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Dennison Wheelock
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 2/28/20

To the late nineteenth-century West... -- its imperial power and confidence supported by belief in the theories of evolution that saw the races of the world in an ordered line of ascent from the primitive to the modern Western type -- to be "cultured" or "civilized" meant to measure up to a European norm in standards of intellectual, artistic, and material achievement. This assumption of Western superiority was evident in all nineteenth-century expositions, but never more than at Chicago. The lesson of the fair, we are told by its chroniclers, was that each nation could see its position in the hierarchy thus displayed. The clearest example of this hierarchy was the Midway Plaisance of the fair.... This was the popular carnival sector of the exposition. It was here, along with the sideshows and amusements, that most of the Asian and Third World countries were represented. Some of the more popular attractions were the street in Cairo, the Dahomey village, the Javanese village, and the Eskimos, living exhibits in an anthropological display that illustrated the "progress of man" through a racial hierarchy that culminated in the modern Western type. The Midway Plaisance was "a world gallery," a "voyage round the world and down time," where "one could drop back through every stage of humanity, European, Asiatic, African until he reaches the animal in Hegenbeck's menagerie." Or alternately, as the same writer observed, the Midway could be "viewed in ascending manner culminating in the Exposition proper." The "Exposition proper" was, of course, the White City, evidence of America's supreme position in the hierarchy. The fair was a vast anthropological object lesson in the ascent of man and the Darwinian justification of Western dominance....

in the words of one critic, "We must have standards, and Europe is that standard."...

The Columbian anniversary was also an appropriate occasion to celebrate America's divinely ordained place in world history, a vision encapsulated in a proposal for a commemorative Dome of Columbus. The scale of the dome is vast...A colossal figure of Columbus, more than six hundred feet above the ground, pointed down to his achievement, his journey represented by a line drawn across the map on the surface of the dome. The map itself was curiously oriented, inverting European primacy by placing the Americas at the apex of the world, or as close to it as possible while remaining in the view of a prehelicopter audience. Columbus's journey from Spain read as an ascent: European man reached his culmination in the United States of America. The juxtaposition of the Italian Renaissance-style pedestal and the Temple of Liberty surmounting the dome showed American civilization rising out of the pinnacle of European cultural achievement to attain even greater heights. America stood at the summit of the world, representing the accumulated accomplishments of European civilization..."The new world was the heir of all ages."...

What does the statement of the Dome of Columbus mean when placed in the domestic context of labor wars, bankrupt farmers, the problems of postemancipation blacks and displaced Indians, urban slums teeming with Jewish and Roman Catholic immigrants who could no longer be considered outside mainstream American life?...From this perspective the dome is a point of resistance, a reaffirmation of the triumph of America, the republican ideal, and also an exclusion of minorities from identification as American. American blacks were denied participation in the fair. Their petitions for an exhibition, a building, or a separate department were all rejected. Their contribution was restricted to state displays and was subject to the approval of a white committee. American Indians were included in the ethnological department, part of the display of the customs of native peoples of the world. The dome reinforced the object lessons in racial hierarchy of the Midway. At the Chicago exposition, civilization was defined not only by the West, but by a white, Protestant Christian West.

-- Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition, by Judith Snodgrass

Contract With Chicago Bureau for Forty Weeks Beginning Next May

J. Riley Wheelock, conductor and proprietor of Wheelock's Indian band, closed yesterday in Philadelphia, a deal with the Chicago Slayton Lyceum Bureau, wherein the band will tour to the coast next summer and the south next fall under the exclusive management of the bureau. The band will number fifty, and open its season in Chicago, in May. Mr. Wheelock is to be congratulated. We are sure his band will again be a great success.

--The Sentinel, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 26 Oct. 1906

Dennison Wheelock
Dennison Wheelock, c.1914
Born: June 14, 1871, Oneida Nation of Wisconsin
Died: March 10, 1927
Education: Carlisle Indian School, Dickinson Preparatory School
Era: Progressive era
Known for: Musician, composer, conductor, lawyer, Native American activist
Children: Richard Edmund Wheelock, Paul Wheelock, Leeland Lloyd Wheelock, Louise Frances Wheelock.
Parent(s): James A. Wheelock (father)
Sophia Doxtator (mother)

Dennison Wheelock (June 14, 1871 – March 10, 1927) was an internationally renowned Oneida band conductor and cornet soloist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; he was also a composer.[1] Wheelock was compared at the time to John Philip Sousa, and nominated to be bandmaster of the United States Marine Band.[2] At the age of 40 he became an American Indian rights activist and attorney, and within several years was arguing cases for Indian nations at the United States Court of Claims and US Supreme Court.

Wheelock was born in the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin. He went to Pennsylvania to be educated at the Carlisle Indian School, returning later for study at Dickinson Preparatory School. Wheelock was appointed as the first Oneida bandmaster of the internationally acclaimed Carlisle Indian School Band, which performed at world fairs, expositions, and presidential inaugurals. While at the school, he composed the Sousa-inspired "Carlisle Indian School March." In 1900 he debuted his three-part symphony, Aboriginal Suite, at Carnegie Hall in New York City.

In 1911 Wheelock was among the 50 founding members of the Society of American Indians, the first national American Indian rights organization developed and run by American Indians. He had read the law and passed the bar that year, practicing first in Wisconsin. As he represented more Indian nations in his practice, he moved to Washington D.C., where he represented them in actions against the government in the United States Court of Claims and the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1980, to honor him and the celebrated Carlisle Indian Band, Dennison Wheelock's Bandstand was reconstructed on the site of the original at the U.S. Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

Early life


Brothers Dennison and James Wheelock served as bandmasters, Carlisle Indian School, Carlisle, PA, c.1885

Dennison Wheelock was born June 14, 1871, in the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin, second child of James A. Wheelock and Sophia Doxtator.[3] He had an older brother Charles and a total of eight other brothers and sisters, and half-siblings. Dennison grew up in the 1870s and early 1880s in a poor Oneida farm community, which was faced with increasing economic pressures to harvest its timber and a federal push for the allotment of tribal lands to individual households. The Nation struggled with high alcohol consumption and tribal infighting.[4] Dennison took up the cornet after hearing his older brother, Charles, playing it. He was impressed by a visiting Tuscarora musician, who taught the youth music reading and simple composition for several months. In 1879, Seneca and Tuscarora musicians won medals of excellence at state fairs.[5] Dennison also heard the popular band music of John Philip Sousa at Wisconsin fairs. Locally, the Oneida Union Band and the Oneida National Band were prominent in community events and throughout the Midwest.[4]

Carlisle Indian School


The collaborative effort between Dickinson College and Carlisle Indian School lasted almost four decades, from the opening day to the closing of the school. Old West, Dickinson College, 1810


Dickinson College provided Carlisle Indian School students with access to preparatory and college-level education, and Dickinson professors served as chaplains and special faculty to the Indian School.



For more than 100 years, numerous Iroquois children, including Oneida, had been sent away from home to Christian schools for education. It was a tradition Wheelock likely heard about. Moor's Indian Charity School, now Dartmouth College, was founded in 1755 by Eleazar Wheelock, a Puritan minister. He established the school to train Native Americans as missionaries. Dennison's surname was adopted by an Oneida ancestor as a tribute to Wheelock.[6]Hamilton-Oneida Academy, now Hamilton College, was a seminary founded in 1793 by Presbyterian Samuel Kirkland as part of his missionary work with the Oneida in New York State, their traditional territory.[6]

The Oneida people from Wisconsin and New York constituted one of the largest Indian nation's contingents at Carlisle Indian School. Only the Lakota, Chippewa and Seneca had more students enrolled. Between 1885 and 1917, more than 500 Oneida students attended Carlisle.[6]

In January 1884 at age 13, Wheelock wrote to Captain Richard Henry Pratt, Superintendent of the Carlisle Indian School, referring to his "limited musical education" and his musical awakening.[5] In 1885, Wheelock enrolled in the Carlisle Indian School to study under Pratt.[5] Dennison excelled in the classroom, and as a champion debater; he also was a fine tenor in the choir and cornetist extraordinaire in the band. In June 1890, Dennison graduated from Carlisle.

He returned to Oneida, Wisconsin, where he started teaching and was appointed as a justice of the peace. But within a year, Wheelock returned to Carlisle. With Pratt's recommendation, he enrolled in the nearby Dickinson Preparatory School. Dickinson College provided Carlisle Indian students with access to college-level education through the Dickinson Preparatory School ("Conway Hall").[7] Only a select few of Carlisle students were recommended to this institution. Dennison attended Dickinson Preparatory school from 1891-1892.[8][9]

In 1892, Pratt appointed Wheelock as assistant clerk, working directly for him at the School. Later that year, Pratt appointed the young man as bandmaster, a position he would hold for more than eight years, until 1900.

Music at Carlisle

During the Progressive Era, from the late 19th century until the onset of World War I, Native American performers were major draws and money-makers. Millions of visitors at world fairs, exhibitions, and parades throughout the United States and Europe saw Native Americans portrayed as the vanishing race, exotic peoples, and objects of modern comparative anthropology.[10] Reformers and Progressives fought a war of words and images against the popular Wild West shows at world fairs, expositions and parades. They opposed theatrical portrayals of Wild Westers as vulgar heathen stereotypes. In contrast, Carlisle students were portrayed as a new generation of Native American leadership embracing civilization, education and industry.

Music was an important part of the Carlisle curriculum. Every student took music classes, and many received private instruction. Captain Pratt had three goals for the Carlisle musical program: to acculturate Indian school children to majority European-American culture; to use music to promote discipline, with emphasis on the drills of the popular marching bands; and to generate favorable public attention, in order to win continued political and philanthropic support and financing for the school.[11]

Development of the music program at Carlisle was supported largely by private philanthropy, rather than federal funds.[12] Around 1879, a visiting philanthropist from Boston reported hearing "tom-toms" and Indian singing in the dormitories. Pratt preferred that the "tom-toms" stopped, but said,

It wouldn't be fair to do unless I can give them something else as good, or better, on the same line. If you will give me a set of brass instruments, I will give them to the "tom-tom boys" and they can toot on them, and this will stop the "tom-tom." [12]

Pratt soon received a set of musical instruments: cornets, clarinets, and pianos from Boston.

While classical European music was emphasized at Carlisle, the students also sang and drummed traditional tribal music in their dormitories. They played samples of such music at assembly and local community programs. Later, Wheelock featured American Indian music with classical European music in his opera, Aboriginal Suite.[13]

Carlisle Indian Band


Dennison Wheelock's Bandstand, Carlisle Indian School, Carlisle, PA, 1901


The Carlisle Indian Band performed at world fairs, expositions and at every national presidential inaugural celebration until the school closed. Carlisle, PA, 1915


Carlisle Indian Students at the Centennial of the Constitution Parade, Philadelphia, PA, 1887


The Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation. Carlisle Indian School Band and Battalion. Carlisle, PA, c. 1911


Wheelock drew 70,000 people to a concert at Willow Grove Park, Pennsylvania, and was awarded a gold medal and a silver cup for his brilliant conducting.


First Inaugural Parade of Theodore Roosevelt, March 4, 1905. President Roosevelt waved his hat and members of the President's box rose to their feet to see the six famous Native American chiefs in full regalia on horseback, followed by the 46-piece Carlisle Indian School Band and a brigade of 350 Carlisle Cadets.

Pratt established the Carlisle Indian School band in 1880. By the time Wheelock entered the school in the mid-1880s, musical programs were a common feature of the school. Band members mastered Greig, Mozart, Rossini, Schubert and Wagner. They frequently performed at school assemblies, holiday festivities and at the Carlisle Opera House, delighting the students, teachers and administrators at the school and gaining favorable attention among the local white townspeople.[8] In 1892, Dennison was appointed bandmaster of the Carlisle Indian Band, a position he would hold for over eight years, until 1900. Wheelock was the first American Indian bandmaster at Carlisle. After his tenure, his brother James took up the baton.[14] Under the leadership of Dennison Wheelock and James Wheelock, the Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation of musical excellence.[15] The Carlisle Indian Band performed at world fairs, expositions, concert venues and at every national presidential inaugural celebration until the school closed. Taking over the reins of the Carlisle Indian School Band, he recruited new members. Dennison continued to perform at as a solo cornetist and his younger brother James, a student at the school, became a fixture on the "E-Clarinet. " [8] Wheelock's commitment to music extended beyond the classroom and the bandstand the Carlisle. Throughout the 1890s, he was also composing songs, popular "fluff", band music, as well as the symphony, which he finally completed in 1900.[16]

By 1894, the band and the Carlisle Women's Choir, performed throughout the East. On April 15, 1894, the New York Times did a feature on Wheelock with his portrait and band, reviewing their performance at the city's Lenox Lyceum. The review noted "few metropolitan bands can boast of greater care and accuracy in the execution of their music." "Among other offerings, the band played Mozart and Wagner as well as two selections compose by Wheelock himself: "The Carlisle Indian School March" and a piece entitled "American Medley." "The concert's patrons read as a "Who's Who" of New York's elite families, including Mrs. J. Pierpont Morgan, Mrs. Russell Sage, Mrs. James Harriman and Mrs. Elihu Root.[16]

Marriage

Louise LaChapelle (Wheelock), a Chippewa from the White Earth Reservation in northwestern Minnesota, arrived as a student at Carlisle two years earlier than Dennison. They met, courted, married and had four children. Richard Edmund Wheelock,[17] Paul Wheelock,[18] Leeland Lloyd Wheelock [19] and Louise Frances Wheelock.[20] Their first two children were born in Carlisle.

