical for the legal profession. He was called to the bar in 1795 and gained a considerable reputation there as well as a tolerable practice.

Vindiciae Gallicae was the verdict of a philosophic liberal on the development of the French Revolution up to the spring of 1791. The excesses of the revolutionaries compelled him a few years later to oppose them and agree with Burke, but his earlier defence of the rights of man is a valuable statement of the cultured Whig's point of view at the time. Mackintosh was the first to see Burke's Reflections as "the manifesto of a counter revolution".[4]

Of the Origin of the Present Old Governments

It is impossible that such governments as have hitherto existed in the world, could have commenced by any other means than a total violation of every principle sacred and moral. The obscurity in which the origin of all the present old governments is buried, implies the iniquity and disgrace with which they began. The origin of the present government of America and France will ever be remembered, because it is honourable to record it; but with respect to the rest, even Flattery has consigned them to the tomb of time, without an inscription.

It could have been no difficult thing in the early and solitary ages of the world, while the chief employment of men was that of attending flocks and herds, for a banditti of ruffians to overrun a country, and lay it under contributions. Their power being thus established, the chief of the band contrived to lose the name of Robber in that of Monarch; and hence the origin of Monarchy and Kings.

The origin of the Government of England, so far as relates to what is called its line of monarchy, being one of the latest, is perhaps the best recorded. The hatred which the Norman invasion and tyranny begat, must have been deeply rooted in the nation, to have outlived the contrivance to obliterate it. Though not a courtier will talk of the curfew-bell, not a village in England has forgotten it.

Those bands of robbers having parcelled out the world, and divided it into dominions, began, as is naturally the case, to quarrel with each other. What at first was obtained by violence was considered by others as lawful to be taken, and a second plunderer succeeded the first. They alternately invaded the dominions which each had assigned to himself, and the brutality with which they treated each other explains the original character of monarchy. It was ruffian torturing ruffian. The conqueror considered the conquered, not as his prisoner, but his property. He led him in triumph rattling in chains, and doomed him, at pleasure, to slavery or death. As time obliterated the history of their beginning, their successors assumed new appearances, to cut off the entail of their disgrace, but their principles and objects remained the same. What at first was plunder, assumed the softer name of revenue; and the power originally usurped, they affected to inherit.

From such beginning of governments, what could be expected but a continued system of war and extortion? It has established itself into a trade. The vice is not peculiar to one more than to another, but is the common principle of all.
There does not exist within such governments sufficient stamina whereon to engraft reformation; and the shortest and most effectual remedy is to begin anew on the ground of the nation.

What scenes of horror, what perfection of iniquity, present themselves in contemplating the character and reviewing the history of such governments! If we would delineate human nature with a baseness of heart and hypocrisy of countenance that reflection would shudder at and humanity disown, it is kings, courts and cabinets that must sit for the portrait. Man, naturally as he is, with all his faults about him, is not up to the character.

Can we possibly suppose that if governments had originated in a right principle, and had not an interest in pursuing a wrong one, the world could have been in the wretched and quarrelsome condition we have seen it? What inducement has the farmer, while following the plough, to lay aside his peaceful pursuit, and go to war with the farmer of another country? or what inducement has the manufacturer? What is dominion to them, or to any class of men in a nation? Does it add an acre to any man's estate, or raise its value? Are not conquest and defeat each of the same price, and taxes the never-failing consequence?- Though this reasoning may be good to a nation, it is not so to a government. War is the Pharo-table of governments, and nations the dupes of the game.

If there is anything to wonder at in this miserable scene of governments more than might be expected, it is the progress which the peaceful arts of agriculture, manufacture and commerce have made beneath such a long accumulating load of discouragement and oppression. It serves to show that instinct in animals does not act with stronger impulse than the principles of society and civilisation operate in man. Under all discouragements, he pursues his object, and yields to nothing but impossibilities.


-- Rights of Man, by Thomas Paine


Charles James Fox singled out Mackintosh's book as that which did most justice to the French Revolution, and he preferred it over Burke and Thomas Paine.[5] After Paine's Rights of Man, Mackintosh's book was the most successful reply to Burke and Burke's biographer F. P. Lock considers it "one of the best of the replies to Burke, in some respects superior to Rights of Man".[6]

The poet Thomas Campbell claimed that had it not been for Mackintosh's book, Burke's anti-revolutionary opinions would have become universal amongst the educated classes and that he ensured that he became "the apostle of liberalism".[7]

Mackintosh wrote to Burke on 22 December 1796, saying that "From the earliest moments of reflexion your writings were my chief study and delight...The enthusiasm with which I then embraced them is now ripened into solid Conviction by the experience and meditation of more mature age. For a time indeed seduced by the love of what I thought liberty I ventured to oppose your Opinions without ever ceasing to venerate your character...I cannot say...that I can even now assent to all your opinions on the present politics of Europe. But I can with truth affirm that I subscribe to your general Principles; that I consider them as the only solid foundation both of political Science and of political prudence".[8] Burke replied that "As it is on all hands allowed that you were the most able advocate for the cause which you supported, your sacrifice to truth and mature reflexion, adds much to your glory".[9] However, in private Burke was sceptical of what he considered Mackintosh's "supposed conversion".[10] Burke invited Mackintosh to spend Christmas with him at his home in Beaconsfield, where he was struck by Burke's "astonishing effusions of his mind in conversation. Perfectly free from all taint of affectation...Minutely and accurately informed, to a wonderful exactness, with respect to every fact relative to the French Revolution".[11]

When Mackintosh visited Paris in 1802 during the Peace of Amiens, he responded to compliments from French admirers of his defence of their revolution by saying: “Messieurs, vous m’avez si bien refuté” [Gentlemen, you refuted me so well ].[12]

Lawyer

As a lawyer his greatest public efforts were his lectures (1799) at Lincoln's Inn on the law of nature and nations, of which the introductory discourse was published and ran to several editions; the resulting fame helped open doors for him later in life. Mackintosh was also famed for his speech in 1803 defending Jean Gabriel Peltier, a French refugee, against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul (military dictator) of France. Peltier had argued that Napoleon should be killed at a time when Britain and France were at peace. In front of an audience of ambassadors, it took only one minute for the jury to convict Jean-Gabriel, but the sentence was never applied, it was decidedly a political trial. J-G Peltier was no more satisfied with the judgment than Napoleon. The newspapers of France received the defense of praising the pleading under pain of suppression ! The speech was widely published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël, who became a friend of Mackintosh's.

[A]ll the weapons directed against the humanist conception of man can be summed up under one modern concept: the "Conservative Revolution."...

Romanticism was consciously promoted by the European oligarchy as a movement which advocated the total rejection of reason and humanism, upon which Weimar classicism was based. One of the oligarchy's most influential agents, who supported the young Romantics with body and soul, was Madame de Stael, daughter of the Swiss banker Jacques Necker, who as French finance minister had ruined France for the sake of the Swiss banks. Heinrich Heine has pointedly described how Madame de Stael and her circles were angered that the "republican" culture found in the Weimar classics, in musical soirees at home, or in the great theater houses had begun to spread through large portions of the population. In a blue rage, she attempted to regain her own control of culture by luring young artists into her own salon. These recruits threw themselves into action with the same abandon as today's "beautiful people" or the nobility's "Jet set." Not only did this romantic movement produce the organized terrorism of Giuseppe Mazzini's "Young Europe," but it also spawned the tendency stretching from the turn-of-the-century youth movement to today's counterculture "alternative" movement, along with its ideologues Friedrich Nietzsche, Paul de Lagarde, Julius Langbehn, Alfred Rosenberg, and so forth. The Nazis too drank out of this "alternative" trough.


