Part 2 of 2
Victims of McCarthyismSee also: List of Films by the Hollywood Ten, Hollywood blacklist, and Lavender scare
Estimating the number of victims of McCarthy is difficult.
The number imprisoned is in the hundreds, and some ten or twelve thousand lost their jobs.[62] In many cases, simply being subpoenaed by HUAC or one of the other committees was sufficient cause to be fired.[63] Many of those who were imprisoned, lost their jobs, or were questioned by committees did, in fact, have a past or present connection of some kind with the Communist Party.
For the vast majority, though, both the potential for them to do harm to the nation and the nature of their communist affiliation were tenuous.[64] After the extremely damaging "Cambridge Five" spy scandal (Guy Burgess, Donald Maclean, Kim Philby, Anthony Blunt, et al.), suspected homosexuality was also a common cause for being targeted by McCarthyism. The hunt for "sexual perverts", who were presumed to be subversive by nature, resulted in over 5,000 federal workers being fired, and thousands were harassed and denied employment.[65][66] Many have termed this aspect of McCarthyism the "lavender scare".[67][68]
Homosexuality was classified as a psychiatric disorder in the 1950s.[69] However, in the context of the highly politicized Cold War environment, homosexuality became framed as a dangerous, contagious social disease that posed a potential threat to state security.[69] As the family was believed to be the cornerstone of American strength and integrity,[70] the description of homosexuals as "sexual perverts" meant that they were both unable to function within a family unit and presented the potential to poison the social body.[71] This era also witnessed the establishment of widely spread FBI surveillance intended to identify homosexual government employees.[72]
The McCarthy hearings and according "sexual pervert" investigations can be seen to have been driven by a desire to identify individuals whose ability to function as loyal citizens had been compromised.[71] McCarthy began his campaign by drawing upon the ways in which he embodied traditional American values to become the self-appointed vanguard of social morality.[73]
Dalton Trumbo and his wife, Cleo, at the HUAC in 1947In the film industry, more than 300 actors, authors, and directors were denied work in the U.S. through the unofficial Hollywood blacklist.
Blacklists were at work throughout the entertainment industry, in universities and schools at all levels, in the legal profession, and in many other fields. A port-security program initiated by the Coast Guard shortly after the start of the Korean War required a review of every maritime worker who loaded or worked aboard any American ship, regardless of cargo or destination. As with other loyalty-security reviews of McCarthyism, the identities of any accusers and even the nature of any accusations were typically kept secret from the accused. Nearly 3,000 seamen and longshoremen lost their jobs due to this program alone.[74]Some of the notable people who were blacklisted or suffered some other persecution during McCarthyism include:
• Nelson Algren, writer[75]
• Lucille Ball, actress, model, and film studio executive.[76]
• Alvah Bessie, Abraham Lincoln Brigade, writer, journalist, screenwriter, Hollywood Ten
• Elmer Bernstein, composer and conductor[77]
• Leonard Bernstein, conductor, pianist, composer[78]
• David Bohm, physicist and philosopher[79]
• Bertolt Brecht, poet, playwright, screenwriter
• Archie Brown, Abraham Lincoln Brigade, WW II vet, union leader, imprisoned. Successfully challenged Landrum–Griffin Act provision[80]
• Esther Brunauer, forced from the U.S. State Department[81]
• Luis Buñuel, film director, producer[82]
• Charlie Chaplin, actor and director[83]
• Aaron Copland, composer[84]
• Bartley Crum, attorney[85]
• Howard Da Silva, actor[86]
• Jules Dassin, director[87]
• Dolores del Río, actress[88]
• Edward Dmytryk, director, Hollywood Ten
• W.E.B. Du Bois, civil rights activist and author[89]
• George A. Eddy, pre-Keynesian Harvard economist, US Treasury monetary policy specialist[90]
•
Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize-winning physicist, philosopher, mathematician, activist[91]• Hanns Eisler, composer[92]
• Howard Fast, writer[93]
• Lion Feuchtwanger, novelist and playwright[94]
• Carl Foreman, writer of High Noon
• John Garfield, actor[84]
• C.H. Garrigues, journalist[95]
• Jack Gilford, actor[86]
•
Allen Ginsberg, Beat poet• Ruth Gordon, actress[86]
• Lee Grant, actress[96]
• Dashiell Hammett, author[84]
• Elizabeth Hawes, clothing designer, author, equal rights activist[97]
• Lillian Hellman, playwright[84]
• Dorothy Healey, union organizer, CPUSA official[98]
• Lena Horne, singer[86]
• Langston Hughes, writer, poet, playwright[84]
• Marsha Hunt, actress
• Sam Jaffe, actor[84]
• Theodore Kaghan, diplomat[99]
• Garson Kanin, writer and director[84]
• Danny Kaye, comedian, singer[100][full citation needed]
• Benjamin Keen, historian[101]
• Otto Klemperer, conductor and composer[102]
• Gypsy Rose Lee, actress and stripper[84]
• Cornelius Lanczos, mathematician and physicist[103]
• Ring Lardner Jr., screenwriter, Hollywood Ten
• Arthur Laurents, playwright[86]
• Philip Loeb, actor[104]
• Joseph Losey, director[84]
• Albert Maltz, screenwriter, Hollywood Ten
• Heinrich Mann, novelist[105]
• Klaus Mann, writer[105]
•
Thomas Mann, Nobel Prize winning novelist and essayist[105]
• Thomas McGrath, poet
• Burgess Meredith, actor[84]
• Arthur Miller, playwright and essayist[84]
• Jessica Mitford, author, muckraker. Refused to testify to HUAC.