Captain Richard Henry Pratt

Captain Pratt was Dennison's mentor and school father, and Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was Dennison's second-home. Wheelock corresponded with Pratt for over 35 years and confided in each other throughout their lives. Wheelock had affection for Pratt, his wife and Carlisle. Wheelock shared Pratt's views. Both saw federal Indian boarding schools as a temporary educational formula to "uplift" the Indians, and called for the abolishment of Indian reservations and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. They focused upon the release of Indians from federal control, full citizenship, equal opportunity and education in public schools. Wheelock and Pratt had little faith in the efficacy of the Society of American Indians to make real changes, since they believed that the organization had too many BIA bureaucrats, naïve reformers from the Indian Rights Association and other "paper shooters." [21] From 1921 to 1922, Captain Pratt lobbied President Warren G. Harding to nominate Wheelock to be Commissioner of Indian affairs.[22]

James Riley Wheelock


Chief James Wheelock's Band

Under the leadership of Dennison Wheelock and James Wheelock, the Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation of musical excellence.[23] James Riley Wheelock was a younger brother of bandmaster Dennison Wheelock and graduated from Carlisle in 1896.[24] Like Dennis, James attended the prestigious Dickinson College Preparatory School after completing his Carlisle studies.[25] When Dennison resigned as Bandmaster in 1900, James succeeded him. In 1903, James studied music and his specialty, clarinet, in Leipzig, Germany.[26]

In 1909, James clashed with Superintendent Moses Friedman, Pratt's successor. Wheelock recruited Carlisle students to tour with his professional band during the summer, believing the experience would fit into the parameters of Carlisle's outing program. Superintendent Friedman refused, but several boys from the band attempted join Wheelock's band and had their trunks taken to the train depot. Friedman discovered the plan and the boys were locked in the guardhouse as punishment for their actions. The rest of the Carlisle Band was so resentful at these measures, they refused to perform during that evening's "salute to the flag, " a daily ritual at Carlisle. James was infuriated by Friedman's actions and charged in newspapers that the Superintendent was jealous of his band's success, was the cause of disciplinary problems at the school and that the students were illegally held in a "dungeon." Friedman responded that he had refused permission because in the past, "students indulged in the kind of dissipation and debauchery during the summer which taints and brings about an unhealthy condition in the fall when they return to school." The story made local headlines and embarrassed both Carlisle and the Office of Indian Affairs. After several weeks and an official investigation, the matter was dropped. The students who forged resistance through the flag controversy rebelled because of their intense desire to perform beyond the campus.[27]

In 1914, the Harrisburg Telegraph reported that James Riley Wheelock, director of the Enola Band, was performing in clarinet solos and was one of the best clarinet players in Pennsylvania.[28] During World War I, Wheelock was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the U.S. Army, where he conducted a black regimental band. After the war, he conducted the famous U.S. Indian Band and others well into the 1920s.[29]

Wheelocks at Carlisle

The Wheelocks were likely the first family of Carlisle Indian School, because there were so many of them, and they were mentioned prominently in Carlisle publications.[30] The Oneida people from Wisconsin and New York was one of the largest contingents of Indians at Carlisle, and only the Lakota, Chippewas and Senecas had more students. Between 1885 and 1917, over five hundred Oneida students attended Carlisle.[6] Of Wheelock's nine brothers, half-brothers, sisters and half sisters, only two-his oldest brother Charles, who also played the cornet, and his youngest half-brother, Harrison did not attend. In addition, several of his first and second cousins were enrolled at the school.[31] Dennison's younger brothers Hugh Wheelock and Joel Wheelock, who attended Carlisle, were also accomplished musicians, and later directed their own all-Indian bands. Sister Ida Wheelock was active in school organizations such as the Susan Longstreth Literary Society, and Martin Frederick Wheelock, a cousin of Dennison, played American football for the Carlisle Indians from 1894-1902.[32]

In August 1914, Dennison wrote Oscar Lipps, Acting Superintendent at Carlisle: "My sister, Martha Wheelock, aged twenty years, whose term expired at Flandreau, South Dakota last June, and is now with me in West De Pere, desires to be admitted to the Carlisle Indian School as a pupil. I am very anxious that she shall go if possible. She is in eighth grade. My son, Edmund is also very anxious to have the benefit of a diploma from Carlisle on account of the prestige it carries with it throughout the West." Edmund, who was born in at the Carlisle Indian School in 1896, had been attending public school in Wisconsin and doing well, but Dennison was concerned about the environment. "Unfortunately, however, De Pere is a city of less than five thousand inhabitants, yet has in the neighborhood of twenty-two, or twenty-four saloons, and on account of what is falsely termed liberal sentiment, the saloon keepers do not hold strictly to the law of the land, and as a result we see young boys very frequently under the influence of liquor." Within a month, both Edmund and Martha were attending Carlisle and active in school life and literary societies.[33]

International fame

Carlisle Indian Band


On March 28, 1900, Wheelock and the US Indian Band performed at Carnegie Hall and debuted his three part symphony titled "Aboriginal Suite." Carnegie Hall, New York City


In 1900, the Republican Guard Band of France played the Aboriginal Suite in tribute to Wheelock in absence of the Carlisle Indian Band at the Paris Exposition.

In the early years of the 20th century, Wheelock was compared to John Philip Sousa, and even nominated to be his successor as bandmaster of United States Marine Band.[2] Wheelock relished Sousa's music, known for American march music.[34]

On October 10, 1892, the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing in the New World, Wheelock's thirty-one piece Carlisle Indian Band, along with 300 Carlisle boys and girls, marched on Fifth Avenue in New York City past Washington Square.[35] The nation's newspapers praised the boys and girls for their "intelligent faces and dignified bearing." [35] "But the one that caught the crowd was the Indian band that had the delegation from Carlisle. With the smoothest harmony and in most perfect time, this band played a marching anthem as it passed the reviewing stand. Both the melody and spectacle or so when usual that the people rose to their feet and cheered again and again. The Indian boys marched with perfect step, and they came opposite President Benjamin Harrison's stand with the military precision that no pale faced organization equaled." [35]

In 1893, by the time the Carlisle contingent reached Chicago for the beginning of the Columbian Exposition, newspapers nationwide reported about Pratt and his Carlisle Indian students. Upon his return to Carlisle, Wheelock began a nationwide effort to recruit for Carlisle the most promising young Indian musicians from other boarding schools for the best talent. He also started to teach music, now being referred to as "Professor. " [16] In 1894, Wheelock along with the Carlisle Women's Choir performed throughout the East.[16] In 1896, Wheelock published the Carlisle Indian School March. Also, he presented a composition From Savagery to Civilization for the 17th anniversary celebration of the founding of Carlisle. Dennison performed as a soloist with the band, and the schools newspaper reported that the "sounds produced led up from the wild tom-tom, to curious and intricate twists and turns to the sweet and classic streams of civilized horns." [36] The composition was a prelude to Dennison's Aboriginal Suite, which he debuted in 1900 at Carnegie Hall.

The Aboriginal Suite


Carlisle Indian School March, 1896

In 1897, Wheelock traveled around the country recruiting musicians for a 70-piece, all-Indian student band to expand the Carlisle Indian Band as a new U.S. Indian Band. During this time, he completed his Aboriginal Suite, a full symphony in three parts: "Morning on the Plains", "The Lovers Song" and "Dance of the Red Men."[37] Wheelock planned to perform this symphony at the Paris Exposition of 1900 and the Pan-American Exposition of 1901 in Buffalo, New York.[38] Wheelock was thought to be influenced by the music of European composer Edvard Grieg.[36]

On March 28, 1900, Wheelock and the U.S. Indian Band performed his Aboriginal Suite at Carnegie Hall, a prestigious venue in New York City. A reviewer for Metronome reported that the concert was part of "a series being given by the organization prior to its departure for Paris, where it will demonstrate a new development in Indian civilization."[38] The band also played selections from Gounod's opera Faust (opera) and Meyerbeer's The Huguenots. The response to the concert was overwhelmingly positive: "A large and genuinely enthusiastic audience greeted the reservation musicians, forcing them to respond to repeated encores." [38]

Wheelock said in an interview,

The original Indian music is a strange thing. It is devoid of harmony, but the melody and time are there, and it is easily harmonized. Some great critics say that our aboriginal music is the same as played by all primitive people world over. Chinese music itself is built on the same principle and I am planning out the composition called the evolution of music. I hope to show the growth of harmony. First, so many musicians will come out in Indian costume, play some primitive melody. Others will follow playing something more advanced, and so on until the whole band is on stage and we are rendering the best grand opera.[39]

Six weeks later, Wheelock's 10-month-old son Paul died in Carlisle. he and Louise were grief-stricken, and the school canceled the band's appearance in Paris. In tribute to Wheelock, the National Band of France played the Aboriginal Suite for him.[38]

Haskell Indian School

In 1900, after his son died at Carlisle, Wheelock resigned his post to move his career elsewhere. He worked as a newspaperman in Green Bay, Wisconsin, and then a disciplinarian at the U.S. Indian School at Flandreau, South Dakota. Wheelock performed as guest bandmaster at Willow Grove Park, near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. This premier venue featured Sousa and his band at the music pavilion every year but one between 1901 and 1926. On one occasion, Wheelock drew 70,000 people to a concert. He was later awarded a gold medal and a silver cup for his brilliant conducting.[39]

In 1903, Wheelock was appointed bandmaster of Haskell Indian School in Lawrence, Kansas, where his efforts were nationally acclaimed.[39] In March 1904, a review in Metronome called the band an "up-to-date aggregation of capable musicians trained in every respect for high-class concert work." "Besides performing "their own quaint Indian songs they played Gounod, Mendelssohn, Mozart and Wagner".[40]

In 1904, Wheelock's Haskell Indian Band performed at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, known as the St. Louis World's Fair. The band performed a mixture of classical and popular music, and Wheelock's Aboriginal Suite. This included Native dances and war whoops by band members. The Carlisle Indian Band also performed at the Pennsylvania state pavilion.[41]

That year Captain Pratt was forced out of his post as superintendent at Carlisle by BIA officials. His network of philanthropists stopped donating to American Indian music, and Wheelock faced a financial struggle. He was supporting an aging father, numerous siblings, wife and son. He resigned from Haskell to seek better-paying employment.[42]

Society of American Indians


The first conference of the Society of American Indians, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1911


Wheelock was among 50 founders of the Society of American Indians, the first national American Indian rights organization developed and run by American Indians.

Wheelock was among the 50 founders in 1911 of the Society of American Indians (1911-1923), the first national American Indian rights organization developed and run by American Indians. The Society pioneered 20th-century Pan-Indianism, the philosophy and movement promoting unity among American Indians regardless of tribal affiliation. The Society was a forum for a new generation of American Indian leaders known as Red Progressives: they were mostly prominent professionals from the fields of medicine, nursing, law, government, education, anthropology, ethnology and ministry. They shared an enthusiasm and faith in the inevitability of progress through education and governmental action. The Society met at academic institutions, maintained a Washington headquarters, conducted annual conferences, and published a quarterly journal of literature by American Indian authors. The Society promoted an "American Indian Day", and led the fight for Indians to have United States citizenship. It lobbied to have U.S. Court of Claims available to hear cases of all tribes and bands in United States.[43]

The Society of American Indians was the forerunner of modern organizations such as the National Congress of American Indians. It anticipated important Indian reforms: a major reorganization of the Indian school system in the late 1920s, the codification of Indian law in the 1930s, and the opening of the U.S. Court of Claims to all Indian nations in the 1940s.[43]

Petition to President Woodrow Wilson

In October 1914, Wheelock hosted the Society's 1914 annual convention in Madison, Wisconsin.[44] In December 1914, the Society met in Washington D.C, where its members received a first-class reception from the federal government. Commissioner of Indian Affairs Cato Sells welcomed them to the nation's capital where they toured the Bureau of Indian Affairs. He arranged for a visit to the White House to meet with President Woodrow Wilson.

Wheelock presented the president with the Society's petition asking for appointment of a three-member commission to gain US citizenship for American Indians, and for broadening jurisdiction of the U.S. Court of Claims so that it could hear all Indian nation claims against the United States.[44] He said to Wilson, "We believe that you feel, with the progressive members of your race, that it is anomalous permanently to conserve within the nation groups of people whose civic condition by legislation is different from the normal standard of American life." The outbreak of World War I impeded federal enactment of remedial Indian legislation.[45]

As an attorney, Wheelock later represented Indian nations before the U.S. Court of Claims and the U.S. Supreme Court.[44]

Law career


Wheelock represented Native American tribal nations before the US Court of Claims and the US Supreme Court.