-- The Hitler Book, edited by Helga Zepp-LaRouche


In 1803 he was knighted.

Judge of Bombay

He was appointed Recorder (chief judge) of Bombay, taking up the post in 1804. Within a few months he had established the Bombay Literary Society at his home, where a circle of intellectuals and friends would meet to discuss the history, geography, zoology and botany of the sub-continent as well as its peoples and languages, customs and religions.

The first meeting of the Society was held on the 26th November 1804, at Parell-house, where Sir James Mackintosh then resided; -- the Discourse which he read on that occasion is prefixed to the present volume. At this meeting the following persons were present:

The Honourable Jonathan Duncan, governor of Bombay.
The Honourable Sir James Mackintosh, knight, recorder of Bombay.
The Right Honourable Viscount Valentia.
General Oliver Nicolls, commander-in-chief at Bombay.
Stuart Moncrieff Threiplond, esq. advocate-general.
Helenus Scott, M.D. first member of the medical board.
William Dowdeswell. esq. barrister-at-law.
Henry Salt, esq. (now consul-general in Egypt).
Lieutenant-colonel Brooks (now military accountant-general at Bombay).
Lieutenant-colonel Joseph Boden, quarter-master-general at Bombay.
Lieutenant-colonel Thomas Charlton Harris, deputy quarter-master general at Bombay.
Charles Forbes, esq.
Robert Drummond, M.D.
Colonel Jasper Nicolls (now quarter-master-general in Bengal).
Major Edward Moor.
George Keir, M.D.
William Erskine, esq.

***

List of the Members of the Bombay Literary Society.

The Hon. Jonathan Duncan.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Viscount Valentia.
The Hon. Sir James Mackintosh.
General O. Nicolls.
Helenus Scott, Esq.
George Keir, Esq.
Robert Drummond, M.D.
S.M. Treipland, Esq.
William Dowdeswell, Esq.
Henry Salt, Esq.
Lieut.-colonel William Brookes.
Lieut.-colonel Joseph Boden.
Lieut.-colonel T.C. Harris.
Colonel Jasper Nicolls.
Major Edward Moor.
Charles Forbes, Esq.
William Erskine, Esq.
Robert Steuart, Esq.
Francis Wrede, Esq.
Robert Henshaw, Esq.
Major D. Price.
William Boag, Esq.
Lieut.-colonel A. Hay.
Colonel Alexander Walker.
Lieut.-colonel C.B. Burr.
Lieut. E.S. Fressell.
John Pringle, Esq.
Alexander Mackonochie.
Dom Pedro de Alcantara, bishop of Antiphile, and apostolical vicar in the dominions of the Great Mogul.
Lewis Corkran, Esq.
Thomas Lechmere, Esq.
Benjamin Heyne, M.D.
Captain Thomas Arthur.
James Milne, M.D.
Hugh Bell, Esq.
Edward Nash, Esq.
James Hallett, Esq.
James Morley, Esq.
Joseph Cumberlege, Esq.
T.M. Keate, Esq.
Major-general Charles Reynolds.
Reverend Arnold Burrows.
William Sandwith, Esq.
Captain David Seton.
Reverend N. Wade
William Taylor Money, Esq.
P.C. Baird, Esq.
Dr. James Skene.
Charles C. Mackintosh, Esq.
Samuel Manesty, Esq.
Ollyett Woodhouse, Esq.
Luke Ashburner, Esq.
Sir George Staunton, Bart.
Gideon Colquhoun, Esq.
J.G. Ravenshaw, Esq.
Edward Hawke Locker, Esq.
Jonathan Thorpe, Esq.
David White, M.D.
John Leyden, M.D.
Claudius James Rich, Esq.
John Taylor, M.D.
Captain Thomas Gordon Caulfield, R.N.
George Cumming Osborne, Esq.
William Newnham, Esq.
George Sotheby, Esq.
Hugh George Macklin, Esq.
David Deas Inglis, Esq.
Captain Francis Irvine.
Major William Hamilton.
Captain William Miles.
John Hine, Esq.
C.T. Ellis, Esq.
Captain A. Robertson.
Charles Daw, Esq.
Reverend W. Canning.
James Inverarity, Esq.
William A. Morgan, Esq.
Capital M. Williams.
Captain A. Gregory.
Stephen Babington, Esq.
John Wedderburn, Esq.
James Henderson, Esq.
Captain R.H. Hough.
James Calder, Esq.
Lieut.-general the Hon. Sir John Abercromby, K.C.B.
Dougal Christie, Esq.
Captain Edward Frederick.
Hill Morgan, M.D.
Andrew Jukes, M.D.
Brigadier-general Sir John Malcolm, K.C.B.
Lieutenant James Macmurdo.
David Craw, Esq.
William Mackie, Esq.
Captain C. Tyler, R.N.
Captain John Briggs.
Lieutenant J.W. Graham.
James Farish, Esq.
Hon. M.S. Elphinstone.
Byram Rowles, Esq.
Major Henry Rudland.
Hon. Sir John Newbolt.
Lieut.-colonel William Franklin.
John Copland, Esq.
Charles Norris, Esq.
Captain W. Bruce.
Edward William Hunt, Esq.
Captain B. Hall, R.N.
Lieutenant Samuel Hallifax.
Charles Northcote, Esq.
Captain Sir William Wiseman, Bart. R.N.
William Baillie, Esq.
Lieutenant John Jopp.
Lieutenant William Miller.
Reverend R. Jackson.
Lieut.-colonel John Griffiths.
The Hon. Sir A. Anstruther.
Colonel Urquhart.
Major John Lyall.
Mr. Benjamin Hammer.
Thomas Palmer, Esq.
Lieutenant John Wade.
Captain Heard.
Richard Jenkins, Esq.
Benjamin Noton, Esq.
Lieutenant John Hawkins.
T.G. Gardiner, Esq.
Captain L.C. Russell.
Captain Josiah Stewart.
Captain John Powell.
J.H. Pelly, Esq.
Mr. Archdeacon Barnes.
The Hon. T.S. Raffles.
J. Crawford, Esq.
Richard Woodhouse, Esq.
John Hector Cherry, Esq.
Mr. R. Hereford.
R.G. Morris, Esq.
Captain E.H. Bellassis.
David Malcolm, Esq.
Edward Charles Macnaghton, Esq.
The Lord Bishop of Calcutta.
J.S. Buckingham, Esq.
Theodore Forbes, Esq.
Mr. Asselin de Cherville.
Captain James Revitt Carnac.
James Staveley, Esq.
Sutherland Meek, M.D.

President

William Taylor Money, Esq.

Vice Presidents

Ollyett Woodhouse, Esq.
The Rev. Archdeacon George Barnes.

Secretaries

Stephen Babington, Esq.
John Wedderburn, Esq.

Treasurer.

Messrs. Forbes and Co.

-- Transactions of The Literary Society of Bombay, With Engravings


The group would later evolve into the Asiatic Society of Mumbai.

He was however not at home in India, where he became ill, was disappointed by his literary progress with the mooted History of England, and was glad to leave for England in November 1811.