• Dimitri Mitropoulos, conductor, pianist, composer[106]
• Zero Mostel, actor[84]
• Joseph Needham, biochemist, sinologist, historian of science
• J. Robert Oppenheimer, physicist, scientific director of the Manhattan Project[107]
• Dorothy Parker, writer, humorist[84]
• Linus Pauling, chemist, Nobel prizes for Chemistry and Peace[108]
• Samuel Reber, diplomat[109]
• Al Richmond, union organizer, editor[110]
• Martin Ritt, actor and director[111]
• Paul Robeson, actor, athlete, singer, writer, political activist[112]
• Edward G. Robinson, actor[84]
• Waldo Salt, screenwriter[113]
• Jean Seberg, actress[114]
• Pete Seeger, folk singer, songwriter[84]
• Artie Shaw, jazz musician, bandleader, author[84]
• Irwin Shaw, writer[86]
• William L. Shirer, journalist, author[115]
• Lionel Stander, actor[116]
• Dirk Jan Struik, mathematician, historian of maths[117]
• Paul Sweezy, economist and founder-editor of Monthly Review[118]
• Charles W. Thayer, diplomat[119]
• Dalton Trumbo screenwriter, Hollywood Ten
• Tsien Hsue-shen, physicist[120]
• Sam Wanamaker, actor, director, responsible for recreating Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London, England.
• Orson Welles, actor, author, film director[121]
• Gene Weltfish, anthropologist fired from Columbia University[122]
In 1953, Robert K. Murray, a young professor of history at Pennsylvania State University who had served as an intelligence officer in World War II, was revising his dissertation on the Red Scare of 1919–20 for publication until Little, Brown and Company decided that "under the circumstances ... it wasn't wise for them to bring this book out." He learned that investigators were questioning his colleagues and relatives. The University of Minnesota press published his volume, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920, in 1955.[123]
Critical reactionsThe nation was by no means united behind the policies and activities that have come to be associated with McCarthyism. The many critics of various aspects of McCarthyism included many figures not generally noted for their liberalism.
For example,
in his overridden veto of the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950, President Truman wrote, "In a free country, we punish men for the crimes they commit, but never for the opinions they have."[124] Truman also unsuccessfully vetoed the Taft–Hartley Act, which among other provisions denied trade unions National Labor Relations Board protection unless union leaders signed affidavits swearing they were not and had never been Communists. In 1953, after he left office, Truman criticized the current Eisenhower administration:It is now evident that the present Administration has fully embraced, for political advantage, McCarthyism. I am not referring to the Senator from Wisconsin. He is only important in that his name has taken on the dictionary meaning of the word. It is the corruption of truth, the abandonment of the due process law. It is the use of the big lie and the unfounded accusation against any citizen in the name of Americanism or security. It is the rise to power of the demagogue who lives on untruth; it is the spreading of fear and the destruction of faith in every level of society.[125]
It was not McCarthy and the Republicans, but the liberal Democratic Truman administration, whose Justice Department initiated a series of prosecutions that intensified the nation's anti-Communist mood. The most important of these was the prosecution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in the summer of 1950.-- The People's History, by Howard Zinn
On June 1, 1950, Senator Margaret Chase Smith, a Maine Republican, delivered a speech to the Senate she called a "Declaration of Conscience". In a clear attack upon McCarthyism, she called for an end to "character assassinations" and named "some of the basic principles of Americanism: The right to criticize; The right to hold unpopular beliefs; The right to protest; The right of independent thought". She said "freedom of speech is not what it used to be in America", and decried "cancerous tentacles of 'know nothing, suspect everything' attitudes".[126] Six other Republican senators—Wayne Morse, Irving M. Ives, Charles W. Tobey, Edward John Thye, George Aiken, and Robert C. Hendrickson—joined Smith in condemning the tactics of McCarthyism.
Joseph N. Welch (left) and Senator McCarthy, June 9, 1954Elmer Davis, one of the most highly respected news reporters and commentators of the 1940s and 1950s, often spoke out against what he saw as the excesses of McCarthyism. On one occasion he warned that many local anti-communist movements constituted a "general attack not only on schools and colleges and libraries, on teachers and textbooks, but on all people who think and write ... in short, on the freedom of the mind".[127]
In 1952, the Supreme Court upheld a lower-court decision in Adler v. Board of Education of New York, thus approving a law that allowed state loyalty review boards to fire teachers deemed "subversive". In his dissenting opinion, Justice William O. Douglas wrote: "The present law proceeds on a principle repugnant to our society—guilt by association.... What happens under this law is typical of what happens in a police state. Teachers are under constant surveillance; their pasts are combed for signs of disloyalty; their utterances are watched for clues to dangerous thoughts."[128]
Broadcast journalist Edward R. MurrowOne of the most influential opponents of McCarthyism was the famed CBS newscaster and analyst Edward R. Murrow. On October 20, 1953, Murrow's show See It Now aired an episode about the dismissal of Milo Radulovich, a former reserve Air Force lieutenant who was accused of associating with Communists. The show was strongly critical of the Air Force's methods, which included presenting evidence in a sealed envelope that Radulovich and his attorney were not allowed to open.