In 1910, Wheelock decided to go into law. He took up the study of law by returning to Carlisle, Pennsylvania, where he had a wide professional network. He "reading the law" as an apprentice at the office of John Miller, head of the Cumberland County Bar Association.[46] He served as a legal apprentice to Miller.

In 1911, after completing his training, Wheelock returned to Wisconsin, and completed requirements to be admitted to the Bar. He established his residence and practice in De Pere, near the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin. Wheelock became one of the most successful attorneys in Brown and Outagamie counties. He represented both Indian and non-Indian clients, although in this period, anti-Indian sentiments were rising in North Central Wisconsin. In 1915, Dennison also led the Green Bay Concert Band, which was composed largely of non-Indian musicians.[47]

During the next decade, Wheelock expanded his practice well beyond Wisconsin. By 1923, he was specializing in representing tribal nations, ranging across the country from those in Washington State to New York, including the Nisqually, Menominee, Mohawk, and Stockbridge-Munsee Band. As he was increasingly representing these nations in claims and actions related to the federal government, he moved his law practice to Washington, DC. There he argued appellate cases before the US Supreme Court and the US Court of Claims.[48]

Later years

In 1921, Wheelock served as general manager and bandmaster of the Oneida Indian Centennial Celebration, commemorating the 100th anniversary of the tribe's migration to Wisconsin. His band performed Bizet's Carmen and Western classics. The American Indian nations of Wisconsin set up a traditional-style village, where they sold traditional baskets and other crafts, as well as Indian foods. A special grandstand was used for Indians to perform and celebrate Menominee and Oneida music and dancing.[49]

Wheelock continued his practice in Washington, DC until his death on March 10, 1927, at the age of 56.[50] He was buried in a Masonic funeral at Woodlawn Cemetery, Brown County, Wisconsin.[51] His wife Louise LaChapelle Wheelock died on January 16, 1931. She was buried next to him.

Legacy and honors


Dennison Wheelock's Bandstand, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania

• In 1980, Dennison Wheelock's Bandstand was reconstructed on the site of the original at the U.S. Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.[52] The Carlisle Barracks complex was designated a National Historic Landmark (NHL) in 1961 because of its significant history and many uses.
• On August 14, 2003, the Green Bay Concert Band played Wheelock's Aboriginal Suite at the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin. The symphony had not been performed in more than 75 years.[53][54]

Sousa on the Rez


U.S. Indian Band serenades U.S. Vice President Charles Curtis, Washington, DC, 1929

Sousa on the Rez: Marching to the Beat of a Different Drum is a half-hour documentary that explores the vibrant but little known tradition of brass band music in Indian country. The phrase "Native American music" may not suggest tubas and trumpets to many outsiders but, popularized by the Wheelock brothers, march music by composers such as John Philip Sousa has been adopted and played by Native American cultures for more than a century.[55]

References

1. Laurence M. Hauptman, "From Carlisle to Carnegie Hall: The Musical Career of Dennison Wheelock", in The Oneida Indians in the Age of Allotment, 1860-1920, (editors) Laurence M. Hauptman and Gordon L. McLester, Volume 253, The Civilization of the American Indian Series, (hereinafter "Hauptman"),(2006), p. 112. Also, see Elaine Goodale Eastman, Pratt: The Red Man's Moses, (hereinafter "Eastman"), (1935), p.212.
2. Hauptman, P. 122.
3. Dennison was baptized at the Hobart Episcopal Church. Hauptman, P. 114.
4. Hauptman, P. 114.
5. Hauptman, P. 115
6. Hauptman, P. 116.
7. [1]
8. Hauptman, P. 123.
9. In 1891, the 20-year-old Wheelock served as the Carlisle School's ambassador of goodwill, and dazzled reformers at the Lake Mohonk Conference of Friends of the Indians with a Pratt-like speech. "Hauptman, P. 121">Hauptman, P. 121
10. David R.M. Beck, The Myth of the Vanishing Race, University of Montana, 2000. L.G. Moses, Wild West Shows and the Images of American Indians, 1883-1933, (hereinafter "Wild West Shows and Images") (1996), pp.131, 140.
11. Hauptman, p.119. Federal appropriations for Carlisle decreased from $128,000 in 1891 to $110,000 in 1899, while the average student attendance rose from 754 to 878. To manage the daily operations, Pratt needed funding from outside sources, such as philanthropy, sales of student crafts, manufactures and agricultural produce, or proceeds from concerts and sports events. R.L. Brunhouse, A History of the Carlisle Indian School: A Phase of Government Indian Policy: 1879 to 1918, MA thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1935. He sent the Carlisle Band on tour directed by Wheelock; this brought favorable publicity for the school and financial support from philanthropists. Hauptman, p.135, n.22.
12. Hauptman, P. 118.
13. On June 20, 1890, the Indian Helper, the Carlisle school publication, noted that an assembly was "enlivened by music. We had duets, singing duets, choirs singing, quartets and sextets, operatic and playing, by babies and old men, music on the horns and music without, red music and white music, and all kinds of music."Hauptman, Pp. 113–114, 116.
14. Barbara Landis, "About the Carlisle Indian Industrial School", http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/po ... rlisle.htm.
15. Eastman, p. 212.
16. Hauptman, P. 125.
17. Richard Edmund Wheelock (December 5, 1896-October 15, 1929)
18. Paul Wheelock (August 18, 1899-May 15, 1900). Paul is buried at the relocated Indian cemetery at the US Army war College. Haupman, P. 117.
19. Leeland Lloyd Wheelock (January 28, 1902-January 26, 1903)
20. Louise Frances Wheelock (April 20, 1903-June 18, 1938)
21. Wheelock judged the BIA and reservation system as "retarding" Indian progress. Haupman, P.120,122,130.
22. Hauptman, P. 117.
23. Eastman, p. 212. Benjey, p. 308.
24. James Riley Wheelock (Unknown- Jan 11, 1941)
25. The Carlisle Arrow, Volumes 13–14, April 23, 1917. [2]
26. Journal of Band Research, Volumes 30-31, 1994, and http://arts.unl.edu/music/faculty/peter-m-lefferts.
27. John W. Troutman, "Indiana Blues: American Indians and the Politics of Music, 1879–1934, (2009), p.140-141.
28. Harrisburg Telegraph, March 10, 1914, p.2
29. Hauptman, P. 114. See Journal of Band Research, Volumes 30-31, 1994, and http://arts.unl.edu/music/faculty/peter-m-lefferts.
30. Benjey, p. 308. See Benjey, "The Wheelock Family Tree", http://tombenjey.com/2010/02/19/the-whe ... mily-tree/ and http://musescore.org/node/6645.
31. Hauptman, p.117.
32. http://musescore.org/node/6645
33. Thomas Benjey, "Dennison Wheelock sent his son to Carlisle", http://tombenjey.com/category/joel-wheelock/.
34. Bierley, Paul Edmund, "The Incredible Band of John Philip Sousa". University of Illinois Press, 2006. Sousa organized a band the year he left the U.S. Marine Band, touring from 1892–1931 and performing at 15,623 concerts
35. Hauptman, P. 124.
36. Hauptman, P. 126.
37. Haupman, P. 126.
38. Hauptman, P. 127.
39. Hauptman, P. 128.
40. Hauptman, P. 129.
41. Parezo, Nancy J. and Fowler, Don D., "The 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition: Anthropology Goes to the Fair", (2007), p.156.
42. Hauptman, P. 127-129.
43. Hazel W. Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements, Syracuse University Press, 1971, p. 117.
44. Hauptman, P. 130.
45. Linda M. Waggoner, Fire Light: The Life of Angel De Cora, Winnebago Artist, (2008), p. 229
46. http://www.cumberlandbar.com
47. Hauptman, P. 131.
48. Hauptman, pp. 129, 133. Benjey, p. 308
49. Hauptman, P. 131-132.
50. [3]
51. Hauptman, P. 133.
52. Hauptman, P. 112
53. Hauptman, p. 136.
54. See Peter M. Lefferts, "Native American Boarding School Bands and their Bandmasters" (University of Nebraska–Lincoln). The paper discusses the bands of federal Native American boarding schools during their heyday (1880s–1930s). It sketches the careers of the three most successful bandmasters: Oneida brothers Dennison and James Riley Wheelock, and European-American Nels Samuel Nelson. The paper explores how the repertoire and band dress changed to reflect government policy during these decades.
55. [4]

Further reading

• Troutman, John William, "Indian Blues: American Indians and the Politics of Music 1879–1934", University of Oklahoma Press, 2009.

External links

• Band and Battalion of the U.S. Indian School on IMDb Band and Battalion of the U.S. Indian School, (1901), a silent film documentary, was made by American Mutoscope and Biograph Company at the Carlisle Indian School. The cinematographer Arthur Marvin features a mass-band parade drill, led by the renowned Carlisle Band.[1]
• Carlisle Indian School March on YouTube
• Dennison Wheelock at Find a Grave

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Centennial Celebration: The Banquet at the Lenox Lyceum, Madison Avenue
by United States Supreme Court
1876

NEW YORK COLUMBIAN CELEBRATION, LENOX LYCEUM BANQUET

Over eight hundred persons sat down to dinner in the Lenox Lyceum, James C. Carter, Esq., of the Bar of New York, presiding and acting as toastmaster.

Across one end of the hall, on a raised platform, in an arc of the Circular Hall, was the guests’ table, in the centre of which, facing the audience, was Mr. Carter; and to the right and left of him sat twenty-four other guests, including the Justices of the Supreme Court. The other tables were ranged down the room, at right angles with the guests’ table, and were lettered from A to N. Tables A and L, at the extreme left and right, seated each twenty-six persons. Table B., next A to the left, and Table K. next L to the right, each seated fifty persons, each being nearer the centre of the room, and gaining additional length from its circular shape. Tables C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J, situated between B and K, each seated seventy-four persons. Tables M and N were in the arc of the circle opposite the guests’ table, and beyond the other tables, and seated eighteen persons each. In addition to these there was a table for the press, with accommodations for sixteen reporters. A plan of the room was given to each person. It showed the arrangements of the table, and the seat to be occupied by each person, and was accompanied by an alphabetical list, designating the table, and the number of the seat at it, assigned to each person; and it thus deprived even the most inveterate grumbler, if such is to be found in the ranks of the law, of the power of complaining that he could not find his place.

In addition to these plans, each person present was furnished with a sumptuously printed pamphlet entitled “Judicial Centennial Banquet given at the Lenox Lyceum, New York, February 4, 1890.—The New York State Bar Association, The American Bar Association, The Association of the Bar of the City of New York.” This contained the plans already referred to, and also a list of the “Invited Guests,” and another list, entitled “Members of the Associations,” with the names of those who had signified an intention to be present. The reporter has necessarily been obliged to depend upon these lists, supplemented by the personal recollections of some members of the executive committee. Although, in so large a company there may have been, and probably were, some who had intended to come, and who at the last moment stayed away; and others who also at the last moment embraced the opportunity of filling a vacated seat; yet, it is believed that the lists of committees, of invited guests and of members of the Associations present which are contained herein are substantially, if not entirely, accurate. Even name here given is to be found either among the invited guests, or among the members of the Associations, or on the plan of the seats of the tables.

At the table of the Presiding Officer were to have been seated the President, the Vice-President and the Attorney General, all of whom were, as has been said, detained in Washington. There were seated at this table the Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court; Mr. Justice Strong (retired); Mr. Grover Cleveland, Chairman of the Executive Committee; Mr. Matthew Hale of Albany, President of the New York State Bar Association; Mr. Henry Hitchcock of Missouri, President of the American Bar Association; Mr. Frederic R. Coudert of New York, President of the Association of the Bar of the city of New York; Mr. William H. Arnoux of New York city; Mr. Joseph H. Choate of the city of New York; Mr. Hugh J. Grant, Mayor of New York; Mr. William Maxwell Evarts, a Senator in Congress from the State of New York; Mr. Edward M. Paxson, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania; Mr. Walter B. Hill of Georgia; the Reverend Dr. William R. Huntington, Rector of Grace Church, New York City; Mr. Seth Low, President of Columbia College, New York; Mr. Chauncey M. Depew of New York; Mr. William Allen Butler of New York; and Mr. Thomas J. Semmes of Louisiana.