Member of Parliament

Mackintosh declined the offer of Spencer Perceval to resume political life under the wing of the dominant Tory party, despite prospects of office. He entered Parliament in July 1813 as a Whig. He was the member for Nairn until 1818, and afterwards for Knaresborough, till his death. In London society, and in Paris during his occasional visits, he was a recognized favourite. On Madame de Staël's visit to London he was able to keep up in talk with her. A close friend was Richard Sharp MP, known as "Conversation Sharp".[13] and both men belonged to the Whig social group, the King of Clubs. Mackintosh's parliamentary career was marked by his liberalism: he opposed reactionary measures of the Tory government; he supported and later succeeded Samuel Romilly in his efforts to reform the criminal code; and took a leading part both in Catholic emancipation and in the Reform Bill. He was, however, too diffuse and elaborate to be a telling speaker in parliament.

Professor

From 1818 to 1824 he was professor of law and general politics in the East India Company's College at Haileybury. While there, on 12 August 1823, Mackintosh wrote a two-sheet letter from Cadogan Place, London to James Savage asking for source material for Savage's edition of The History of Taunton by Joshua Toulmin.[14]

Image
Sir James Mackintosh in later life.

In the midst of the attractions of London society and of his parliamentary avocations Mackintosh felt that the real work of his life was being neglected. His great ambition was to write a history of England; he also cherished the idea of making some worthy contribution to philosophy. It was not till 1828 that he set about the first task of his literary ambition. This was his Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy, prefixed to the seventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The dissertation, written mostly in ill-health and in snatches of time taken from his parliamentary engagements, was published in 1831. It was severely attacked in 1835 by James Mill in his Fragment on Mackintosh. About the same time he wrote for the Cabinet Cyclopaedia a History of England from the Earliest Times to the Final Establishment of the Reformation.

A privy councillor since 1828, Mackintosh was appointed Commissioner for the affairs of India under the Whig administration of 1830.

History of the Revolution in England in 1688

His history of the Glorious Revolution, for which he had done considerable research and collected a large amount of material, was not published till after his death. Mackintosh only completed it to the time of James II's abdication. However his voluminous notes on the Glorious Revolution came into the possession of Thomas Babington Macaulay, who used them for his own History of the Revolution. Mackintosh's notes stopped in the year of 1701, where Macaulay's History also ends.[15]

Mackintosh's work was published in 1834 and in his review of it, Macaulay said that he had "no hesitation" in proclaiming the book as "decidedly the best history now extant of the reign of James the Second" but lamented that "there is perhaps too much disquisition and too little narrative". He went on to praise Mackintosh: "We find in it the diligence, the accuracy, and the judgment of Hallam, united to the vivacity and the colouring of Southey. A history of England, written throughout in this manner, would be the most fascinating book in the language. It would be more in request at the circulating libraries than the last novel".[16]

Freemasonry

He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in Lodge Holyrood House (St. Luke's), No.44, (Edinburgh) on 28 November 1785.[17]

The continuing close association of Freemasonry with politics is illustrated by the fact that senior members of the St. Luke Lodge No. 44 were the leaders of the Scottish Whig party between 1807 and 1860. R.S. Lindsay, A History of the Mason Lodge of Holyrood House (St Luke's) No. 44. (Edinburgh, 1935), p. 299 quoted in M. Wallace, 'Scottish Freemasonry, 1725-1810: Progress, Power, and Politics' (PhD thesis, University of St Andrews, 1007), pp. 234-235.

-- British Freemasonry, 1717-1813, Volume 4, edited by Robert Peter


Death

The premature death of Sir James Mackintosh at the age of sixty-six was attributed to a chicken bone becoming stuck in his throat, causing a traumatic choking episode. Although the bone was eventually removed, his suffering continued until he died a month later on 30 May 1832 and he was buried in Hampstead churchyard, having lived for much of his later life at 15 Langham Place, London.

Legacy

A Life, by his son R. J. Mackintosh, was published in 1836. An edition of his works, in three volumes, (apart from the History of England) was published in 1846, containing his ethical and historical dissertations, a number of essays on political and literary topics, reviews, and other contributions to periodical publications, and speeches on a variety of subjects delivered at the bar and in parliament.

Works

• Arguments Concerning the Constitutional right of Parliament to Appoint a Regent (1788).
• Vindiciæ Gallicæ: A Defence of the French Revolution and its English admirers against the accusations of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, including some strictures on the late production of Mons de Calonne (1791).
• A Letter to the Right Honourable William Pitt (1792).
• A Letter from Earl Moira to Colonel McMahon (1798).
• A Discourse on the Study of the Law of Nature and Nations; Introductory to a Course of Lectures on That Science Commenced in Lincoln's Inn Hall on Wednesday, February 13, 1799; In Pursuance to An Order of the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn (2nd ed.). London: T.Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies in the Strand... 1799. Retrieved 23 February 2019 – via HathiTrust.
• The Trial of Jean Peltier for Libel against Napoleon Buonaparte (1803).
• Proceedings at a General Meeting of the Loyal North Britons (1803).
• Plan of a Comparative Vocabulary of Indian Languages (1806).
• Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (1830).
• The Life of Sir Thomas More (1830).
• The History of England (1830–1832, 3 vols.).
• History of the Revolution in England in 1688, prefaced by a notice of the Life, Writings and Speeches of Sir James Mackintosh (1834).
• Memoirs (edited by Robert James Mackintosh, 1835, 2 vols.).
• Inaugural Address (edited by J. B. Hay, 1839).
• Speeches, 1787–1831 (1840).

Notes

1. Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002 (PDF). The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN 0 902 198 84 X.
2. Patrick O'Leary, Sir James Mackintosh: The Whig Cicero (Aberdeen: Aberdeen university Press, 1989), p. 3.
3. Edward G. Fairholme and Wellesley Pain, A Century of Work for Animals: The History of the RSPCA, 1824-1934 (London: John Murray, 1934), p 54-55. Shevawn Lynam, Humanity Dick Martin 'King of Connemara' 1754-1834 (Dublin: Lilliput Press, 1989) p 232
4. J. C. D. Clark (ed.), Reflections on the Revolution in France. A Critical Edition (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), p. 104.
5. L. G. Mitchell, Charles James Fox (London: Penguin, 1997), p. 117, p. 184.
6. F. P. Lock, Edmund Burke. Volume II: 1784–1797 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2006), p. 292, p. 347. Cf. Clive Emsley: "Burke's diatribe also brought forth a flood of responses of which Tom Paine's The Rights of Man is unquestionably the raciest and best-known, but, in comparison with, for example, James Mackintosh's Vindiciae Gallicae, it is by no means the most intellectually coherent and cogent". ‘Revolution, war and the nation state: the British and French experiences 1789-1801’, in Mark Philp (ed.), The French Revolution and British Popular Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 101.
7. O'Leary, p. 22.
8. R. B. McDowell and John A. Woods (eds.), The Correspondence of Edmund Burke. Volume IX: Part One May 1796-July 1797. Part Two: Additional and Undated Letters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 193.
9. McDowell and Woods, p. 194.
10. Burke wrote to his friend French Laurence on 25 December: "I suspect by his Letter that it does not extend beyond the interior politicks of this Island, but that, with regard to France and many other Countries He remains as franc a Jacobin as ever. This conversion is none at all, but we must nurse up these nothings and think these negative advantages as we can have them". McDowell and Woods, pp. 204-205.
11. Lock, p. 560.
12. O'Leary, p. 23.
13. For an account of Mackintosh's correspondence and relationship with Sharp, see Knapman, D. - Conversation Sharp - The Biography of a London Gentleman, Richard Sharp (1759-1835), in Letters, Prose and Verse. [Private Publication], 2004. British Library
14. Harvard College Library (2005) Hill, George Birkbeck Norman, 1835-1903. Johnsonian Miscellanies, extra-illustrated: Guide Archived 2 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine 21 October 2006.
15. Christopher J. Finlay, ‘Mackintosh, Sir James, of Kyllachy (1765–1832)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2010, accessed 16 Sept 2010.
16. Thomas Babington Macaulay, Critical and Historical Essays: Volume One (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1935), pp. 279-280.
17. A History of the Mason Lodge of Holyrood House (St.Luke's), No.44, holding of the Grand Lodge of Scotland with Roll of Members, 1734-1934, by Robert Strathern Lindsay, W.S., Edinburgh, 1935. Vol.II, p.702.