On March 9, 1954, See It Now aired another episode on the issue of McCarthyism, this one attacking Joseph McCarthy himself. Titled "A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy", it used footage of McCarthy speeches to portray him as dishonest, reckless, and abusive toward witnesses and prominent Americans. In his concluding comment, Murrow said:
We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty. We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law. We will not walk in fear, one of another. We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason, if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine, and remember that we are not descended from fearful men.[30]
This broadcast has been cited as a key episode in bringing about the end of McCarthyism.[129]
In April 1954, McCarthy was also under attack in the Army–McCarthy hearings. These hearings were televised live on the new American Broadcasting Company network, allowing the public to view first-hand McCarthy's interrogation of individuals and his controversial tactics. In one exchange, McCarthy reminded the attorney for the Army, Joseph Welch, that he had an employee in his law firm who had belonged to an organization that had been accused of Communist sympathies. In an exchange that reflected the increasingly negative public opinion of McCarthy, Welch rebuked the senator: "Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?"[130]
DeclineIn the mid and late 1950s, the attitudes and institutions of McCarthyism slowly weakened. Changing public sentiments heavily contributed to the decline of McCarthyism. Its decline may also be charted through a series of court decisions.
A key figure in the end of the blacklisting of McCarthyism was John Henry Faulk. Host of an afternoon comedy radio show, Faulk was a leftist active in his union, the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. He was scrutinized by AWARE, Inc., one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of communist "disloyalty". Marked by AWARE as unfit, he was fired by CBS Radio. Almost uniquely among the many victims of blacklisting, Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957 and finally won the case in 1962.[131]
With this court decision, the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were legally liable for the professional and financial damage they caused. Although some informal blacklisting continued, the private "loyalty checking" agencies were soon a thing of the past.[132] Even before the Faulk verdict, many in Hollywood had decided it was time to break the blacklist. In 1960, Dalton Trumbo, one of the best known members of the Hollywood Ten, was publicly credited with writing the films Exodus and Spartacus.
Much of the undoing of McCarthyism came at the hands of the Supreme Court. As Richard Rovere wrote in his biography of Joseph McCarthy, "[T]he United States Supreme Court took judicial notice of the rents McCarthy was making in the fabric of liberty and thereupon wrote a series of decisions that have made the fabric stronger than before."[133] Two Eisenhower appointees to the court—Earl Warren (who was made Chief Justice) and William J. Brennan, Jr.—proved to be more liberal than Eisenhower had anticipated, and he would later refer to the appointment of Warren as his "biggest mistake".[134]
In 1956, the Supreme Court heard the case of Slochower v. Board of Education. Harry Slochower was a professor at Brooklyn College who had been fired by New York City for invoking the Fifth Amendment when McCarthy's committee questioned him about his past membership in the Communist Party. The court prohibited such actions, ruling
"...we must condemn the practice of imputing a sinister meaning to the exercise of a person's constitutional right under the Fifth Amendment.... The privilege against self-incrimination would be reduced to a hollow mockery if its exercise could be taken as equivalent either to a confession of guilt or a conclusive presumption of perjury."[135]The 1956 Cole v. Young ruling also greatly weakened the ability to discriminate in the federal civilian workforce.[136]
Another key decision was in the 1957 case Yates v. United States, in which the convictions of fourteen Communists were reversed. In Justice Black's opinion, he wrote of the original "Smith Act" trials: "The testimony of witnesses is comparatively insignificant.
Guilt or innocence may turn on what Marx or Engels or someone else wrote or advocated as much as a hundred years or more ago.... When the propriety of obnoxious or unfamiliar view about government is in reality made the crucial issue, ...
prejudice makes conviction inevitable except in the rarest circumstances."[137]
Also in 1957, the Supreme Court ruled on the case of Watkins v. United States, curtailing the power of HUAC to punish uncooperative witnesses by finding them in contempt of Congress. Justice Warren wrote in the decision: "The mere summoning of a witness and compelling him to testify, against his will, about his beliefs, expressions or associations is a measure of governmental interference. And when those forced revelations concern matters that are unorthodox, unpopular, or even hateful to the general public, the reaction in the life of the witness may be disastrous."[138][139]
In its 1958 decision in Kent v. Dulles, the Supreme Court halted the State Department from using the authority of its own regulations to refuse or revoke passports based on an applicant's communist beliefs or associations.[140]RepercussionsThe political divisions McCarthyism created in the United States continue to make themselves manifest, and the politics and history of a anti-communism in the United States are still contentious. Portions of the massive security apparatus established during the McCarthy era still exist.
Loyalty oaths are still required by the California Constitution for all officials and employees of the government of California (which is highly problematic for Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses whose beliefs preclude them from pledging absolute loyalty to the state).[141] At the federal level, a few portions of the McCarran Internal Security Act remain in effect.