In addition to these there were present as guests, Mr. James H. McKenney, Clerk, and Mr. John M. Wright, Marshal, of the Supreme Court; Judge Le Baron B. Colt of the First Circuit, Judge Emile Henry Lacombe of the Second Circuit and Judge Hugh L. Bond of the Fourth Circuit, United States Circuit Judges; Judges Nathan Webb of Maine, Hoyt H. Wheeler of Vermont, Nathaniel Shipman of Connecticut, Charles L. Benedict of the Eastern District of New York, Edward T. Green of New Jersey, Leonard E. Wales of Delaware, William Butler of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, Robert W. Hughes of the Eastern District of Virginia, John Paul of the Western District of Virginia, Robert A. Hill of the Districts of Mississippi, Henry B. Brown of the Eastern District of Michigan, J.G. Jenkins of the Eastern District of Wisconsin, Moses Hallett of Colorado and Amos M. Thayer of the Eastern District of Missouri, Judges of United States District Courts; Chief Justice William A. Richardson and Judge Lawrence Weldon of the Court of Claims; and of the Judiciary Committees of Congress, Mr. Evarts on the part of the Senate, already named, and Mr. Stewart of Vermont, Mr. Adams of Illinois, Mr. McCormick of Pennsylvania, Mr. Sherman of New York and Mr. Buchanan of New Jersey, on the part of the House of Representatives.

There were also present the following members of the Highest Appellate and other State courts, viz.: From Alabama, Chief Justice Stone and Associate Justice McClellan; California, E.W. McKinsbury, formerly Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, and representing the court; Connecticut, Chief Justice Andrews and Associate Justices Carpenter and Loomis; Delaware, Chief Justice Comegys and Associate Justices Grubb and Houston; Louisiana, Charles E. Fenner, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court; Maine, Thomas H. Haskell and Lucilius A. Emergy, Associate Justices of the Supreme Judicial Court of that State; Michigan, John W. Champlin, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Charles D. Long, Associate Justice; New Jersey, Alexander T. McGill, Chancellor of the State, and Manning W. Knapp, Jonathan Dixon and Charles G. Garrison, Judges of the Supreme Court, and Abraham C. Smith, Judge of the Court of Errors and Appeals; New York, William C. Ruger, Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals, and Charles Andrews, Rufus W. Peckham, Robert Earl, Francis M. Finch, John C. Gray and Denis O’Brien, Associate Judges; David L. Follett, Chief Judge of the Second Division of the Court of Appeals, and George B. Bradley, Joseph Potter, Irving G. Vaun and Alton B. Parker, Associate Judges of the Second Division of the Court of Appeals and Gorham Parks, Clerk of the Court of Appeals; George C. Barrett, John R. Brady, Charles Daniels, Willard Bartlett, Abraham R. Lawrence and George P. Andrews, Justices of the Supreme Court of the State of New York; Frederick Smyth, Recorder of the city of New York; John Sedgwick, Chief Judge of the Superior Court of the city of New York, and George L. Ingraham, John J. Freedman, Richard O’Gorman, Charles H. Traux and P. Henry Dugro, Judges of that court; Richard L. Larremore, Chief Judge of the Court of Common Pleas of the city of New York, and Joseph F. Daly, Henry Wilder Allen and Henry W. Bookstaver, Judges of that court; North Dakota, Guy C. H. Corliss, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; Pennsylvania, James P. Sterrett, Henry Green, Silas M. Clark, Henry W. Williams and James T. Mitchell, Associate Justices of the Supreme Court; Rhode Island, Thomas Durfee, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Pardon E. Tillinghast and John H. Stiness, Associate Justices of that court; Tennessee, Horace H. Lurton, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court; Virginia, Lunsford L. Lewis, President of the Court of Appeals.

There were also present, as guests: J. Sloat Fassett, President pro tem. of the Senate of the State of New York; W.T. Davis, Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania; Alfred C. Chapin, Mayor of the city of Brooklyn; A.S. Webb, President of the College of the City of New York; General William T. Sherman, U.S.A.; Right Reverend Henry C. Potter, D.D., LL.D., D.C.L., Bishop of New York; Reverend Morgan Dix, D.D., D.C.L., Rector of Trinity Church, New York; Reverend Talbot W. Chambers, Pastor of the Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church of the city of New York; Reverend W.M. Taylor, D.D., Pastor of Tabernacle Congregational Church, New York City; Reverend R.S. MacArthur, D.D., Pastor of Calvary Baptist Church, New York City; Reverend Henry Van Dyke, D.D., Pastor of Brick Presbyterian Church, New York City; Reverend George Alexander D.D., Pastor of University Place Presbyterian Church; Archdeacon Alexander Mackay-Smith, D.D.; Thomas F. Bayard, ex-Secretary of State; George F. Danforth; John A. King, President of the New York Historical Society; Irving Browne, Editor Albany Law Journal; Patrick Mallon, President Cincinnati Bar Association; Elijah H. Norton, ex-Chief Justice of Missouri; John D. Crimmins of New York; James Legendre of New Orleans; Cyrus W. Field of New York; Professor Theodore W. Dwight of New York; Dr. Sieveking of Hamburg, Germany.

In addition to the twenty-four persons who sat at the chairman’s table, and to the sixteen reporters who sat at the reporters’ table, about eight hundred persons sat in the body of the hall.

Around the hall, from one end of the stage to the other, were two tiers of boxes. The lower tier was in part given up to the ladies accompanying the court and other guests. The boxes in the upper tier were taken by members of the bar associations.

The first toast of the evening was to “The President,” to which it had been arranged that the President should respond. In his absence the company drank the toast standing, and there was no reply.

To the second toast, “The Supreme Court,” Mr. Justice Harlan answered as follows:

ADDRESS OF MR. JUSTICE HARLAN. IN RESPONSE TO THE TOAST, “THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES.”

MR. PRESIDENT:

The toast you have read suggests many reflections of interest. But when an attempt is made to give shape to them, in my own mind, the fact confronts me that every line of thought most appropriate to this occasion has been covered by addresses delivered, in another place, by distinguished members of the bar, and by an eminent jurist responding on behalf of the Supreme Court of the United States. They have left nothing to be added respecting the organization, the history, the personnel, or the jurisdiction of that tribunal. It is well that those addresses are to be preserved in permanent form for the delight and instruction of all that are to come after us; especially those who, as judges and lawyers, will be connected with the administration of justice. I name the lawyers with the bench, because upon them, equally with the judges, rests the responsibility for an intelligent determination of causes in the courts, whether relating to public or to private rights. As the bench is recruited from the bar, it must always be that as are the lawyers in any given period, so, in the main, are the courts before which they appear. Upon the integrity, learning and courage of the bar largely depends the welfare of the country of which they are citizens; for, of all members of society, the lawyers are best qualified by education and training to devise the methods necessary to protect the rights of the people against the aggressions of power. But they are, also, in the best sense, ministers of justice. It is not true, as a famous lawyer once said, that an advocate, in the discharge of his duty, must know only his client. He owes a duty to the court of which he is an officer, and to the community of which he is a member. Above all, he owes a duty to his own conscience. He misconceives his high calling if he fails to recognize the fact that fidelity to the court is not inconsistent with truth and honor, or with a fearless discharge of duty to his client. It need scarcely be said in this presence that the American Bar have met all the demands that the most scrupulous integrity has exacted from gentlemen in their position.

In the addresses today much was said of the Supreme Court of the United States that was gratifying as well to those now members of that tribunal as to all who take pride in its history. But, Mr. President, whatever of honor has come to that court for the manner in which it has discharged the momentous trust committed to it by the Constitution must be shared by the bar of America. “Justice, sir,” (I use the words of Daniel Webster,) “is the great interest of man on earth. It is the ligament which holds civilized beings and civilized nations together. Wherever her temple stands, and so long as it is duly honored, there is a foundation for social security, general happiness, and the improvement and progress of our race. And whoever labors on this edifice with usefulness and distinction, whoever clears its foundations, strengthens its pillars, adorns its entablatures, or contributes to raise its august dome still higher in the skies, connects himself, in name and fame and character, with that which is and must be as durable as the frame of human society.” The Temple of Justice which has been reared in this fair land is largely the work of our lawyers. If there be security for life, liberty and property, it is because the lawyers of America have not been unmindful of their obligations as ministers of justice. Search the history of every State in the Union, and it will be found that they have been foremost in all movements having for their object the maintenance of the law against violence and anarchy; the preservation of the just rights both of the government and of the people.

I read recently a brief speech by Mr. Gladstone, at a banquet given many years ago in honor of the great French advocate, Berryer. He had visited the south of Europe, and witnessed there much cruel oppression of the people. The executive power, he said, not only had broken the law, but had established in its place a system of arbitrary will. He found, to use his own words, that the audacity of tyranny, which had put down chambers and municipalities and extinguished the press, had not been able to do one thing – to silence the bar. He, himself, heard lawyers in courts of justice, undismayed by the presence of soldiers, and in defiance of despotic power, defend the cause of the accused with a fearlessness that could not have been surpassed. He was moved, on that occasion, to say of the English Bar, what may be truly said of the American Bar, that its members are inseparable from our national life; from the security of our national institutions.

It has been said of some of the judgments of the Supreme Court of the United States that they are not excelled by any ever delivered in the judicial tribunals of any country. Candor, however, requires the concession that their preparation was preceded by arguments at its bar of which may be said, what Mr. Justice Buller observed of certain judgments of Lord Mansfield, that they were of such transcendent power that those who heard them were lost in admiration “at the strength and stretch of the human understanding.”

Mr. President, I am unwilling to pass from this subject without saying what it is but just to say, that the bar of this imperial State has furnished its quota – aye more than its quota, to the army of great lawyers and advocates, who, by their learning, eloquence and labors, have aided the courts of the Union, as well as those of the States, in placing our constitutional system upon foundations which, it is hoped, are to endure for ages. Not to speak of the living, and not to name all the dead who have done honor to the legal profession in this State, I may mention Alexander Hamilton, “formed for all parts, in all alike he shined, variously great,” William H. Seward, John C. Spencer, Thomas Addis Emmet, John Wells, George Wood, Joshua A. Spencer, Benjamin F. Butler, Daniel Lord, John Duer, James T. Brady, Ogden Hoffman, Charles O’Conor and Roscoe Conkling. Gentlemen of the bar of New York, you have in these and other great names upon the roll of lawyers and advocates given to the country by your State, an inheritance beyond all price.

But, sir, while the Supreme Court of the United States is indebted to the bar of the country for its invaluable aid in the administration of justice, it is still more indebted to the highest courts of the several States, and to the Circuit and District Courts of the Union. Many distinguished members of those courts – judges whose learning and integrity are everywhere recognized – have honored this occasion by their presence. But it is a most felicitous circumstance that we have with us the full bench of the New York Court of Appeals, of whose bar we are guests upon this occasion. Who can adequately estimate, who can overstate the influence for good upon American jurisprudence which has been exerted by the learned judgments delivered by those who have graced the bench of this proud State? Kent, Livingston, Thompson, Spencer, Jones, Nelson, Oakley, Savage, Walworth, Marcy, Bronson, Denio and Selden, not to mention others, will be remembered as long as the science of law has votaries. If what they wrote were obliterated altogether from our judicial history, a void would be left in American jurisprudence that could not be filled. Indeed, the history of American law could not well be written without referring to the judgments and writings of those eminent jurists.

And here it is appropriate to say that the duty of expounding the Constitution of the United States has not devolved alone upon the courts of the Union. From the organization of our government to the present time that duty has been shared by the courts of the States. Congress has taken care to provide that the original jurisdiction of the courts of the Union of suits at law and in equity arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, or under treaties with foreign countries, shall be concurrent with that of the courts of the several States. This feature of our judicial system has had much to do with creating and perpetuating the feeling that the government of the United States is not a foreign government, but a government of the people of all the States, ordained by them to accomplish objects pertaining to the whole country, which could not be efficiently achieved by any government except one deriving its authority from all the people.

As we stand tonight in this commercial metropolis, where the government created by the Constitution was organized, and where the supreme judicial tribunal of the Union held its first session, it is pleasant to remember that all along its pathway that court has had the cordial cooperation and support of the highest court of this, the most powerful of all the States. The Supreme Court of the United States, and the highest court of New York, have not always reached the same conclusions upon questions of general law, nor have they always agreed as to the interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. But, despite these differences, expressed with due regard to the dignity and authority of each tribunal, they have stood together in maintaining these vital principles enunciated by the Supreme Court of the United States:

That while the preservation of the States, with authority to deal with matters not committed to national control, is fundamental in the American constitutional system, the Union cannot exist without a government for the whole;

That the Constitution of the United States was made for the whole people of the Union, and is equally binding upon all the courts and all the citizens;

That the general government, though limited as to its objects, is yet supreme with respect to those objects, is the government of all, its powers are delegated by all, it represents all, and acts for all; and,

That America has chosen to be, in many respects and to many purposes, a nation, and for all these purposes her government is complete, to all these objects it is competent.

Mr. President, a few words more. The members of the Supreme Court of the United States will return to their post of duty, with grateful thanks for the opportunity given them to participate in these Centennial exercises. It has been good for us to be here. You have given us, gentlemen, renewed reason to think that the court of which we are members is regarded with affection and confidence by the bar of the country, and that as long as it shall be equal to the tremendous responsibilities imposed upon it, that affection and confidence will not be withdrawn.