References

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mackintosh, Sir James". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 259.
• Harrington, Jack (2010), Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India, Chs. 1 &3, New York: Palgrave Macmillan., ISBN 978-0-230-10885-1

Further reading

• J. G. A. Pocock, ‘The Varieties of Whiggism from Exclusion to Reform: A History of Ideology and Discourse’, Virtue, Commerce and History (1985).
• R. B. Sher, Church and University in the Scottish Enlightenment: The Moderate Literati of Edinburgh (1985).
• Donald Winch, Riches and Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750–1834 (1996).
• Tugdual de Langlais, L'armateur préféré de Beaumarchais Jean Peltier Dudoyer, de Nantes à l'Isle de France, Éd. Coiffard, 2015, 340 p. (ISBN 9782919339280).
• Hélène Maspéro-Clerc, Un journaliste contre-révolutionnairre Jean-Gabriel PELTIER (1760-1825), Paris, Sté des Études Robespierriestes, 1973.

External links

• Works by James Mackintosh at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about James Mackintosh at Internet Archive
• Grand Lodge of Scotland
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Part 1 of 2

Transactions of The Literary Society of Bombay [Excerpt]
With Engravings
1819

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ADVERTISEMENT.

THE objects for which the Literary Society of Bombay was instituted, are explained in the Discourse of the President, and it is unnecessary to add any thing to what is there stated.

The first meeting of the Society was held on the 26th November 1804, at Parell-house, where Sir James Mackintosh then resided; -- the Discourse which he read on that occasion is prefixed to the present volume. At this meeting the following persons were present:

The Honourable Jonathan Duncan, governor of Bombay.

The Honourable Sir James Mackintosh, knight, recorder of Bombay.

The Right Honourable Viscount Valentia.

General Oliver Nicolls, commander-in-chief at Bombay.

Stuart Moncrieff Threiplond, esq. advocate-general.

Helenus Scott, M.D. first member of the medical board.

William Dowdeswell. esq. barrister-at-law.

Henry Salt, esq. (now consul-general in Egypt).

Lieutenant-colonel Brooks (now military accountant-general at Bombay).

Lieutenant-colonel Joseph Boden, quarter-master-general at Bombay.

Lieutenant-colonel Thomas Charlton Harris, deputy quarter-master general at Bombay.

Charles Forbes, esq.

Robert Drummond, M.D.

Colonel Jasper Nicolls (now quarter-master-general in Bengal).

Major Edward Moor.

George Keir, M.D.

William Erskine, esq.

Sir James Mackintosh was elected President; Charles Forbes, esq. Treasurer; and William Erskine, esq. Secretary of the Society.

One of the earliest objects that engaged the attention of the Society was the foundation of a public library. On the 25th February 1805, a bargain was concluded for the purchase of a pretty extensive library, which had been collected by several medical gentlemen of the Bombay establishment. This collection has since been much enlarged, and is yearly receiving very considerable additions: -- being thrown open with great readiness to all persons, whether members of the Society or not, it has already become of considerable public utility.

The idea of employing several members of the Society in collecting materials for a statistical account of Bombay having occurred to the President, he communicated to the Society a set of “Queries, the answers to which would be contributions towards a statistical account of Bombay,” and offered himself to superintend the whole of the undertaking: it is perhaps to be regretted, that various circumstances prevented the execution of this plan. As these queries may be of service in forwarding any similar projects, they are subjoined in this volume in Appendix A.

Early in the year 1806 it was resolved, on the motion of the President, “That a proposition should be made to the Asiatick Society, to undertake a subscription to create a fund for defraying the necessary expenses of publishing and translating such Sanscrit works as should most seem to deserve an English version; and for affording a reasonable recompense to the translators, where their situation might make it proper.” The letter that was in consequence addressed to the president of that Society, will be found in Appendix B. The Asiatick Society having referred the consideration of the proposed plan to a committee, came to a resolution, in consequence of their report, to publish from time to time, in volumes distinct from the Asiatick Researches, translations of short works in the Sanscrit and other Oriental languages, with extracts and descriptive accounts of books of greater length. The plan of establishing by subscription a particular fund for translation, was regarded as one that could not be successfully proposed.

In the close of the year 1811, the Society suffered a severe loss by the departure of the president, Sir James Mackintosh, for Europe. Robert Steuart, esq. was on the 25th November elected president in his place; and at the same meeting moved “That, as a mark of respect, the late president Sir James Mackintosh should be elected honorary president of the Society,” – a proposition which was unanimously agreed to.

On the 13th February 1812, Brigadier-general Sir John Malcolm was induced, by the universal feelings of regard entertained by the members of the Society towards the honorary president, to move, “That Sir James Mackintosh be requested to sit for a bust to be placed in the Library of the Literary Society of Bombay, as a token of the respect and regard in which he is held by that body.” And the motion being seconded by John Wedderburn, esq. was unanimously agreed to; general Sir John Malcolm having been requested to furnish a copy of his address, for the purpose of its being inserted in the records of the Society. – It is subjoined in Appendix C.

A communication having been made to the Society of an extract of a letter from William Bruce, esq. The East India Company’s resident at Bushire, regarding a disease known among the wandering tribes of Persia, contracted by such as milk the cattle and sheep, and said to be a preventive of the small-pox; -- in order to give as much publicity as possible to the facts which it contains, for the purpose of encouraging further and more minute inquiry by professional men on a subject of so much importance, the extract is subjoined in Appendix D.

On the 31st January 1815, it was agreed, on the motion of Captain Basil Hall of the royal navy, “That the Society should open a museum for receiving antiquities, specimens in natural history, the arts and mythology of the East.” To this museum Captain Hall made a valuable present of specimens in mineralogy from various parts of the East Indies; and reasonable hopes may be indulged that it will speedily be much enriched, and tend in some degree to remove one of the obstacles at present opposed to the study of natural history and mineralogy in this country.

The Society have also to acknowledge repeated valuable presents, chiefly of Oriental books, from the Government of Bombay.

The liberality of Mr. Money, in presenting the Society with a valuable transit instrument, affords some hopes of seeing at no very distant time the foundation of an observatory, the want of which at so considerable a naval and commercial station as Bombay, has long been regretted. The right honourable the Governor in council has shown his willingness to forward a plan, which has the improvement of scientific and nautical knowledge for its object, by recommending to the Court of Directors a communication made on the subject by the Literary Society of Bombay.