A number of observers have compared the oppression of liberals and leftists during the McCarthy period to recent actions against suspected terrorists, most of them Muslims. In The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism, author Haynes Johnson compares the "abuses suffered by aliens thrown into high-security U.S. prisons in the wake of 9/11" to the excesses of the McCarthy era.[142] Similarly,
David D. Cole has written that the Patriot Act "in effect resurrects the philosophy of McCarthyism, simply substituting 'terrorist' for 'communist'".[143]
From the opposite pole, conservative writer Ann Coulter devotes much of her book Treason to drawing parallels between past opposition to McCarthy and McCarthyism and the policies and beliefs of modern-day liberals, arguing that the former hindered the anti-communist cause and the latter hinder the War on Terrorism.[144] Other authors who have drawn on a comparison between current anti-terrorism policies and McCarthyism include Geoffrey R. Stone,[145] Ted Morgan,[146] and Jonah Goldberg.[147]
McCarthyism also attracts controversy purely as a historical issue. Through declassified documents from Soviet archives and Venona project decryptions of coded Soviet messages, the Soviet Union was found to have engaged in substantial espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s. The Communist Party USA also was substantially funded and its policies controlled by the Soviet Union, and accusations existed that CPUSA members were often recruited as spies.[148]
In the view of some contemporary commentators, these revelations stand as at least a partial vindication of McCarthyism.[149] Some feel that a genuinely dangerous subversive element was in the United States, and that this danger justified extreme measures.[147] Others, while acknowledging that inexcusable excesses occurred during McCarthyism, argue that some contemporary historians of McCarthyism underplay the depth of Soviet espionage in America[150] or the undemocratic nature of the CPUSA,[151] the latter concern being shared by some Trotskyites who felt that they, and anti-Stalin socialists in general, were persecuted by the CPUSA.[152]
The opposing view holds that, recent revelations notwithstanding, by the time McCarthyism began in the late 1940s, the CPUSA was an ineffectual fringe group, and the damage done to U.S. interests by Soviet spies after World War II was minimal.[153] Historian Ellen Schrecker, herself criticised for pro-Stalinist leanings,[154] has written,
"in this country, McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did."[155]
Later use of the termSince the time of McCarthy,
the word McCarthyism has entered American speech as a general term for a variety of practices: aggressively questioning a person's patriotism, making poorly supported accusations, using accusations of disloyalty to pressure a person to adhere to conformist politics or to discredit an opponent, subverting civil and political rights in the name of national security, and the use of demagoguery are all often referred to as McCarthyism.[156][157][158] McCarthyism can also be synonymous with the term witch-hunt, both referring to mass hysteria and moral panic.[159]In popular cultureThe 1951 novel The Troubled Air by Irwin Shaw tells the story of the director of a (fictional) radio show, broadcast live at the time, who is given a deadline to investigate his cast for alleged links to communism. The novel recounts the devastating effects on all concerned.[160]
The 1952 Arthur Miller play The Crucible used the Salem witch trials as a metaphor for McCarthyism, suggesting that the process of McCarthyism-style persecution can occur at any time or place. The play focused on the fact that once accused, a person had little chance of exoneration, given the irrational and circular reasoning of both the courts and the public. Miller later wrote: "The more I read into the Salem panic, the more it touched off corresponding images of common experiences in the fifties."[161]
The 1976 film The Front starring Woody Allen dealt with the McCarthy-era Hollywood blacklist. The film was made by those blacklisted: producer and director Martin Ritt; writer Walter Bernstein; and actors Zero Mostel, Herschel Bernardi, Michael Murphy, John Randolph, Lloyd Gough, and Joshua Shelley.[162]
Guilty by Suspicion is a 1991 American drama film about the Hollywood blacklist, McCarthyism, and the activities of the HUAC. Written and directed by Irwin Winkler, it starred Robert De Niro, Annette Bening, and George Wendt.
The 2005 film Good Night, and Good Luck by George Clooney starred David Strathairn as broadcast journalist Edward R. Murrow and contained archival footage of McCarthy.[163]
See also• Conservatism portal
• Socialism portal
• Communism portal
• Hatch Act of 1939
• Mundt–Ferguson Communist Registration Bill of 1950
• Red-baiting
• Anti anti-communism
• Palmer Raids
References
Citations1. "The Cold War Home Front: McCarthyism". AuthenticHistory.com. AuthenticHistory.com. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
2. Storrs, Landon R. Y. (2015-07-02). "McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare". American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-6.
3. For example, Yates v. United States (1957) and Watkins v. United States (1957): Fried (1997), pp. 205, 207.
4. For example, California's "Levering Oath" law, declared unconstitutional in 1967: Fried (1997), p. 124.
5. For example, Slochower v. Board of Education (1956): Fried (1997), p. 203.
6. For example, Faulk vs. AWARE Inc., et al. (1962): Fried (1997), p. 197.
7. Robert J, Goldstein (2006). "Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist". Prologue Magazine. Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration.
8. Weir (2007), pp. 148–49.
9. Fried (1990), p. 41.
10. Brinkley (1995), p. 141; Fried (1990), pp. 6, 15, 78–80.
11. Griffith (1970), p. 49.
12. "McCarthyism, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.); citing Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1950, p. 20.
13. Block (1952), p. 152.
14. Fried (1990), p. 150.
15. McCoy, Donald R. (1991). Fausold, Martin; Shank, Alan (eds.). The Constitution of the Truman Presidency and the Post–World War II Era. The Constitution and the American Presidency. SUNY Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-7914-0468-3.