We have met here to celebrate the organization of that court, in this city, one hundred years ago – a tribunal fitly declared to be the living voice of the Constitution. Within that period the progress of the nation in all that involves the material prosperity and the moral elevation of the people, has exceeded the most sanguine expectations of those who laid the foundations of our government. But its progress in the knowledge of the principles upon which that government rests, and must continue to rest, if it is to accomplish the beneficent ends for which it was created, is not less marvelous. It was once thought by statesmen whose patriotism is not to be doubted, that the power committed to the courts of the Union, especially to the Supreme Court of the United States, would ultimately destroy the independence, within their respective spheres, of the coordinate departments of the national government, and even endanger the existence and authority of the state governments. But the experience of a century, full of startling political and social changes, has shown not only that those apprehensions were groundless, but that the Father of our Country was right when he declared, in a letter to the first Chief Justice of the United States, that the judicial department was the keystone of our political fabric. Time has grandly vindicated that declaration. All now admit that the fathers did not err when they made provision, in the fundamental law, for “one Supreme Court,” with authority to determine, for the whole country, the true meaning and scope of that law. The American people, after the lapse of a century, have a firm conviction that the elimination of that court from our constitutional system would be the destruction of the government itself, upon which depends the success of the experiment of free institutions resting upon the consent of the governed. That those institutions, which have answered “the true ends of government beyond all precedent in human history,” may be preserved in their integrity; that our country may, under all circumstances, be an object of supreme affection by those enjoying the blessings of our republican government; and that the court whose organization you have assembled to commemorate may, in its membership as well as in its judgments, always meet the just expectations of the people, is the earnest wish of those to whom you have, on this occasion, done so much honor.

The third toast was “The Congress”; answered by Mr. Senator Evarts. The fourth was “The Judiciary of the States”; acknowledged by Chief Justice Paxson, of the Supreme Court of the State of Pennsylvania. The fifth was “The Common Law”; to which Mr. Walter B. Hill of Georgia responded. Mr. Wayne McVeagh of Pennsylvania was to have spoken to the sixth toast, “The Bar”; in his absence the reply was made by Mr. Joseph H. Choate of new York. The Reverend Dr. Huntington, Rector of Grace Church, New York, responded to the seventh, “The Clergy”; Mr. Seth Low, President of Columbia College, to the eighth, “The University”; and Mr. Chauncey M. Depew of New York, to the ninth, “Our Clients.”

NOTE.

MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATIONS PRESENT, ACCORDING TO THE OFFICIAL LISTS.

[Not included here]

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Belief in Reincarnation Tied to Memory Errors
by Melinda Wenner
Live Science
April 06, 2007

People who believe they have lived past lives as, say, Indian princesses or battlefield commanders are more likely to make certain types of memory errors, according to a new study.

The propensity to make these mistakes could, in part, explain why people cling to implausible reincarnation claims in the first place.

Researchers recruited people who, after undergoing hypnotic therapy, had come to believe that they had past lives.

Subjects were asked to read aloud a list of 40 non-famous names, and then, after a two-hour wait, told that they were going to see a list consisting of three types of names: non-famous names they had already seen (from the earlier list), famous names, and names of non-famous people that they had not previously seen. Their task was to identify which names were famous.

The researchers found that, compared to control subjects who dismissed the idea of reincarnation, past-life believers were almost twice as likely to misidentify names. In particular, their tendency was to wrongly identify as famous the non-famous names they had seen in the first task. This kind of error, called a source-monitoring error, indicates that a person has difficulty recognizing where a memory came from.

Power of suggestion

People who are likely to make these kinds of errors might end up convincing themselves of things that aren’t true, said lead researcher Maarten Peters of Maastricht University in The Netherlands. When people who are prone to making these mistakes undergo hypnosis and are repeatedly asked to talk about a potential idea—like a past life—they might, as they grow more familiar with it, eventually convert the idea into a full-blown false memory.

This is because they can’t distinguish between things that have really happened and things that have been suggested to them, Peters told LiveScience.

Past life memories are not the only type of implausible memories that have been studied in this manner. Richard McNally, a clinical psychologist at Harvard University, has found that self-proclaimed alien abductees are also twice as likely to commit source monitoring errors.

Creative minds

As for what might make people more prone to committing such errors to begin with, McNally says that it could be the byproduct of especially vivid imagery skills. He has found that people who commonly make source-monitoring errors respond to and imagine experiences more strongly than the average person, and they also tend to be more creative.

“It might be harder to discriminate between a vivid image that you’d generated yourself and the memory of a perception of something you actually saw,” he said in a telephone interview.

Peters also found in his study, detailed in the March issue of Consciousness and Cognition, that people with implausible memories are also more likely to be depressed and to experience sleep problems, and this could also make them more prone to memory mistakes.

And once people make this kind of mistake, they might be inclined to stick to their guns for spiritual reasons, McNally said. “It may be a variant expression of certain religious impulses,” he said. “We suspect that this might be kind of a psychological buffering mechanism against the fear of death.”

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Hermann Adler
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The [World Parliament of Religions], as described in its published objectives, sought answers not simply to domestic issues but to "the great problems of the present age," although even here the centrality of America is apparent in the repetition of Bonney's listing of, as examples, "temperance, labour, education, wealth and poverty." It aimed not just for domestic harmony but for "securing permanent international peace." The World's Parliament of Religions had grown from Bonney's vision of a fellowship of liberal, humanist theists to a great international event bringing "together in conference, for the first time in history, the leading representatives of the great historic religions of the world." He specifically desired representatives not simply of Judaism but of "the Brahman, Buddhist, Confucian, Parsee, Mohammedan" faiths as well. In this expanded vision the heathen were now welcome, but for what purpose? The text adopted for the World's Parliament of Religions had been suggested by the Reverend H. Adler, chief rabbi of the British Empire: "Have we not all one Father? Hath not one God created us?" It confirmed Bonney's ecumenical vision for the United States of America but did nothing to accommodate Buddhists.

-- Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition, by Judith Snodgrass

Rabbi Hermann Adler CVO
Hermann Adler, by H. S. Mendelssohn ca. 1900
Title: Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth
Personal
Religion: Judaism
Jewish leader
Predecessor: Nathan Marcus Adler
Successor: Joseph Hertz
Synagogue: Bayswater Synagogue
Position: Chief Rabbi
Organisation: United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth
Began: 1891
Ended: 1911


Adler caricatured by Spy for Vanity Fair, 1904

Hermann Adler HaKohen CVO (30 May 1839 – 18 July 1911) was the Chief Rabbi of the British Empire from 1891 to 1911. The son (and successor as Chief Rabbi) of Nathan Marcus Adler, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica writes that he "raised the position [of Chief Rabbi] to one of much dignity and importance."

Biography

Naftali (Hermann) Adler was born in Hanover. Like his father, he had both a rabbinical education and a university education in Germany, and like him he subscribed to a modernised orthodoxy. He attended University College School in London from 1852–54 and rabbinical college in Prague. He graduated from Leipzig in 1862 with a PhD.[1] He later received honorary degrees from Scottish and English universities, including Oxford.

Rabbinic career

He was head of the congregation of Bayswater Synagogue, Paddington, during his father's lifetime, and his father's assistant from the time his father's health began to deteriorate in 1879, before succeeding him on his death in 1891.

In 1909 he was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO).[2]

Once he was having a lunch with British Catholic cardinal Herbert Vaughan. The cardinal asked the rabbi "Now, Dr. Adler, when may I have the pleasure of helping you to some ham?" The rabbi responded: "At Your Eminence's wedding".[3]

Adler wrote extensively on topics of Anglo-Jewish history and published two volumes of sermons. He was a vigorous defender of his co-religionists and their faith, as well as their sacred scriptures.[4]

He is buried in the Willesden United Synagogue Cemetery in London.

See also

• List of British Jews

References

1. Gilman D. C. et al. The New International Encyclopedia, Dodd, Mead and Company, New York 1905, pp.119-120. Accessed 25 July 2014 at Archive.org
2. London Gazette Issue 28263 pp.4856-7
3. Lawrence Jeffrey Epstein (1989). A treasury of Jewish anecdotes. p. 8. Retrieved 2010-04-03.
4. Jung, Leo (ed.) "Three Chief Rabbis", Cecil Roth in Jewish Leaders, (Jerusalem 1953)

External links

• Hermann Adler at Find a Grave
• Hermann Adler: Chief Rabbi
• Articles on the British Chief Rabbinate

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William Fairfield Warren
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

Just how important was the carnival aspect of the Asian presence and how calculated was it? W. F. [William Fairfield] Warren, president of Boston University, wrote in response to the idea of the [World Parliament of Religions], apparently confirming a suggestion made to him in Barrows's letter, that "even a museum of idols and objects used in ceremonial worship would attract beyond any other museum. Models and illustrations of the great temples of the world and of the world's history would be in a high degree instructive. Add to these things the living word of living teachers, and the whole world may well pause to listen." Is it mere coincidence that Barrows subsequently invited these "living teachers" of exotic religions? Or that the official record was profusely illustrated with photographs of ritual objects, great temples, and Oriental practitioners? Of the nonportrait illustrations only twelve are Christian, and these are the great monuments: St. Paul's Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, St. Peter's in Rome, and the cathedrals of St. Petersburg, Worcester, Milan. Non-Christian religions are also represented by major buildings, among which is the Pearl Mosque in Delhi, Mandalay Pagoda, and the Temple of Heaven in Peking. There are rather more photographs of "heathen" curiosities such as those labeled "The Burning Ghat at Calcutta," "A Group of Fakirs," "A Chinese Idol," "Hindus at Devotion," and of assorted poorly dressed Oriental devotees. The abiding impression from thumbing through the volume is one of contrast between the cathedrals soaring toward heaven and the earthbound and materially backward heathen. The illustrated history echoed the message of the Midway, the object lesson in the transition from the primitive to the sublime.

-- Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition, by Judith Snodgrass

William Fairfield Warren (March 13, 1833 – December 7, 1929) was the first president of Boston University.

Biography

Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, he graduated from Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut (1853), and there became a member of the Mystical Seven.

The Mystical Seven is a society founded in 1837 at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. There are two separate groups. Members are called Mystics.

The Mystical Seven was founded in 1837, just six years after the founding of Wesleyan University. It was recognized by the university on October 16, 1837. It was Wesleyan's first society...

The society was especially known for the quality of its arcana. "Never have I seen anything so original, so quaint, so completely unique, or irresistible in its solemn humor, as the Mystical Seven initiation and the ceremonies of its meetings." A similar commentator noted that the Mystical Seven, "in some respects [was] among the most ambitious efforts at creating a college secret society with a good ritual."

The Mystical Seven also had a serious academic and philosophical aspect, including public events like bringing Ralph Waldo Emerson to speak at the campus...

The Mystical Seven expanded to several other universities. The chapters of the society were recognized as "temples", with the "Temple of the Wand" being the parent chapter at Wesleyan...Henry Branham brought the society from Wesleyan to Emory, and there interested in membership the president of the university, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, the humorist author of Georgia Scenes...When Longstreet moved his family to Oxford, Mississippi to become president of the University of Mississippi, they created the Temple of the Star at Mississippi.

-- Mystical Seven (Wesleyan), by Wikipedia

He later studied at Andover Theological Seminary and at Berlin and Halle. He entered the New England Conference in 1855 and was professor of systematic theology in the Methodist Episcopal Missionary Institute at Bremen, Germany (1860–1866). He was acting president of the Boston University School of Theology (1866–1873), president of Boston University (1873–1903), and dean of the Boston University School of Theology (1903–1911). After 1873 he was also professor of comparative theology and philosophy of religion. He published:

• The True Key of Ancient Cosmology (1882)
• Paradise Found—the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole (1885)
• The Quest of the Perfect Religion (1886)
• In the Footsteps of Arminius (1888)
• The Story of Gottlieb (1890)
• Religions of the World and the World Religion (1900)
• The Earliest Cosmologies (1909)
• The Universe as Pictured in Milton's Paradise Lost (1915)

When Boston University was chartered in 1869, he helped make it the first university in the country fully open to women. He also helped create Wellesley College in 1870. He was the brother of Henry White Warren.

William was married to Harriet Merrick Warren, the first editor of The Heathen Woman's Friend. He died on December 7, 1929, at the age of 96.

Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole

Warren wrote a book promoting his belief that the original centre of mankind once sat at the North Pole entitled Paradise Found: The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole (1885). In this work Warren placed Atlantis at the North Pole, as well as the Garden of Eden, Mount Meru, Avalon and Hyperborea.[1] Warren believed all these mythical lands were folk memories of a former inhabited far northern seat where man was originally created.[2]

Warren's identification of Atlantis with the North Pole was maintained by positioning Atlas in the far north by mapping out ancient Greek cosmology. Warren equated the primordial Titan Atlas of Greek mythology who supported the Heavens on his shoulders (or supported the earth on a pillar) to the Atlas described in Plato's dialogue Critias as the first ruler of Atlantis (Critias, 114a). In Warren's view, all the axis mundi or cosmic-axis of ancient legends (Yggdrasil, Irminsul and Atlas' pillar) had to be in the far north "at the top of the world":

...To locate these in right mutual relations, one must begin by representing to himself the earth as a sphere or spheroid, and as situated within, and concentric with, the starry sphere, each having its axis perpendicular, and its north pole at the top. The pole-star is thus in the true zenith, and the heavenly heights centring about it are the abode of the supreme god or gods.[2]

Warren noted how Homer, Virgil and Hesiod all placed Atlas or his world pillar at the "ends of the earth", meaning in his view the far northern arctic regions, while Euripides related Atlas to the Pole Star. Therefore, in Warren's view Atlantis sat in the far north, at the North Pole, since the Atlas in his ancient Greek cosmological mapping stood in the far northern zenith, under the Pole Star.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist and historian, quotes extensively from this book and presents his own studies of Vedas and Persian Avesta in his book THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS arguing for the presence of ancient humans in the Arctic.

References

1. Paradise Found: Index of Subjects. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved on February 2, 2012.
2. Paradise Found: Part Fourth: Chapter I. Ancient Cosmology and Mythical Geography. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved on February 2, 2012.

External links

• Women Helping Younger Women Since 1876.
• W.F. WARREN DIES, NOTED EDUCATOR; President Emeritus and a Founder of Boston University Was in His 97th Year. WIDELY KNOWN ORGANIZER Helped Start Wellesley College and Other Institutions—Was Also a Prominent Theologian. New York Times

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Mystical Seven (Wesleyan)
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

This article is about the intercollegiate society founded at Wesleyan University. For the University of Missouri secret society, see Mystical Seven (Missouri).

Mystical Seven
Information
Founded: July 17, 1837, Wesleyan University
Founders: Hamilton Brewer, Francis A. Bates, Sidera Chase, David B. Jennings, John H. Rolston, Samuel Henry Ward, Hiram Willey.
Color(s): Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red; or simply White
Temples: Eleven, of which two currently exist.

The Mystical Seven is a society founded in 1837 at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. There are two separate groups. Members are called Mystics.

Early history

The Mystical Seven was founded in 1837, just six years after the founding of Wesleyan University. It was recognized by the university on October 16, 1837.[1] It was Wesleyan's first society, founded a half year before Eclectic (May 1838). Of the seven founding members, senior Hamilton Brewer was recognized as primus inter pares behind the establishment of the society. The members met each week at their meeting space in the furnished attic of Wesleyan's North College. The society began Wesleyan's first student publication, The Classic, in 1840.[2]

The Mystical Seven is always referred to as a society, but it is one of the early college fraternities. Through the 1840s and 1850s it was a peer organization with Wesleyan's Eclectic Society, Psi Upsilon, Alpha Delta Phi and Chi Psi. However, instead of Greek references, it chose Hebraic. I.K.A. at Trinity (1829), and Skull and Bones at Yale (1832), were other nearby non-Greek inspired college fraternities.

From about 1856 to 1865 the Mystical Seven was partners in the Alpha Eating Club with the Eclectic Society.[3]

The society was especially known for the quality of its arcana. "Never have I seen anything so original, so quaint, so completely unique, or irresistible in its solemn humor, as the Mystical Seven initiation and the ceremonies of its meetings."[4] A similar commentator noted that the Mystical Seven, "in some respects [was] among the most ambitious efforts at creating a college secret society with a good ritual."[5]

The Mystical Seven also had a serious academic and philosophical aspect, including public events like bringing Ralph Waldo Emerson to speak at the campus, or later Orestes Brownson, whose address to the society was later published as "Social Reform: An Address Before the Society of the Mystical Seven".[6]

The Mystical Seven was the first college fraternal organization to admit women, and initiated several during the 1840s. Later a law was enacted in the society that allowed the wife of a member to become initiated at that member's discretion.

The Mystical Seven expanded to several other universities. The chapters of the society were recognized as "temples", with the "Temple of the Wand" being the parent chapter at Wesleyan. In 1841, the first temple was founded outside of Wesleyan, when Mystical Seven was established at Emory University.[2] Henry Branham brought the society from Wesleyan to Emory, and there interested in membership the president of the university, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, the humorist author of Georgia Scenes. Branham later became Longstreet's son-in-law. Longstreet, his two daughters, and his two sons-in-law were all eventually made Mystics. When Longstreet moved his family to Oxford, Mississippi to become president of the University of Mississippi, they created the Temple of the Star at Mississippi.[7] Historical accounts conflict as to whether or not the Temple of the Wand recognized the legitimacy of any of the other temples founded throughout southern universities. Most were established by one another, with Emory being the only one that may have had a direct tie back to the Wesleyan temple.[8]

• Temple of the Wand – Wesleyan University – 1837
• Temple of the Sword – Emory University – 1841–1860
• Temple of the Wreath (first) – Transylvania University – 1843–1844
• Temple of the Skull – University of Georgia – 1846–1854
• Temple of the Star – University of Mississippi – 1848–1878
• Temple of the Wreath – Centenary College – 1849–1861
• Temple of the Scroll & Pen – Genesee College – 1855–1871
• Temple of the Hands and Torch – University of Virginia – 1868–1885
• Temple of the Serpent – Cumberland University – 1867–1873
• Temple of the Star and of the South – University of North Carolina – 1884–1885 (founded by Temple of the Hands and Torch)
• Temple of the Sword and Shield – Davidson College – 1884–1885 (founded by Temple of the Hands and Torch)

The Transylvania temple was destroyed in the Mexican War. The Wesleyan, Emory, Centenary, and Georgia temples did not survive the Civil War. The Genesee temple did not survive the closing of the college. The Mississippi temple did not survive campus politics.

The Mississippi temple did create the Virginia temple, but did not pass to it the traditions of the society.

Influences on other organizations

Since the Mystical Seven introduced the idea of the college fraternity into the South, it had considerable influence on the development of organizations in the Antebellum South. All private college societies were, for a time, called 'Mystic Associations' in Georgia.[9] A competitor society called W.W.W. was designed on principles more similar to the Mystical Seven than to Northern college fraternities.[10] It has also been assumed that a society for adult men, not connected to colleges and universities, called the Order of Heptasophs, was at least organized on principles parallel to the Mystical Seven, if not by alumni of the Mystical Seven themselves. The resemblances of the ceremonies of the two societies "cannot be given at length; but they leave little room for doubt that...the Heptasophs or Seven Wise Men...is an indirect descendent of the Mystical Seven college fraternity."[11]

Mystic Seven Fraternity and Phi Theta Alpha

In the early 1880s, the Virginia temple was virtually alone. In 1884, it created chapters at North Carolina and Davidson. In the following year, it reconstituted itself as the Mystic Seven Fraternity, and also used the name Phi Theta Alpha.[12] This new society was led by Cooper D. Schmidt. The fraternity had lost almost all the traditions of the older society. It also had a publication, The Mystic Messenger, which published articles including annual reports and history of the society, and some questioned why the society even had such a distinctive, non-Greek letter name. This three-chapter organization began negotiations with Beta Theta Pi in 1888, and merged with Beta Theta Pi in 1889.[13]

Subsequent history at Wesleyan

The Mystical Seven society became dormant at Wesleyan in 1861;[14] it had not been meeting as a society since 1858. In 1867, a petitioning group for a Delta Kappa Epsilon chapter claimed initiation into the Mystical Seven for the purposes of securing a DKE charter, which was successful.[15]

In 1868, the DKE members formed a new society called Owl & Wand, which was to be a senior society and use the premises of the old Mystical Seven (the attic of North College). As a senior society, it took as members individuals who were already members of four-year college fraternities,[16] and was considered an 'honorary'. In 1890, the Owl & Wand group, without any knowledge of the workings of the Mystical Seven or an intent to restore them, claimed to be the older society.[17] The senior society died off in the 1960s. In 1970-71, some Mystical Seven alumni restarted the society, and at a time when historically single-sex student groups were pressured to become coed, the new Mystical Seven embraced this change, which helped it to survive a decade that was detrimental to many other student societies and fraternities. The society as it was rebuilt in the 1970s has continued successfully to the present day.

During the 1980s, a group of students also decided to re-establish the original society. Much work was employed in reconstructing the practices of the original society including the addition of much written material from several sources. The two Mystical Seven groups clashed during 1990, (and again in 2001), in a dispute over which group was legitimate. Today, the two groups co-exist with little interaction with one another.

The meeting place of the senior society Mystical Seven on Wyllys Avenue, known as the Mystic Templum, was gutted by fire in 1995. The building remained boarded up until it was razed in the summer of 2007. The seven-sided building, with seven-sashed windows and a seven-paneled door, had been dedicated in 1912.

Notable alumni

Wesleyan Alumni:[18][19]

• Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, President of Emory University (1840–1848), President of Centenary College (1848–1849), President of University of Mississippi (1850–1856)[7]
• Miles Tobey Granger, judge and U.S. Congressman (1887–1889)
• William Henry Huntington, Paris correspondent of the New York Tribune (1858–1878)
• Orestes Augustus Brownson, Transcendentalist author
• Robert Carter Pitman, President of Massachusetts Senate (1869)
• Samuel Nelles, first President of Victoria University in the University of Toronto (1884–1887)
• Edward Gayer Andrews, Methodist Bishop (1876–1904)
• Alonzo Jay Edgerton, U.S. Senator from Minnesota (1881–1883)
• Henry White Warren, Massachusetts legislature, Methodist Bishop (1880–1912)
• William Fairfield Warren, first President of Boston University (1873–1903)
• David J. Brewer, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court (1890–1910; nephew of founder Hamilton Brewer)

Other a:

• John Brown Gordon, Major General, Confederate States of America, (1846-1848), University of Georgia, Temple of The Skull and Bones
• L. Q. C. Lamar, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court (1888–1893)[20]

Notes

1. Price, 25.
2. Judson, Robert (2002-04-19). "Secret societies: past & present". Wesleyan Argus.
3. Alumni Record of Wesleyan University, Annals, Frank W. Nicholson, ed., 1883 edition, pg. xcviii
4. Price, 16.
5. Stevens, 356.
6. Social Reform: An Address Before the Society of the Mystical Seven, August 7, 1844. Boston: Waite, Pearce, & Co. 1844. p. 42.
7. Sansing, David G. (1999). The University of Mississippi: A Sesquicentennial History. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. p. 63. ISBN 9781578060917.
8. Wyatt-Greene, Benjamin. "Mystical 7: A History". Wesleyan History Project. Archived from the original on 2009-03-29. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
9. "James R. Thomas". Emory University Housing. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
10. Stevens, 364.
11. Stevens, 179.
12. Constitution of the Mystic Seven Fraternity. Charlottesville, Virginia: Blakey & Prout, Steam Book & Job Printers. 1885., available at University of Illinois fraternity archives; see finding aid at http://www.library.uiuc.edu/archives/uasfa/4102055.pdf
13. Brown, James Taylor (1917). Catalogue of Beta Theta Pi (9 ed.). pp. vi.
14. Stevens, 178.
15. See the 1866 Olla Podrida.
16. See the May 1868 Wesleyan Argus.
17. See the 1889 Olla Podrida.
18. Price, 54 ff.
19. Careers published in Nicolson, F. W., Orange Judd, eds. (1883). Alumni Record of Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. Middletown, Connecticut: Press of Avery Rand.
20. Wade, John Donald (1924). Augustus Baldwin Longstreet: A Study of the Development of Culture in the South. New York: Macmillan. pp. 254–264. ISBN 9781432594909.

References

• Price, Carl Fowler (1937). The Mystical Seven, Wesleyan University, 1837-1937. Middletown, Connecticut: James D. Young.
• Stevens, Albert C. (1907). Cyclopedia of Fraternities: A Compilation of Existing Authentic Information and the Results of Original Investigation as to the Origin, Derivation, Founders, Development, Aims, Emblems, Character, and Personnel of More Than Six Hundred Secret Societies in the United States. E. B. Treat and Company.

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Edward White Benson
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The imbalance of the relationship between the American Protestant hosts and the non-Christian guests was simultaneously concealed and strengthened by the conception of the event as a "parliament." This is a powerful metaphor, carrying as it does the fundamental political relationships of majority government and the minority right to be represented and heard and to contribute to the legislative process, which is ultimately under the control of the majority. The hierarchical relationship of religions, which was the lesson of the sideshow aspect of the event, was reinforced by the lesson of this reference to democratic structures. Christianity, which had an overwhelming majority of delegates, was clearly cast in the role of universal religion, a message also projected by the presence of Christian delegates from such far-flung outreaches as Africa, Japan, and India. Buddhism, alone or as part of the larger Oriental, non-Christian contingent, and in spite of its actual vast Asian following, was here cast as a minority party. The function of its delegates was principally to be present, validating the democratic principle of representation -- this was the World's Parliament after all -- and to illustrate the democratic respect for the right of minority groups to be heard.