On the 27th June 1815, a translation made by Dr. John Taylor from the original Sanscrit of the Lilawati (a treatise on Hindu arithmetic and geometry) was read to the Society. The Lilawati being a work which has frequently been called for by men of science in Europe, and it being desirable, for the sake of accuracy, that it should be printed under the eye of the learned translator, it was resolved that the work should be immediately printed at the expense of the Society, under Dr. Taylor's superintendence; and it has already made considerable progress in its way through the press.

Of the different papers in the following volume it is not necessary that any thing should be said; the author of each, as is understood in such miscellaneous publications, must be answerable for his separate work.

Bombay,
23d September 1815.

Contents:

Discourse at the Opening of the Society. By Sir James Mackintosh, President
I. An account of the Festival of Mamangom, as celebrated on the Coast of Malabar. By Francis Wrede, Esq. (afterwards Baron Wrede.) Communicated by the Honourable Jonathan Duncan.
II. Remarks upon the Temperature of the Island of Bombay during the Years 1803 and 1804. By Major (now Lieutenant Colonel) Jasper Nicholls.
III. Translations from the Chinese of two Edicts: the one relating to the Condemnation of certain Persons convicted of Christianity; and the other concerning the Condemnation of certain Magistrates in the Province of Canton. By Sir George Staunton. With introductory Remarks by the President Sir James Mackintosh.
IV. Account of the Akhlauk-e-Nasiree, or Morals of Nasir, a celebrated Persian System of Ethics. By Lieutenant Edward Frissell of the Bombay Establishment.
V. Account of the Caves in Salsette, illustrated with Drawings of the principal Figures and Caves. By Henry Salt, Esq. (now Consul General in Egypt.)
VI. On the Similitude between the Gipsy and Hindostanee Languages. By Lieutenant Francis Irvine, of the Bengal Native Infantry.
VII. Translations from the Persian, illustrative of the Opinions of the Sunni and Shia Sects of Mahomedans. By Brigadier General Sir John Malcolm, K.C.B.
VIII. A Treatise on Sufism, or Mahomedan Mysticism. By Lieutenant James William Graham, Linguist to the 1st Battalion of the 6th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry.
IX. Account of the Hill-Fort of Chapaneer in Guzerat. By Captain William Miles, of the Bombay Establishment.
XI. The fifth Sermon of Sadi, translated from the Persian. By James Ross, Esq. of the Bengal Medical Establishment.
XII. Account of the Origin, History, and Manners of the Race of Men called Bunjaras. By Captain John Briggs, Persian Interpreter to the Hyderabad Subsidiary Force.
XIII. An Account of the Parisnath-Gowricha worshipped in the Desert of Parkur; to which are added, a few Remarks upon the present Mode of Worship of that Idol. By Lieutenant James Mackmurdo.
XIV. Observations on two sepulchral Urns found at Bushire in Persia. By William Erskine, Esq.
XV. Account of the Cave-Temple of Elephanta, with a Plan and Drawings of the principal Figures. By William Erskin, Esq.
XVI. Remarks on the Substance called Gez, or Manna, found in Persia and Armenia. By Captain Edward Frederick, of the Bombay Establishment.
XVII. Remarks on the Province of Kattiwar; its Inhabitants, their Manners and Customs. By Lieutenant James Mackmurdo of the Bombay Establishment.
XVIII. Account of the Cornelian Mines in the Neighborhood of Baroach, in a Letter to the Secretary from John Copland, Esq. of the Bombay Medical Establishment.
XIX. Some Account of the Famine in Guzerat in the Years 1812 and 1813, in a Letter to William Erskine, Esq. By Captain James Rivett Carnac, Political Resident at the Court of the Guicawar.
XX. Plan of a Comparative Vocabulary of Indian Languages. By Sir James Mackintosh, President of the Society.
Appendix A. Queries; to which the Answers will be Contributions towards a statistical Account of Bombay.
Appendix B. Letter of the President of the Literary Society of Bombay to the President of the Asiatick Society.
Appendix C. General Malcolm's Speech on moving that Sir James Mackintosh be requested to sit for his Bust.
Appendix D. Extract of a Letter from William Bruce, Esq. Resident at Bushire, to William Erskine, Esq. of Bombay, communicating the Discovery of a Disease in Persia, contracted by such as milk the Cattle and Sheep, and which is a Preventive of the Small Pox.
List of the Members of the Bombay Literary Society.

A Discourse At The Opening of The Literary Society of Bombay
by Sir James Mackintosh, President of the Society.
Read at Parell, 26th November 1804.

From 1818 to 1824 [James Mackintosh] was professor of law and general politics in the East India Company's College at Haileybury.

-- James Mackintosh, by Wikipedia


Gentlemen,

The smallest society, brought together by the love of knowledge, is respectable in the eye of reason; and the feeble efforts of infant literature in barren and inhospitable regions are in some respects more interesting than the most elaborate works and the most successful exertions of the human mind. They prove the diffusion at least, if not the advancement of science; and they afford some sanction to the hope that knowledge is destined one day to visit the whole earth, and in her beneficent progress to illuminate and humanize the whole race of man.

It is therefore with singular pleasure that I see a small but respectable body of men assembled here by such a principle. I hope that we agree in considering all Europeans who visit remote countries, whatever their separate pursuits may be, as detachments from the main body of civilized men, sent out to levy contributions of knowledge as well as to gain victories over barbarism.

When a large portion of a country so interesting as India fell into the hands of one of the most intelligent and inquisitive nations of the world, it was natural to expect that its ancient and present state should at last be fully disclosed. These expectations were indeed for a time disappointed: during the tumult of revolution and war it would have been unreasonable to have entertained them; and when tranquility was established in that country which continues to be the centre of the British power in Asia, it ought not to have been forgotten that every Englishman was fully occupied by commerce, by military service, or by administration; that we had among us no idle public of readers, and consequently no separate profession of writers; and that every hour bestowed on study was to be stolen from the leisure of men often harassed by business, enervated by the climate, and more disposed to seek amusement than new occupation in the intervals of their appointed toils. It is, besides, a part of our national character, that we are seldom eager to display, and not always read to communicate, what we have acquired. In this respect we differ considerably from other lettered nations: our ingenious and polite neighbours on the continent of Europe, -- to whose enjoyment the applause of others seems more indispensable, whose faculties are more nimble and restless, if not more vigorous, than ours, -- are neither so patient of repose nor so likely to be contented with a secret hoard of knowledge. They carry even into their literature a spirit of bustle and parade, -- a bustle indeed which springs from activity, and a parade which animates enterprise, but which are incompatible with our sluggish and sullen dignity. Pride disdains ostentation, scorns false pretensions, despises even petty merit, refuses to obtain the objects of pursujit by flattery or importunity, and scarcely values any praise but that which she has the right to command. Pride, with which foreigners charge us, and which under the name of a sense of dignity we claim for ourselves, is a lazy and unsocial quality; and in these respects, as in most others, the very reverse of the sociable and good-humoured vice of vanity. It is not therefore to be wondered at, if in India our national character, cooperating with local circumstances, should have produced some real and perhaps more apparent inactivity in working the mine of knowledge of which we had become the masters. Yet some of the earliest exertions of private Englishmen are too important to be passed over in silence. The compilation of laws by Mr. Halhed, and the Ayeen Akbaree, translated by Mr. Gladwin, deserve honourable mention. Mr. Wilkins gained the memorable distinction of having opened the treasures of a new learned language to Europe.