16. Fried (1997).
17. Fried (1990), p. 133.
18. Brown (1958).
19. Schrecker (1998), p. 271.
20. Fried (1990), p. 70.
21. Schrecker (1998), pp. 211, 266 et seq.
22. Schrecker (2002), p. 65.
23. Schrecker (1998), p. 212.
24. Cox and Theoharis (1988), p. 312.
25. Schrecker (1998), p. 225.
26. Yoder, Traci (April 2014). "Breach of Privilege: Spying on Lawyers in the United States" (PDF).
27. Schrecker (1998), pp. 239, 203.
28. Case, Sue-Ellen; Reinelt, Janelle G. (editors) (1991). The Performance of Power: Theatrical Discourse and Politics. University of Iowa Press. p. 153. ISBN 9781587290343.
29. Fried (1990), pp. 154–55; Schrecker (2002), p. 68.
30. "See it Now: A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy (transcript)". CBS-TV. March 9, 1954. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
31. Fried (1990), pp. 145–50.
32. Griffith (1970), p. 216.
33. Stone (2004), p. 384.
34. Fried (1990), p. 138.
35. 83rd U.S. Congress (July 30, 1954). "Senate Resolution 301: Censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy". U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
36. Fried (1997), p. 116.
37. Fried (1997), pp. 13, 15, 27, 110–12, 165–68.
38. Fried (1997), pp. 201–02.
39. Levin, Daniel, "Smith Act", in Paul Finkelman (ed.) (2006). Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. CRC Press. p. 1488. ISBN 0-415-94342-6.
40. Schrecker (1998), p. 141.
41. Fried (1990), p. 187.
42. McAuliff (1978), p. 142.
43. "California Creates Un-American Activities Committee". Today in Civil Liberties History. Retrieved 2017-07-09.
44. Linfield, Michael (1990). Freedom Under Fire: U.S. Civil Liberties in Times of War. South End Press. pp. 107–11. ISBN 9780896083745.
45. Richards, Dave (2009-08-19). "So Long to the Communist Threat". The Texas Observer. Retrieved 2017-07-09.
46. McEnteer, James (2004). Deep in the Heart: The Texas Tendency in American Politics. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 87. ISBN 9780275983062.
47. Nickerson, Michelle M., "Women, Domesticity, and Postwar Conservatism Archived March 10, 2003, at the Wayback Machine", OAH Magazine of History 17 (January 2003). ISSN 0882-228X.
48. Rovere (1959), pp. 21–22.
49. Marmor, Judd, Viola W. Bernard, and Perry Ottenberg, "Psychodynamics of Group Opposition to Mental Health Programs", in Judd Marmor (1994). Psychiatry in Transition (2nd ed.). Transaction. pp. 355–73. ISBN 1-56000-736-2.
50. Buckley (1954), p. 335.
51. Robert Griffith (1987). The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate. Univ of Massachusetts Press. p. 263. ISBN 0870235559.
52. Arthur Herman (2000). Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator. Simon and Schuster. pp. 160–61. ISBN 9780684836256.
53. Andrew, Christopher; Vasili Mitrokhin (1999). The Sword and the Shield. New York: Basic Books. pp. 108, 110, 122, 148, 164, 226, 236–37, 279–80, 294–306. ISBN 0-465-00310-9.
54. Haynes, John; Harvey Klehr (1999). Venona – Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Connecticut: Yale University. pp. 221–26. ISBN 0-300-07771-8.
55. Schrecker (1998), pp. 161, 193–94.
56. Chambers, Whittaker (1952). Witness. New York: Random House. p. 799. ISBN 978-0-8488-0958-4.
57. Schrecker (1998), pp. 130–37.
58. Herman, Arthur (2000). Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator. Free Press. pp. 5–6.
59. Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America – The Stalin Era (New York: Modern Library, 2000) ISBN 978-0-375-75536-1, pp. 48, 158, 162, 169, 229
60. M. Stanton Evans. Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight against America's Enemies. Crown Forum, 2007 pp. 19–21.
61. John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr. Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press, 1999, p. 18.
62. Schrecker (1998), p. xiii.
63. Schrecker (2002), pp. 63–64.
64. Schrecker (1998), p. 4.
65. Sears, Brad; Hunter, Nan D.; Mallory, Christy (September 2009). Documenting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in State Employment (PDF). Los Angeles: The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy at UCLA School of Law. pp. 5–3. From 1947 to 1961, more than 5,000 allegedly homosexual federal civil servants lost their jobs in the purges for no reason other than sexual orientation, and thousands of applicants were also rejected for federal employment for the same reason. During this period, more than 1,000 men and women were fired for suspected homosexuality from the State Department alone—a far greater number than were dismissed for their membership in the Communist party. The Cold War and anticommunist efforts provided the setting in which a sustained attack upon gay men and lesbians took place. The history of this 'lavender scare' by the federal government has been extensively documented by historian David Johnson, who has demonstrated that during this era, government officials intentionally engaged in campaigns to associate homosexuality with Communism: 'homosexual' and 'pervert' became synonyms for 'Communist' and 'traitor.' LGBT people were treated as a national-security threat, demanding the attention of Congress, the courts, statehouses, and the media.
66. D'Emilio (1998), pp. 41–49.
67. David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.), pg 10
68. "An interview with David K. Johnson author of The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government". press.uchicago.edu. The University of Chicago. 2004. The Lavender Scare helped fan the flames of the Red Scare. In popular discourse, communists and homosexuals were often conflated. Both groups were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places, literature, cultural codes, and bonds of loyalty. Both groups were thought to recruit to their ranks the psychologically weak or disturbed. And both groups were considered immoral and godless. Many people believed that the two groups were working together to undermine the government.