The equality implied by calling the event a "parliament" upset orthodox sections of the Christian community and forced Barrows to clarify the intentions behind his expansive rhetoric of brotherhood. The Anglican archbishop of Canterbury [Edward White Benson] led the objection. He wrote refusing to participate on the grounds that he did not understand how the Christian religion, "which is the one religion," could be regarded as a member of a parliament of religions "without assuming the equality of the other intended members and the parity of their position and claims." In response Barrows explained that the term was certainly not intended to imply that the various religions were equal in doctrine or truth. Calling the event a "parliament" in no way compromised the Christian claim to superiority and unique revelation. It was only intended to guarantee the parliamentary privilege of equal right to speak and to present opinions. "There was no suggestion on the part of the Christian speakers that Christianity was to be thought of on the same level with other religions."

-- Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition, by Judith Snodgrass

The Most Reverend and Right Honourable Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury
Installed: 29 March 1883
Term ended: 11 October 1896
Predecessor: Archibald Campbell Tait
Successor: Frederick Temple
Personal details
Birth name: Edward White Benson
Born: 14 July 1829, Birmingham, Warwickshire, England
Died: 11 October 1896 (aged 67), Hawarden, Flintshire, Wales
Buried: Canterbury Cathedral
Nationality: British
Denomination: Anglican
Parents: Edward White Benson Sr.
Spouse: Mary (Minnie) Sidgwick

Edward White Benson (14 July 1829 – 11 October 1896) was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1883 until his death. Prior to this, he was the first Bishop of Truro, serving from 1877 to 1883, and began construction of Truro Cathedral.

He was previously a schoolmaster and was the first Master of Wellington College from 1859 to 1872.

Life

Edward White Benson was born at Lombard Street in Highgate, Birmingham, on 14 July 1829, the eldest of eight children of chemical manufacturer Edward White Benson senior (26 August 1802 – 7 February 1843) and his wife Harriet Baker Benson (13 June 1805 – 29 May 1850).[1] He was baptised in St Martin in the Bull Ring, Birmingham, on 31 March 1830. The family moved to Wychbold when his father became manager of the British Alkali Works at Stoke Prior, Worcestershire.

From 1840, he was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham and then Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated BA (8th in the Classical tripos) in 1852.[2] At King Edward's, under James Prince Lee, Benson "manifested a deeply religious tone of mind and was fond of sermons".[3]:7–8

Cambridge Ghost Society

The Cambridge Association for Spiritual Inquiry, known informally as the Cambridge Ghost Society or the Ghostlie Guild, was founded by Benson and Brooke Foss Westcott in 1851 at Trinity College.[4][5] Westcott worked as its secretary until 1860.[6] The society collected and investigated reports of ghosts. Other notable members included Alfred Barry and Henry Sidgwick.[4] It has been described as a predecessor of the Society for Psychical Research.[4][7] According to the Notebooks of Henry James, his source for the novella The Turn of the Screw was the Archbishop of Canterbury (i.e. Benson) at Addington Palace on 10 January 1895.[8]

Schoolmaster at Rugby and Wellington

Benson began his career as a schoolmaster at Rugby School in 1852, and was ordained deacon in 1852 and priest in 1857. In 1859 Benson was chosen by Prince Albert as the first Master of Wellington College, Berkshire, which had recently been built as the nation's memorial to the Duke of Wellington. Benson was largely responsible for establishing Wellington as a leading public school, closely modelled upon Rugby School.[1]

Lincoln and Truro


A stained glass window depicting the foundation of Truro Cathedral

From 1872 to 1877, he was Chancellor of Lincoln Cathedral. In 1874, he set up Lincoln Theological College.

He was appointed the first Bishop of Truro, where he served from 1877 to 1882. He was consecrated bishop by Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury, on St Mark's day, 25 April 1877 at St Paul's Cathedral.[9] The Diocese of Truro was established in December 1876. Construction of Truro Cathedral began in 1880 to a design by the Gothic Revival architect John Loughborough Pearson. From 24 October 1880 until 1887 a temporary wooden building on an adjacent site served as the cathedral. As archbishop, Benson consecrated the cathedral on 3 November 1887.

He founded Truro High School for Girls in 1880.[10]

Archbishop of Canterbury, 1883–1896


Archbishop Benson

In 1883 he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury.

Five years later Benson avoided the prosecution before a lay tribunal of Edward King, Bishop of Lincoln, under the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 for six ritual offences by hearing the case in his own archiepiscopal court (inactive since 1699).[11]:354 In his judgement (often called "the Lincoln Judgement"), he found against the bishop on two points, with a proviso as to a third that when performing the manual acts during the prayer of consecration in the Holy Communion service, the priest must stand in a way that is visible to the people.[12]

Benson tried to amalgamate the two Convocations and the new houses of laity into a single assembly. In 1896 it was established that they could 'unofficially' meet together.[11]:365

In September of the same year, the papal bull Apostolicae curae, which denied the validity of Anglican orders, was published and Benson had started on a reply before his sudden death of heart failure. He was taken ill while attending Sunday service in St Deiniol's Church, Hawarden, Wales, on 11 October 1896, during a visit to the former Prime Minister, William Ewart Gladstone. Three days later his body was put on the train at Sandycroft station to be returned to London.[13]

He was buried at Canterbury Cathedral, in a magnificent tomb located at the western end of the nave. The tomb is emblazoned with the epitaph Benson had chosen: Miserere mei Deus Per crucem et passionem tuam libera me Christe ("Have mercy on me O Christ our God, Through Thy Cross and Passion, deliver thou me").[14][15]

His work concerning Saint Cyprian, Cyprian: his life, his times, his work,[16] was published posthumously, in the year after his death.[12]

Legacy

[x]
Order of Service for the first Nine Lessons and Carols in 1880 on display in Truro Cathedral

Benson is best remembered for devising the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols, an order first used in Truro Cathedral on Christmas Eve, 1880. Considerably revised by Eric Milner-White for King's College, Cambridge, this service is now broadcast every Christmas around the world.[17]

Benson was the founder of the Church of England Purity Society,[18] an organisation which later merged with the White Cross Army. Alfred Ryder served as a trustee of the organisation.[19]

The White Cross Army was an organisation set up in 1883 by philanthropist [Jane] Ellice Hopkins with help from the Bishop of Durham, to promote "social purity". The recruits –- all of them men -– pledged to show a "chivalrous respect for womanhood", to apply ideas of purity equally to men and women, and not to indulge in foul language or indecent behaviour. It was renamed the White Cross League in 1891, and merged with the Church of England Purity Society, which had been formed by Edward White Benson.

-- White Cross Army, by Wikipedia

Benson told Henry James a simple, rather inexpert story he had heard about the ghosts of evil servants who tried to lure young children to their deaths. James recorded the idea in his Notebooks and eventually used it as the starting-point for his classic ghost story, The Turn of the Screw.[20]

[x]
Pulpit in Lincoln Cathedral commemorating Archbishop Benson

[x]
Memorial to Benson in Hawarden Church

The hymn "God Is Working His Purpose Out" was written by Arthur C. Ainger as a tribute to Benson as both were Masters at Eton and Rugby respectively.[clarification needed][21]

In 1914, a boarding house at Wellington College was named in his honour. Benson House carries the emblem of a blue Tudor Rose, and is situated in its own corner of the college grounds.[22]

In 2011, a book about Mary Benson characterised her husband as living "a life of relentless success".[23]

Personal life

Benson married his second cousin Mary (Minnie) Sidgwick, the sister of philosopher Henry, when she was 18, having proposed to her when she was 12 and he was 24. The couple had six children. Benson also supervised the education of his younger sister Ada Benson who was left an orphan in 1852.[24]

Their fifth child was the novelist Edward Frederic Benson, best remembered for his Mapp and Lucia novels. Another son was Arthur Christopher Benson, the author of the lyrics to Elgar's "Land of Hope and Glory" and master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. Their sixth and youngest child, Robert Hugh Benson, became a priest in the Church of England before converting to Roman Catholicism and writing many popular novels. Their daughter, Margaret Benson, was an artist, author and Egyptologist. None of the children married; and some appeared to suffer from mental illnesses, possibly bipolar disorder.[25]

After the archbishop's death, his widow set up household with Lucy Tait, daughter of the previous Archbishop of Canterbury, Archibald Campbell Tait.[26] A biography of Mary Benson, using her numerous letters, was published in 2011.[23]

Ancestry

The Benson family was of Scandinavian origin with the name of Bjornsen. The Bensons "emerge into history" as an English family in 1348 when John Benson held a "toft" from the Abbey at Swinton-by-Masham in Yorkshire.[3]:1–2

Arthur Christopher Benson, the Archbishop's son, wrote a genealogy of his family.[27] He found that "Old" Christopher Benson (born 1703) was the "real founder of the fortunes" of the Benson family having acquired a "good deal" of land. He also "established a large business."[27]:7–8[28]

Archbishop Edward White Benson's grandfather was Captain White Benson, of the 6th Regiment of Foot. The Archbishop's seal and the Captain's coat of arms show their branch of the Benson family arms were blazoned: Argent, a quatrefoil between two trefoils slipped in bend sable, between four bendlets gules.[29]

The Archbishop's father was Edward White Benson (born in York in 1802, died at Birmingham Heath in 1843). He was a Fellow of the Royal Botanical Society of Edinburgh and the author of books on education and religion.[29] He was also an inventor whose inventions made "considerable fortunes" for others, but not for him.[30]

Works

• Boy-life, Its Trial, Its Strength, Its Fulness: Sundays in Wellington College, 1859–1873. London: Macmillan & Co. 1883.
• The Seven Gifts. London: Macmillan & Co. 1885.
• Christ and His Times: Addressed to the Diocese of Canterbury in His Second Visitation. London: Macmillan & Co. 1889.
• Living Theology. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company. 1893.
• Cyprian: His Life, His Times, His Work. London: Macmillan & Co. 1897.
• Bernard, J. H., ed. (1896). Archbishop Benson in Ireland: A Record of His Irish Sermons and Addresses 1896. London: Macmillan & Co.
• The Apocalypse,: An introductory Study of the Revelation of St. John the Divine. London: Macmillan & Co. 1900.

References

1. Chapman, Mark D. "Benson, Edward White (1829–1896)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/2139. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
2. "Benson, Edward White (BN848EW)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
3. Carr, James Anderson (1898). Life-work of Edward White Benson, D.D.: Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Elliot Stock.
4. Oppenheim, Janet (1985). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68, 123. ISBN 978-0-521-26505-8.
5. Byrne, Georgina (2010). Modern Spiritualism and the Church of England, 1850-1939. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 50–51. ISBN 978-1-84383-589-9.
6. Broad, C.D. (2014). Religion, Philosophy and Psychical Research: Selected Essays. Routledge. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-317-83006-1.
7. McCorristine, Shane (2010). Spectres of the Self: Thinking about Ghosts and Ghost-Seeing in England, 1750–1920. Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-521-76798-9.
8. The Notebooks of Henry James, edited by F.O. Matthiessen and Kenneth B. Murdock, published George Braziller Inc, New York, 1955
9. "Consecration of the Bishop of Truro". Church Times (#744). 27 April 1877. p. 245. ISSN 0009-658X. Retrieved 26 December 2016 – via UK Press Online archives.
10. Clarke, Amy Key (1979). The Story of Truro High School, the Benson Foundation. Truro: Oscar Blackford.
11. Chadwick, Owen (1980). The Victorian Church (Part 2). Adam & Charles Black.
12. Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A., eds. (2005). "Benson, Edward White". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 190. ISBN 9780192802903.
13. "Death of the Archbishop of Canterbury at Hawarden Rectory" (PDF). Brief History. Flintshire County Council. p. 19.
14. Waymarking.com
15. Donaldson, Augustus Blair (1902). The Bishopric of Truro: the First Twenty-five Years, 1877–1902. London: Rivingtons. p. 191.
16. Benson 1897.
17. "The History of A Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols". whychristmas.com.
18. "The Church of England Purity Society". The Official Year-book of the Church of England. London: SPCK. 1884. p. 126.
19. Prettejohn, Elizabeth (1999). After the Pre-Raphaelites: Art and Aestheticism in Victorian England. Manchester University Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780719054068.
20. Hadey, Tessa (2002). Henry James and the Imagination of Pleasure. Cambridge University Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780521811699.
21. "God Is Working His Purpose Out". hymnary.org.
22. "The Benson". Wellington College. Archived from the original on 20 January 2016.
23. Bolt, Rodney (2011). As Good as God, as Clever as the Devil: The Impossible Life of Mary Benson. London: Atlantic Books. ISBN 9781843548614.
24. Pryor, Ruth. "Benson, Ada (1840–1882)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/48641. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
25. Ridley, Jane (9 July 2011). "The gay Lambeth way" (review of Rodney Bolt, As Good as God, as Clever as the Devil: The Impossible Life of Mary Benson)". The Spectator.
26. Vicinus, Martha (2004). Intimate Friends: women who loved women (1778–1928). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-85563-5.
27. Benson, Arthur Christopher (1894). Genealogy of the Family of Benson of Banger House and Northwoods, in the Parish of Ripon and Chapelry of Pateley Bridge. Eton: George New.
28. Note that the above family tree gives “Old” Christopher Benson’s birth date as 1708.
29. Howard, Joseph Jackson; Crisp, Frederick Arthur (1897). Visitation of England and Wales. Priv. print. pp. 122–.
30. Benson 1900a, pp. 4–5.