But, notwithstanding the merit of these individual exertions, it cannot be denied that the aera of a general direction of the minds of Englishmen in this country towards learned inquiry, was the foundation of the Asiatic Society by Sir William Jones. To give such an impulse to the public understanding is one of the greatest benefits that a man can confer on his fellow men. On such an occasion as the present, it is impossible to pronounce the name of Sir William Jones without feelings of gratitude and reverence. He was among the distinguished persons who adorned one of the brightest periods of English literature. It was no mean distinction to be conspicuous in the age of Burke and Johnson, of Hume and Smith, of Gray and Goldsmith, of Gibbon and Robertson, of Reynolds and Garrick. It was the fortune of Sir William Jones to have been the friend of the greater part of these illustrious men. Without him, the age in which he lived would have been inferior to past times in one kind of literary glory. He surpassed all his contemporaries, and perhaps even the most laborious scholars of the two former centuries, in extent and variety of attainment. His facility in acquiring was almost prodigious, and he possessed that faculty of arranging and communicating his knowledge, which these laborious scholars very generally wanted. Erudition, which in them was often disorderly and rugged, and had something of an illiberal and almost barbarous air, was by him presented to the world with all the elegance and amenity of polite literature. Though he seldom directed his mind to those subjects of which the successful investigation confers the name of a philosopher, yet he possessed in a very eminent degree that habit of disposing his knowledge in regular and analytical order, which is one of the properties of a philosophical understanding. His talents as an elegant writer in verse were among his instruments for attaining knowledge, and a new example of the variety of his accomplishments. In his easy and flowing prose we justly admire that order of exposition and transparency of language which are the most indispensable qualities of style, and the chief excellencies of which it is capable when it is employed solely to instruct. His writings everywhere breathe pure taste in morals as well as in literature; and it may be said with truth, that not a single sentiment has escaped him which does not indicate the real elegance and dignity which pervaded the most secret recesses of his mind. He had lived perhaps too exclusively in the world of learning for the cultivation of his practical understanding. Other men have meditated more deeply on the constitution of society, and have taken more comprehensive views of its complicated relations and infinitely varied interests. Others have therefore often taught sounder principles of political science; but no man more warmly felt, and no author is better calculated to inspire, those generous sentiments of liberty without which the most just principles are useless and lifeless, and which will, I trust, continue to flow through the channels of eloquence and poetry into the minds of British youth.

It has indeed been sometimes lamented that Sir William Jones should have exclusively directed inquiry towards antiquities. But every man must be allowed to recommend most strongly his own favourite pursuits; and the chief difficulty as well as the chief merit is his who first raises the minds of men to the love of any part of knowledge. When mental activity is once roused its direction is easily changed, and the excesses of one writer, if they are not checked by public reason, are corrected by the opposite excesses of his successor. “Whatever withdraws us from the dominion of the senses, whatever makes the past, the distant, and the future, predominate over the present, advances us in the dignity of thinking beings.”

It is not for me to attempt an estimate of those exertions for the advancement of knowledge which have arisen from the example and exhortations of Sir William Jones. In all judgements pronounced on our contemporaries it is so certain that we shall be accused, and so probable that we may be justly accused, of either partially bestowing or invidiously withholding praise, that it is in general better to attempt no encroachment on the jurisdiction of Time, which alone impartially and justly estimates the works of men.

The Myth of Origin and Destiny

Chapter 1: Historicism and the Myth of Destiny


It is widely believed that a truly scientific or philosophical attitude towards politics, and a deeper understanding of social life in general, must be based upon a contemplation and interpretation of human history. While the ordinary man takes the setting of his life and the importance of his personal experiences and petty struggles for granted, it is said that the social scientist or philosopher has to survey things from a higher plane. He sees the individual as a pawn, as a somewhat insignificant instrument in the general development of mankind. And he finds that the really important actors on the Stage of History are either the Great Nations and their Great Leaders, or perhaps the Great Classes, or the Great Ideas. However this may be, he will try to understand the meaning of the play which is performed on the Historical Stage; he will try to understand the laws of historical development. If he succeeds in this, he will, of course, be able to predict future developments. He might then put politics upon a solid basis, and give us practical advice by telling us which political actions are likely to succeed or likely to fail.

This is a brief description of an attitude which I call historicism. It is an old idea, or rather, a loosely connected set of ideas which have become, unfortunately, so much a part of our spiritual atmosphere that they are usually taken for granted, and hardly ever questioned.

I have tried elsewhere to show that the historicist approach to the social sciences gives poor results. I have also tried to outline a method which, I believe, would yield better results.

But if historicism is a faulty method that produces worthless results, then it may be useful to see how it originated, and how it succeeded in entrenching itself so successfully. An historical sketch undertaken with this aim can, at the same time, serve to analyse the variety of ideas which have gradually accumulated around the central historicist doctrine — the doctrine that history is controlled by specific historical or evolutionary laws whose discovery would enable us to prophesy the destiny of man.

Historicism, which I have so far characterized only in a rather abstract way, can be well illustrated by one of the simplest and oldest of its forms, the doctrine of the chosen people. This doctrine is one of the attempts to make history understandable by a theistic interpretation, i.e. by recognizing God as the author of the play performed on the Historical Stage. The theory of the chosen people, more specifically, assumes that God has chosen one people to function as the selected instrument of His will, and that this people will inherit the earth.

In this doctrine, the law of historical development is laid down by the Will of God. This is the specific difference which distinguishes the theistic form from other forms of historicism. A naturalistic historicism, for instance, might treat the developmental law as a law of nature; a spiritual historicism would treat it as a law of spiritual development; an economic historicism, again, as a law of economic development. Theistic historicism shares with these other forms the doctrine that there are specific historical laws which can be discovered, and upon which predictions regarding the future of mankind can be based.

There is no doubt that the doctrine of the chosen people grew out of the tribal form of social life. Tribalism, i.e. the emphasis on the supreme importance of the tribe without which the individual is nothing at all, is an element which we shall find in many forms of historicist theories. Other forms which are no longer tribalist may still retain an element of collectivism [1]; they may still emphasize the significance of some group or collective — for example, a class — without which the individual is nothing at all. Another aspect of the doctrine of the chosen people is the remoteness of what it proffers as the end of history. For although it may describe this end with some degree of definiteness, we have to go a long way before we reach it. And the way is not only long, but winding, leading up and down, right and left. Accordingly, it will be possible to bring every conceivable historical event well within the scheme of the interpretation. No conceivable experience can refute it. [2] But to those who believe in it, it gives certainty regarding the ultimate outcome of human history.

A criticism of the theistic interpretation of history will be attempted in the last chapter of this book, where it will also be shown that some of the greatest Christian thinkers have repudiated this theory as idolatry. An attack upon this form of historicism should therefore not be interpreted as an attack upon religion. In the present chapter, the doctrine of the chosen people serves only as an illustration. Its value as such can be seen from the fact that its chief characteristics [3] are shared by the two most important modern versions of historicism, whose analysis will form the major part of this book — the historical philosophy of racialism or fascism on the one (the right) hand and the Marxian historical philosophy on the other (the left). For the chosen people racialism substitutes the chosen race (of Gobineau's choice), selected as the instrument of destiny, ultimately to inherit the earth. Marx's historical philosophy substitutes for it the chosen class, the instrument for the creation of the classless society, and at the same time, the class destined to inherit the earth. Both theories base their historical forecasts on an interpretation of history which leads to the discovery of a law of its development. In the case of racialism, this is thought of as a kind of natural law; the biological superiority of the blood of the chosen race explains the course of history, past, present, and future; it is nothing but the struggle of races for mastery. In the case of Marx's philosophy of history, the law is economic; all history has to be interpreted as a struggle of classes for economic supremacy.
The historicist character of these two movements makes our investigation topical. We shall return to them in later parts of this book. Each of them goes back directly to the philosophy of Hegel. We must, therefore, deal with that philosophy as well. And since Hegel [4] in the main follows certain ancient philosophers, it will be necessary to discuss the theories of Heraclitus, Plato and Aristotle, before returning to the more modern forms of historicism.