69. Gary Kinsman and Patrizia Gentile. The Canadian War on Queers: National Security as Sexual Regulation. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010, p. 65.
70. Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Madeline Davis. Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold. New York: Routledge, 1993, p. 75.
71. Kinsman and Gentile, p. 8.
72. John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman. Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012, p. 316.
73. David K. Johnson, p. 96.
74. Schrecker (1998), p. 267.
75. Publication canceled after FBI contact: Horvath, Brooke (2005). Understanding Nelson Algren. University of South Carolina Press. p. 84. ISBN 1-57003-574-1.
76. Investigated by the FBI and brought before HUAC for having registered as a Communist supporter in 1936: "Lucille Ball". FBI Records: The Vault. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
77. On Hollywood "graylist": "Composer Elmer Bernstein Dead at 82". msnbc.com. Associated Press. August 19, 2004. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
78. Schrecker, Ellen (2002). The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents. New York, Palgrave. p. 244. ISBN 0-312-29425-5.
79. Lost his job, exiled: Jessica Wang (1999). American Science in an Age of Anxiety: scientists, anticommunism, & the cold war. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 277–78. ISBN 978-0-8078-2447-4.
80. "Obituary", The New York Times, November 25, 1990. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
81. "McCarthy Target Ousted" (PDF). The New York Times. November 21, 1952. Retrieved April 4, 2014.
82. Buhle, Paul & David Wagner (2003b). Blacklisted: The Film Lover's Guide to the Hollywood Blacklist. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-6145-X.
83. Harassed by anti-Communist groups, denied reentry to United States while traveling abroad: Lev, Peter (1999). Transforming the Screen, 1950–1959. University of California Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-520-24966-6.
84. On the Red Channels blacklist of artists and entertainers: Schrecker (2002), p. 244.
85. Blacklisted in his profession, committed suicide in 1959: Bosworth, Patricia (1998). Anything Your Little Heart Desires: An American Family Story. Touchstone. ISBN 0-684-83848-6.
86. "The Authentic History Center: Red Channels, The Blacklist". Retrieved 21 July 2010.[dead link]
87. On Hollywood blacklist: Buhle and Wagner (2003), p. 105.
88. Harassed by anti-Communist groups, denied reentry to United States, thus prevented from acting in the movie Broken Lance: Ramón, David (1997). Dolores del Río. Clío. p. 44. ISBN 968-6932-35-6.
89. Indicted under the Foreign Agents Registration Act: Du Bois, W.E.B. (1968). The Autobiography of W. E. B. Du Bois. International Publishers. ISBN 0-7178-0234-5.
90. Craig, R. Bruce (2004). Treasonable Doubt. University Press of Kansas. p. 496. ISBN 978-0-7006-1311-3.
91. Jerome, Fred (2002). The Einstein File: J. Edgar Hoover's Secret War Against the World's Most Famous Scientist. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-28856-5.
92. Herman, Jan (1995). A Talent for Trouble: The Life of Hollywood's Most Acclaimed Director, William Wyler. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80798-X.
93. Blacklisted, imprisoned for three months for contempt of Congress: Sabin (1999), p. 75.
94. Alexander, Stephan (2007). Überwacht. Ausgebürgert. Exiliert: Schriftsteller und der Staat. Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag. pp. 36–52. ISBN 978-3-89528-634-6.
95. Investigation of Communist Activities in the Los Angeles Area — Part 5, United States Congress, House Committee on Un-American Activities
96. On Hollywood blacklist: Buhle and Wagner (2003), p. 31.
97. Berch, Bettina (1988). Radical By Design: The Life and Style of Elizabeth Hawes. Dutton Adult. ISBN 0-525-24715-7.
98. "Dorothy Healey Lifelong Communist Fought for Workers", Los Angeles Times, Dennis McLellan, August 08, 2006. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
99. ""Theodore Kaghan, 77; Was in Foreign Service". The New York Times, August 11, 1989. Accessed March 7, 2011.
100. Freedom of Information/Privacy Act Section. "Subject: Danny Kaye". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved June 29, 2013.
101. Keith Haynes "Benjamin Keen 1913–2002" Hispanic American Historical Review 83.2 (2003) 357–59
102. Heyworth, Peter (1996). Otto Klemperer: Vol. 2, 1933–1973: His Life and Times. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521244886.
103. Louis Komzsik (2003). The Lanczos Method:Evolution and Application. SIAM. p. 79.
104. Blacklisted and unemployed, committed suicide in 1955: Fried (1990), p. 156.
105. Stephan, Alexander (1995). Im Visier des FBI: deutsche Exilschriftsteller in den Akten amerikanischer Geheimdienste. Metzler. ISBN 3-476-01381-2.
106. Trotter, William R. (1995). Priest of Music. The Life of Dimitri Mitropoulos. Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-81-0.
107. Security clearance withdrawn: Schrecker (2002), p. 41.
108. Repeatedly denied passport: Thompson, Gail & R. Andrew Viruleg. "Linus Pauling". Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation. Archived from the original on 2007-12-24. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
109. Robert D. Dean, The Imperial Brotherhood: Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy (University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 65, 127, 140
110. "Obituary", The New York Times, November 9, 1987. Retrieved 10 June 2014.
111. On Hollywood blacklist: Buhle and Wagner (2003), p. 18.
112. Blacklisted, passport revoked: Marable, Manning, John McMillian, and Nishani Frazier (eds.) (2003). Freedom on My Mind: The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience. Columbia University Press. p. 559. ISBN 0-231-10890-7.