-- The Open Society and Its Enemies, by Karl R. Popper


But it would be unpardonable not to speak of the College at Calcutta, of which the original plan was doubtless the most magnificent attempt ever made for the promotion of learning in the East. I am not conscious that I am biased either by personal feelings or literary prejudices, when I say that I consider that original plan as a wise and noble proposition, of which the adoption in its full extent would have had the happiest tendency to secure the good government of India, as well as to promote the interest of science. Even in its present mutilated state we have seen, at the last public exhibition, Sanscrit declamations by English youth; a circumstance so extraordinary*, [*It must be remembered that this Discourse was read in 1804. In the present year, 1818, this circumstance could no longer be called extraordinary. From the learned care of Mr. Hamilton, late Professor of Indian Languages at the East India College, a proficiency in Sanscrit is become not uncommon in an European Institution.] that, if it be followed by suitable advances, it will mark an epoch in the history of learning.

Appendix II: The College of Fort William in Its Connexion with the East India College, Haileybury.

On the 18th of August, 1800, the Marquis Wellesley, Governor-General of India, wrote a minute in Council containing his reasons for establishing a College at Fort William, Calcutta.

It was a long document which, when printed, occupied nearly 43 pages 4to. I subjoin a brief summary: --

The age at which writers usually arrive in India [N.B., this was written in 1800] is from sixteen to eighteen. Some of them have been educated with a view to the Indian Civil Service, but on utterly erroneous principles; their education being confined to commercial knowledge and in no degree extended to liberal studies. On arrival in India they are either stationed in the interior, where they ought to be conversant with the languages, laws, and customs of the natives, or they are employed in Government offices where they are chiefly occupied in transcribing papers. Once landed in India their studies, morals, manners, expenses and conduct are no longer subject to any regulation, restraint, or guidance. Hence they often acquire habits destructive to their health and fortunes.

Under these circumstances the General has determined to found a College at Fort William in Bengal for the instruction of the junior Civil Servants in such branches of literature, science, and knowledge as may be deemed necessary to qualify them for the discharge of their duties; and, considering that such a College would be a becoming public monument to commemorate the Conquest of Mysore, he has dated the law for the foundation of the College on the 4th of May, 1800, the first anniversary of the reduction of Seringapatam.

A suitable building is to be erected at Garden Reach. There will be a Provost, Vice-Provost, and a complete staff of Professors both of European and Oriental subjects.1 [1. A list of these was printed. I select the following: -- Provost, Rev. David Brown; Vice-Provost, Rev. C. Buchanan (both of these were Chaplains of the H.E.I.C.S.); Sanskrit and Hindu Law, H.T. Colebrooke; British Law, Sir George Barlow, Bart.; Greek and Latin Classics, Rev. C. Buchanan; Persian, Francis Gladwin; Assistant in Persian and Arabic, Mathew Lumsden; second Assistant in Persian, Capt. Charles Stewart; Sanskrit and Bengali, Rev. William Carey; Hindustani, John Gilchrist.] Statutes are to be drawn up, and all Indian civilians on first arriving in India, even those destined for Bombay and Madras are to be educated at this College, which will be called the College of Fort William.


The statutes were promulgated by the first Provost (the Rev. David Brown), on April 10, 1801, and when printed occupied 12 pages 4to. The students were then located in provisional buildings, and the first Disputation in Oriental languages was held on the 6th of February, 1802; a speech being delivered on the occasion by Sir George Barlow, the acting Visitor. All this was done without the knowledge of the Court of Directors in London, who, when they heard of the foundation of the College, passed a resolution against it, on the ground of the enormous and indefinite expenditure which it might involve. They complimented the Marquis on his able minute, and acknowledged the necessity for obtaining a higher class of civil servants by raising the standard of their education and giving them an improved special training, but they only expressed their approbation of part of his plan. In fact a compromise was arranged (see note to line 6 of page 27 of this volume), and it was decided that although the proposed collegiate Building at Garden Reach was not to be erected, an Institution to be called “The East-India College” should be founded in Hertfordshire, which was to give a good general education, combined with instruction in the rudiments of the Oriental languages, while Lord Wellesley’s Institution was to be allowed to continue at Calcutta in a less comprehensive form under the name of Fort William College, with a local habitation in “Writers’ Buildings,” the name given to a long house with good verandahs looking south at the north end of Tank Square (now Dalhousie Square).

It was thus brought about that Fort William College became a kind of continuation of Haileybury, and that its work was restricted to the imparting of fuller instruction in Oriental subjects, the groundwork of which had been laid at Haileybury. And no doubt it was originally intended that all junior civilians who had passed through the Haileybury course should repair to the College in Calcutta for such instruction. Moreover, the process of sifting, which began at Haileybury, was continued at the Forst William Institution. At any rate, it occasionally happened that the worst of those “bad bargains,” which Haileybury, in its too great leniency, had spared, were eliminated from the service at Calcutta.

-- Memorials of Old Haileybury College, by Frederick Charles Danvers, Sir Monier Monier-Williams, Sir Steuart Colvin Bayley, Percy Wigram, Brand Sapte


Among the humblest fruits of this spirit I take the liberty to mention the project of forming this Society, which occurred to me before I left England, but which never could have advanced even to its present state without your hearty concurrence, and which must depend on your active cooperation for all hopes of future success. You will not suspect me of presuming to dictate the nature and object of our common exertions. To be valuable they must be spontaneous; and no literary society can subsist on any other principle than that of equality. In the observations which I shall make on the plan and subject of our inquiries, I shall offer myself to you only as the representative of the curiosity of Europe. I am ambitious of no higher office than that of faithfully conveying to India the desires and wants of the learned at home, and of stating the subjects on which they wish and expect satisfaction, from inquiries which can be pursued only in India. In fulfilling the duties of this mission, I shall not be expected to exhaust so vast a subject, nor is it necessary that I should attempt an exact distribution of science. A very general sketch is all that I can promise; in which I shall pass over many subjects rapidly, and dwell only on those parts on which from my own habits of study I may think myself least disqualified to offer useful suggestions.

The objects of these inquiries, as of all human knowledge, are reducible to two classes, which, for want of more significant and precise terms, we must be content to call Physical and Moral; aware of the laxity and ambiguity of these words, but not affecting a greater degree of exactness than is necessary for our immediate purpose.

The physical sciences afford so easy and pleasing an amusement; they are so directly subservient to the useful arts; and in their higher forms they so much delight our imagination and flatter our pride, by the display of the authority of man over nature, that there can be no need of arguments to prove their utility, and no want of powerful and obvious motives to dispose men to their cultivation. The whole extensive and beautiful science of natural history, which is the foundation of all physical knowledge, has many additional charms in a country where so many treasures must still be unexplored. The science of mineralogy, which has been of late years cultivated with great activity in Europe, has such a palpable connexion with the useful arts of life, that it cannot be necessary to recommend it to the attention of the intelligent and curious. India is a country which I believe no mineralogist has yet examined, and which would doubtless amply repay the labour of the first scientific adventurers who explore it. The discovery of new sources of wealth would probably be the result of such an investigation; and something might perhaps be contributed towards the accomplishment of the ambitious projects of those philosophers, who from the arrangement of earths and minerals have been bold enough to form conjectures respecting the general laws which have governed the past revolutions of our planet, and which preserve its parts in their present order.

The botany of India has been less neglected, but it cannot be exhausted. The higher parts of the science, -- the structure, the functions, the habits of vegetables, -- all subjects intimately connected with the first of physical sciences, though unfortunately the most dark and difficult, the philosophy of life, -- have in general been too much sacrificed to objects of value indeed, but of a value far inferior: and professed botanists have usually contented themselves with observing enough of plants to give them a name in their scientific language and a place in their artificial arrangement. Much information also remains to be gleaned on that part of natural history which regards animals. The manners of many tropical races must have been imperfectly observed in a few individuals separated from their fellows and imprisoned in the unfriendly climate of Europe.

The variations of temperature, the state of the atmosphere, all the appearances that are comprehended under the words weather and climate, are the conceivable subject of a science of which no rudiments yet exist. It will probably require the observations of centuries to lay the foundations of theory on this subject. There can scarce be any region of the world more favourably circumstanced for observation than India; for there is none in which the operation of these causes is more regular, more powerful, or more immediately discoverable in their effect on vegetable and animal nature. Those philosophers who have denied the influence of climate on the human character were not inhabitants of a tropical country.

To the members of the learned profession of medicine, who are necessarily spread over every part of India, all the above inquiries peculiarly though not exclusively belong. Some of them are eminent for science, many must be well informed, and their professional education must have given to all some tincture of physical knowledge. With even moderate preliminary acquirements that may be very useful, if they will but consider themselves as philosophical collectors, whose duty it is never to neglect a favourable opportunity for observations on weather and climate; to keep exact journals of whatever they observe, and to transmit through their immediate superiors to the scientific depositories of Great Britain specimens of every mineral, vegetable, or animal production which they conceive to be singular, or with respect to which they suppose themselves to have observed any new and important facts. If their previous studies have been imperfect, they will no doubt be sometimes mistaken. But these mistakes are perfectly harmless. It is better that ten useless specimens should be sent to London, than that one curious specimen should be neglected.

But it is on another and a still more important subject that we expect the most valuable assistance from our medical associates: this is the science of medicine itself. It must be allowed not to be quite so certain as it is important. But though every man ventures to scoff at its uncertainty as long as he is in vigorous health, yet the hardiest sceptic becomes credulous as soon as his head is fixed to the pillow. Those who examine the history of medicine without either skepticism or blind admiration will find that every civilized age, after all the fluctuations of systems, opinions, and modes of practice, has at length left some balance, however small, of new truth to the succeeding generation, and that the stock of human knowledge in this as well as in other departments is constantly, though it must be owned very slowly, increasing. Since my arrival here I have had sufficient reason to believe that the practitioners of medicine in India are not unworthy of their enlightened and benevolent profession. From them therefore I hope the public may derive, through the medium of this society, information of the highest value. Diseases and modes of cure unknown to European physicians may be disclosed to them; and if the causes of disease are more active in this country than in England, remedies are employed and diseases subdued, at least in some cases, with a certainty which might excite the wonder of the most successful practitioners in Europe. By full and faithful narratives of their modes of treatment they will conquer that distrust of new plans of cure, and that incredulity respecting whatever is uncommon, which sometimes prevail among our English physicians; which are the natural result of much experience and many disappointments; and which, though individuals have often just reason to complain of their indiscriminate application, are not ultimately injurious to the progress of the medical art. They never finally prevent the adoption of just theory or of useful practice. They retard it no longer than is necessary for such a severe trial as precludes all future doubt. Even in their excess they are wholesome correctives of the opposite excess of credulity and dogmatism. They are safeguards against exaggeration and quackery; they are tests of utility and truth. A philosophical physician who is a real lover of his art ought not, therefore, to desire the extinction of these dispositions, though he may suffer temporary injustice from their influence.

Those objects of our inquiries which I have called moral (employing that term in the sense in which it is contradistinguished from physical) will chiefly comprehend the past and present condition of the inhabitants of the vast country which surrounds us.

To begin with their present condition. I take the liberty of very earnestly recommend a kind of research, which has hitherto been either neglected or only carried on for the information of Government. I mean the investigation of those facts which are the subjects of political arithmetic and statistics, and which are a part of the foundation of the science of political economy. The numbers of the people; the number of births, marriages, and deaths; the proportion of children who are reared to maturity; the distribution of the people according to their occupations and casts, and especially according to the great division of agricultural and manufacturing; and the relative state of these circumstances at different periods, which can only be ascertained by permanent tables, -- are the basis of this important part of knowledge. No tables of political arithmetic have yet been made public from any tropical country. I need not expatiate on the importance of the information which such tables would be likely to afford. I shall mention only as an example of their value, that they must lead to a decisive solution of the problems with respect to the influence of polygamy on population, and the supposed origin of that practice in the disproportioned numbers of the sexes*. [See Appendix A. at the end of the Volume.] But in a country where every part of the system of manners and institutions differs from those of Europe, it is impossible to foresee the extent and variety of the new results which an accurate survey might present to us.

These inquiries are naturally followed by those which regard the subsistence of the people; the origin and distribution of public wealth: the wages of every kind of labour, from the rudest to the most refined; the price of commodities, and especially of provisions, which necessarily regulates that of all others; the modes of the tenure and occupation of land; the profits of trade; the usual and extraordinary rates of interest, which are the price paid for the hire of money; the nature and extent of domestic commerce, every where the greatest and most profitable, though the most difficult to be ascertained; those of foreign traffic, more easy to be determined by the accounts of exports and imports: the contributions by which the expenses of Government, of charitable, learned, and religious foundations are defrayed; the laws and customs which regulate all these great objects, and the fluctuation which has been observed in all or any of them at different times and under different circumstances. These are some of the points towards which I should very earnestly wish to direct the curiosity of our intelligent countrymen in India.

These inquiries have the advantage of being easy and open to all men of good sense. They do not, like antiquarian and philological researches, require great previous erudition and constant reference to extensive libraries. They require nothing but a resolution to observe facts attentively, and to relate them accurately. And whoever feels a disposition to ascend from facts to principles, will in general find sufficient aid to his understanding in the great work of Dr. Smith, the most permanent monument of philosophical genius which our nation has produced in the present age.

They have the further advantage of being closely and intimately connected with the professional pursuits and public duties of every Englishman who fills a civil office in this country – they form the very science of administration. One of the first requisites to the right administration of a district is the knowledge of its population, industry, and wealth. A magistrate ought to know the condition of the country which he superintends; a collector ought to understand its revenue; a commercial resident ought to be thoroughly acquainted with its commerce. We only desire that part of the knowledge which they ought to possess should be communicated to the world.

I will not pretend to affirm that no part of this knowledge ought to be confined to Government. I am not so intoxicated by philosophical prejudice as to maintain that the safety of a state is to be endangered for the gratification of scientific curiosity.
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