113. On Hollywood blacklist: Buhle and Wagner (2003), p. 208.
114. Brodeur, Paul (1997). A Writer in the Cold War. Faber and Faber. pp. 159–65. ISBN 978-0-571-19907-5.
115. Herbert Mitgang. "William L. Shirer, Author, Is Dead at 89". The New York Times, December 29, 1993. Accessed March 5, 2011.
116. Lawrence Van Gelder. "Lionel Stander Dies at 86; Actor Who Defied Blacklist". The New York Times, December 2, 1994. Accessed March 5, 2011.
117.
http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/levensbericht ... 003184.pdf,[permanent dead link] p. 7
118. Subpoenaed by New Hampshire Attorney General, indicted for contempt of court: Heale, M. J. (1998). McCarthy's Americans: Red Scare Politics in State and Nation, 1935–1965. University of Georgia Press. p. 73. ISBN 0-8203-2026-9.
119. Robert D. Dean, Imperial Brotherhood: Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 141–44
120. Passport revoked, incarcerated: Chang, Iris (1996). Thread of the Silkworm. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00678-7.
121. Evan, Anderson. "7 Artists Whose Careers Were Almost Derailed by the Hollywood Blacklist". History.com. A+E Networks. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
122. David H. Price. 2004. Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists. Duke University Press, March 30, 2004
123. Organization of American Historians: Lee W. Formwalt, "Robert Murray's Two Red Scares," in OAH Newsletter, November 2003 Archived September 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, accessed January 28, 2011
124. Truman, Harry S. (September 1950). "Veto of the Internal Security Bill". Truman Presidential Museum and Library. Archived from the original on 2007-03-01. Retrieved 2006-08-07.
125. Doherty (2005), pp. 14–15.
126. Smith, Margaret Chase (June 1, 1950). "Declaration of Conscience". Margaret Chase Smith Library. Archived from the original on October 8, 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-04.
127. Fried (1990), p. 29.
128. Fried (1997), p. 114.
129. Streitmatter (1998), p. 154.
130. Doherty (2005), p. 207.
131. Faulk, John Henry (1963). Fear on Trial. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72442-X.
132. Fried (1997), p. 197.
133. Rovere (1959), p. 264.
134. Sabin (1999), p. 5.
135. Fried (1997), p. 203.
136. "Cole v. Young 351 U.S. 536 (1956)".
137. Fried (1997), p. 205.
138. Fried (1997), p. 207.
139. full text (
http://caselaw.findlaw.com)
140. Fried (1997), p. 211.
141. Paddock, Richard C. (May 11, 2008), "Loyalty oath poses ethical dilemmas", San Francisco Chronicle
142. Johnson, Haynes (2005). The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism. Harcourt. p. 471. ISBN 0-15-101062-5.
143. Cole, David, "National Security State", The Nation (December 17, 2001). See also Cole, David, "The New McCarthyism: Repeating History in the War on Terrorism", Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review 38, no. 1 (Winter 2003).
144. Coulter, Ann (2003). Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-5032-4.
145. Geoffrey R. Stone (October 17, 2004). "America's new McCarthyism". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
146. Morgan, Ted (2004). Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America. Random House. p. 597 et seq. ISBN 0-8129-7302-X.
147. Goldberg, Jonah (February 26, 2003). "Two Cheers for "McCarthyism"?". National Review Online. Archived from the original on 2006-12-10. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
148. Marshall, Joshua, "Exhuming McCarthy", American Prospect 10, no. 43 (1999).
149. David Aaronovitch McCarthy: There Were Reds Under the Bed BBC Radio 4 airdate 9 August 2010
150. Radosh, Ronald (July 11, 2001). "The Persistence of Anti-Anti-Communism". FrontPageMagazine.com. Archived from the original on July 30, 2012. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
151. Haynes, John Earl. "Reflections on Ellen Schrecker and Maurice Isserman's essay, "The Right's Cold War Revision"".
152. Shannon Jones Account of McCarthy period slanders socialist opponents of Stalinism International Committee of the Fourth International 24 March 1999
Any serious assessment of McCarthyism must consider fore and center the criminal role played by the Stalinist Communist Party, which, by associating socialism with terrible crimes against the working class, helped create the political climate in which red-baiting could flourish.
153. Theoharis, Athan (2002). Chasing Spies: How the FBI Failed in Counter-Intelligence But Promoted the Politics of McCarthyism in the Cold War Years. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-420-2.
154. Jones, Shannon (24 March 1999). "Account of McCarthy period slanders socialist opponents of Stalinism". World Socialist Web Site. International Committee of the Fourth International. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
... her pro-Stalinist outlook and the school of anticommunism share a common premise – the claim that the Soviet regime as it developed under Stalin was the embodiment of Marxist principles.
155. Schrecker, Ellen (Winter 2000). "Comments on John Earl Haynes' The Cold War Debate Continues". Journal of Cold War Studies. Harvard University – Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 2009-02-27. Emphasis in original.
156. Rosenthal, Jack (October 7, 1984). "President vs. Demagogue". The New York Times. Retrieved December 20,2017.
157. Boot, Max (April 2000). "Joseph McCarthy by Arthur Herman". Commentary. Archived from the original on July 21, 2010. Retrieved April 11, 2013.
158. What Qualifies as Demagoguery? (October 19, 2004). "What Qualifies as Demagoguery?". History News Network. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
159. Murphy, Brenda (2003-11-13). Congressional Theatre: Dramatizing McCarthyism on Stage, Film, and Television. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521891660.
160. "The Troubled Air". Open Road Media.
161. Miller, Arthur (October 21, 1996). "Why I Wrote The Crucible". The New Yorker.
162. Georgakas, Dan. ""The Hollywood Blacklist"".
http://www.english.illinois.edu. Retrieved 2018-08-15.
163. "'Good Night and Good Luck': Murrow vs. McCarthy".
Sources• Block, Herbert (1952). The Herblock Book. Beacon. ISBN 1-4992-5346-X.
• Brinkley, Alan (1995). The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-75314-1.
• Brown, Ralph S. (1958). Loyalty and Security: Employment Tests in the United States. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-306-70218-5.
• Buckley, William F. (1977). A Hymnal: The Controversial Arts. G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0399-12227-3.
• Buckley, William F. (1954). McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning. Regnery. ISBN 0-89526-472-2.
• Buhle, Paul & David Wagner (2003). Hide in Plain Sight: The Hollywood Blacklistees in Film and Television, 1950–2002. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-6144-1.
• Cox, John Stuart & Athan G. Theoharis (1988). The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition. Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-532-X.
• D'Emilio, John (1998). Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities (2d ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14267-1.
• Doherty, Thomas (2005). Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12953-X.
• Fried, Albert (1997). McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509701-7.
• Fried, Richard M. (1990). Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504361-8.
• Griffith, Robert (1970). The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 0-87023-555-9.
• Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr (2000). Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08462-5.
• Herman, Herman (2000). Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator. The Free Press. ISBN 0-68483625-4.
• McAuliff, Mary Sperling (1978). Crisis on the Left: Cold War Politics and American Liberals, 1947–1954. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 0-87023-241-X.
• Rovere, Richard H. (1959). Senator Joe McCarthy. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20472-7.
• Sabin, Arthur J. (1999). In Calmer Times: The Supreme Court and Red Monday. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3507-X.
• Schrecker, Ellen (1998). Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America. Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-77470-7.
• Schrecker, Ellen (2002). The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents (2d ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29425-5.
• Stone, Geoffrey R. (2004). Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05880-8.
• Streitmatter, Rodger (1998). Mightier Than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3211-7.
• Weir, Robert E. (2007). Class in America: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-33720-9.
Historiography• Haynes, John Earl. "The Cold War debate continues: A traditionalist view of historical writing on domestic Communism and anti-Communism." Journal of Cold War Studies 2.1 (2000): 76-115.
• Hixson Jr, William B. Search for the American right wing: An analysis of the social science record, 1955–1987 (Princeton University Press, 2015).
• Reeves, Thomas C. "McCarthyism: Interpretations since Hofstadter." Wisconsin Magazine of History (1976): 42–54. online
• Selverstone, Marc J. "A Literature So Immense: The Historiography of Anticommunism." Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 24.4 (2010): 7–11.
Further reading• Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000). The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00312-5.
• Byman, Jeremy (2004). Showdown at High Noon: Witch-hunts, Critics, and the End of the Western. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-4998-4.
• Caballero, Raymond. McCarthyism vs. Clinton Jencks. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.
• Caute, David (1978). The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-22682-7.
• Coulter, Ann (2003). Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism. Crown Forum. ISBN 1-4000-5030-8.
• Evans, M. Stanton (2007). Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies. Crown Publishing. ISBN 1-4000-8105-X.
• Haynes, John Earl (2000). Red Scare or Red Menace?: American Communism and Anti Communism in the Cold War Era. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-091-6.
• Haynes, John Earl & Harvey Klehr (2003). In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage. Encounter. ISBN 1-893554-72-4.
• Latham, Earl (ed.). The Meaning of McCarthyism (1965). excerpts from primary and secondary sources
• Lichtman, Robert M. The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2012.
• McDaniel, Rodger. Dying for Joe McCarthy's Sins: The Suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester Hunt. WordsWorth, 2013.
• Morgan, Ted (2004). Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America. Random House. ISBN 0-8129-7302-X.
• Navasky, Victor S. (1980). Naming Names. Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-8090-0183-7.
• Powers, Richard Gid (1997). Not Without Honor: A History of American Anticommunism. Free Press. ISBN 0-300-07470-0.
• Schrecker, Ellen (1994). The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-08349-1.
• Storrs, Landon R.Y., The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.
• Weinstein, Allen, and Alexander Vassiliev (2000). The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—The Stalin Era. Modern Library. ISBN 0-375-75536-5.
External links• Badash, Lawrence (October 30, 2007). "Science in the McCarthy Period: Training Ground for Scientists as Public Citizens". Oregon State University. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
• Beyer, Mary & Michael Beyer (January 2006). "McCarthyism Today". International Journal of Baudrillard Studies. Archived from the original on 2006-10-01. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
• "McCarthyism / The "Red Scare"". Dwight D. Eisenhower Online Documents. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, and Boyhood Home. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
• Navasky, Victor S. (June 28, 2001). "Cold War Ghosts". The Nation. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
• Rusher, William A. (Fall 2004). "A Closer Look Under The Bed". Claremont Review of Books. Claremont Institute. Archived from the original on January 27, 2012. Retrieved 2011-12-27.