Sources

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Benson, Edward White" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Mason, Arthur James (1901). "Benson, Edward White" . Dictionary of National Biography (1st supplement). London: Smith, Elder & Co.
• Prettejohn, Elizabeth (1999). After the Pre-Raphaelites. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-5406-0.

Further reading

• Carr, James Anderson (1898). Life-work of Edward White Benson, D.D.: Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Elliot Stock.
• Bolt, Rodney (2011). As Good as God, as Clever as the Devil: The Impossible Life of Mary Benson. Reprinted in paperback as The Impossible Life Of Mary Benson: The Extraordinary Story of a Victorian Wife. 2012.
• Gwen Watkins, E. F. Benson & His Family and Friends (2003)
• G. Palmer, N. Lloyd, Father of the Bensons (1998)
• David Williams, Genesis and Exodus: A Portrait of the Benson Family (1979)
• Benson, A. C. (1900a). The Life of Edward White Benson, Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Vol I. London: Macmillan.
• Benson, A. C. (1900b). The Life of Edward White Benson, Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Vol II. London: Macmillan.
• "Benson, Edward White". New American Supplement to the New Werner Edition of The Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol I. Werner Co. 1903. p. 422.
• Benson, Arthur Christopher (1894). Genealogy of the Family of Benson of Banger House and Northwoods, in the Parish of Ripon and Chapelry of Pateley Bridge. Eton: George New.
• Goldhill, Simon (2016). A Very Queer Family Indeed: Sex, Religion, and the Bensons in Victorian Britain. University of Chicago Press.

External links

• Bibliographic directory from Project Canterbury
• Archbishop Benson's papers are held at Lambeth Palace Library
• BirminghamNet: Edward White Benson

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Henry Sidgwick
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

Sedgewick [Sidgwick]
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-- Henry Sidgwick, by Barton Schultz, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Henry Sidgwick
Born: 31 May 1838, Skipton, Yorkshire, England
Died: 28 August 1900 (aged 62), Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England
Alma mater: Trinity College, Cambridge
Era: 19th-century philosophy
Region: Western philosophy
School: Utilitarianism
Institutions: Trinity College, Cambridge
Main interests: Ethics, political philosophy
Notable ideas: Average and total utilitarianism, Ethical hedonism, ethical intuitionism, paradox of hedonism
Influences: Jeremy Bentham, David Hume, John Stuart Mill
Influenced: R. M. Hare, Mordecai Kaplan, Alfred Marshall, G. E. Moore, Derek Parfit, Arthur Cecil Pigou, Hastings Rashdall, John Rawls, Bertrand Russell, Peter Singer, J. J. C. Smart

Henry Sidgwick (/ˈsɪdʒwɪk/; 31 May 1838 – 28 August 1900) was an English utilitarian philosopher and economist.[1] He was the Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1883 until his death, and is best known in philosophy for his utilitarian treatise The Methods of Ethics.[2] He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research and a member of the Metaphysical Society and promoted the higher education of women. His work in economics has also had a lasting influence.

Sidgwick joined the Cambridge “Ghost Society” as an undergraduate, and he had already devoted many years to informal psychical research before the formation of the Society for Psychical Research, in 1882.

-- Henry Sidgwick, by Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

In 1875 he co-founded Newnham College, a women-only constituent college of the University of Cambridge. It was the second Cambridge college to admit women, after Girton College. Newnham College's co-founder was Millicent Garrett Fawcett.

In 1856 Sidgwick joined the Cambridge Apostles intellectual secret society.

Biography

Henry Sidgwick was born at Skipton in Yorkshire, where his father, the Reverend W. Sidgwick (died 1841), was headmaster of the local grammar school, Ermysted's Grammar School. Henry's mother was Mary Sidgwick, née Crofts (1807–79).

Henry Sidgwick was educated at Rugby (where his cousin, subsequently his brother-in-law, Edward White Benson, later Archbishop of Canterbury, was a master), and at Trinity College, Cambridge. While at Trinity, Sidgwick became a member of the Cambridge Apostles. In 1859, he was senior classic, 33rd wrangler, chancellor's medallist and Craven scholar. In the same year, he was elected to a fellowship at Trinity and soon afterwards he became a lecturer in classics there, a post he held for ten years.[3] The Sidgwick Site, home to several of the university's arts and humanities faculties, is named after him.

In 1869, he exchanged his lectureship in classics for one in moral philosophy, a subject to which he had been turning his attention. In the same year, deciding that he could no longer in good conscience declare himself a member of the Church of England, he resigned his fellowship. He retained his lectureship and in 1881 he was elected an honorary fellow. In 1874 he published The Methods of Ethics (6th ed. 1901, containing emendations written just before his death), by common consent a major work, which made his reputation outside the university. John Rawls called it the "first truly academic work in moral theory, modern in both method and spirit".[4]

In 1875, he was appointed praelector on moral and political philosophy at Trinity, and in 1883 he was elected Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy. In 1885, the religious test having been removed, his college once more elected him to a fellowship on the foundation.

Besides his lecturing and literary labours, Sidgwick took an active part in the business of the university and in many forms of social and philanthropic work. He was a member of the General Board of Studies from its foundation in 1882 to 1899; he was also a member of the Council of the Senate of the Indian Civil Service Board and the Local Examinations and Lectures Syndicate and chairman of the Special Board for Moral Science.[5]

He married Eleanor Mildred Balfour, who was a member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, with 11 other members, and was sister to Arthur Balfour.

A 2004 biography of Sidgwick by Bart Schultz sought to establish that Sidgwick was a lifelong homosexual, but it is unknown whether he ever consummated his inclinations. According to the biographer, Sidgwick struggled internally throughout his life with issues of hypocrisy and openness in connection with his own forbidden desires.[2][6]

He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research, and was a member of the Metaphysical Society.[5]

He also took in promoting the higher education of women. He helped to start the higher local examinations for women, and the lectures held at Cambridge in preparation for these. It was at his suggestion and with his help that Anne Clough opened a house of residence for students, which developed into Newnham College, Cambridge. When, in 1880, the North Hall was added, Sidgwick lived there for two years. His wife became principal of the college after Clough's death in 1892, and they lived there for the rest of his life. During this whole period, Sidgwick took the deepest interest in the welfare of the college. In politics, he was a liberal, and became a Liberal Unionist (a party that later effectively merged with the Conservative party) in 1886.

Early in 1900 he was forced by ill-health to resign his professorship, and died a few months later.[5] Sidgwick, who died an agnostic,[7] is buried in Terling All Saints Churchyard, Terling, Essex, with his wife.

Ethics

See also: The Methods of Ethics

Sidgwick summarizes his position in ethics as utilitarianism “on an Intuitional basis”.[8] This reflects, and disputes, the rivalry then felt among British philosophers between the philosophies of utilitarianism and ethical intuitionism, which is illustrated, for example, by John Stuart Mill’s criticism of ethical intuitionism in the first chapter of his book Utilitarianism.

Sidgwick developed this position due to his dissatisfaction with an inconsistency in Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism, between what he labels “psychological hedonism” and “ethical hedonism”. Psychological hedonism states that everyone always will do what is in their self interest, whereas ethical hedonism states that everyone ought to do what is in the general interest. Sidgwick believed neither Bentham nor Mill had an adequate answer as to how the prescription that someone ought to sacrifice their own interest to the general interest could have any force, given they combined that prescription with the claim that everyone will in fact always pursue their own individual interest. Ethical intuitions, such as those argued for by philosophers such as William Whewell, could, according to Sidgwick, provide the missing force for such normative claims.

As Sidgwick sees it, one of the central issues of ethics is whether self-interest and duty always coincide. To a great extent they do, Sidgwick argues, but it cannot be proved that they never conflict, except by appeal to a divine system of punishments and rewards that Sidgwick believes is out of place in a work of philosophical ethics. The upshot is that there is a "dualism of practical reason."

Sidgwick does not use the terms act utilitarian or rule utilitarian, these being terms that would come into currency only after his death; nevertheless, J.J.C. Smart labels him an act utilitarian.[9]

Meta-ethics

Sidgwick's meta-ethics involve an explicit defense of an non-naturalist form of moral realism. He is committed to moral cognitivism: that moral language is robustly truth-apt, and that moral properties are not reducible to any natural properties. This non-naturalist realism is combined with an ethical intuitionist epistemology to account for the possibility of knowing moral truths.[10]

Esoteric morality

Sidgwick is closely, and controversially, associated with esoteric morality: the position that a moral system (such as utiltiarianism) may be acceptable, but that it is not acceptable for that moral system to be widely taught or accepted.[11]

Bernard Williams would refer to Sidgwickian esoteric utilitarianism as "Government House Utilitarianism" and claim that it reflects the elite British colonialist setting of Sidgwick's thought.[12]

Philosophical legacy

According to John Rawls, Sidgwick's importance to modern ethics rests with two contributions: providing the most sophisticated defense available of utilitarianism in its classical form, and providing in his comparative methodology an exemplar for how ethics is to be researched as an academic subject.[13] Allen Wood describes Sidgwick-inspired comparative methodology as the "standard model" of research methodology among contemporary ethicists.[14]

Despite his importance to contemporary ethicists, Sidgwick’s reputation as a philosopher fell precipitously in the decades following his death, and he would be regarded as a minor figure in philosophy for a large part of the first half of the 20th century. Bart Schultz argues that this negative assessment is explained by the tastes of groups which would be influential at Cambridge in the years following Sidgwick's death: Wittgensteinian ordinary language philosophers, the remnants of British idealism, and, most importantly, the Bloomsbury Group.[15] John Deigh, however, disputes Schultz's explanation, and instead attributes this fall in interest in Sidgwick to changing philosophical understandings of axioms in mathematics, which would throw into question whether axiomatization provided an appropriate model for a foundationalist epistemology of the sort Sidgwick tried to build for ethics.[16]

Economics

Sidgwick worked in economics at a time when the British economics mainstream was undergoing the transition from the classical economics of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill to the neo-classical economics of William Stanley Jevons and Alfred Marshall. Sidgwick responded to these changes by preferring to emphasize the similarities between the old economics and the new, choosing to base his work on J.S. Mill’s Principles of Political Economy, incorporating the insights of Jevons.[17]

Sidgwick would have a major influence on the development of welfare economics, due to his own work on the subject inspiring Arthur Cecil Pigou's work The Economics of Welfare.[18]

Alfred Marshall, founder of the Cambridge School of economics, would describe Sidgwick as his "spiritual mother and father."[19]

Parapsychology

Sidgwick had a lifelong interest in the paranormal. This interest, combined with his personal struggles with religious belief, motivated his gathering of young colleagues interested in assessing the empirical evidence for paranormal or miraculous phenomena. This gathering would be known as the "Sidgwick Group", and would be a predecessor of the Society for Psychical Research, which would count Sidgwick as founder and first president.[20]

Sidgwick would connect his concerns with parapsychology to his research in ethics. He believed the dualism of practical reason might be solved outside of philosophical ethics if it were shown, empirically, that the recommendations of rational egoism and utilitarianism coincided due to the reward of moral behaviour after death.

According to Bart Schultz, despite Sidgwick’s prominent role in institutionalizing parapsychology as a discipline, he had upon it an “overwhelmingly negative, destructive effect, akin to that of recent debunkers of parapsychology”; he and his Sidgwick Group associates became notable for exposing fraud mediums.[21] One such incident was the exposure of the fraud of Eusapia Palladino.[22][23]

Religion

Brought up in the Church of England, Sidgwick drifted away from orthodox Christianity, and as early as 1862 he described himself as a theist, independent from established religion.[18] For the rest of his life, although he regarded Christianity as "indispensable and irreplaceable – looking at it from a sociological point of view," he found himself unable to return to it as a religion.

Works by Sidgwick

• The Ethics of Conformity and Subscription. 1870.
• The Methods of Ethics. London, 1874, 7th edition 1907.
• The Theory of Evolution in its application to Practice, in Mind, Volume I, Number 1 January 1876, 52–67,
• Principles of Political Economy. London, 1883, 3rd edition 1901.
• The Scope and Method of Economic Science. 1885.
• Outlines of the History of Ethics for English Readers. 1886 5th edition 1902 (enlarged from his article Ethics in the Encyclopædia Britannica).
• The Elements of Politics. London, 1891, 4th edition 1919.
• "The Philosophy of Common Sense", in Mind, New Series, Volume IV, Number 14, April 1895, 145–158.
• Economic science and economics, Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, 1896, v. 1, (reprinted in The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, 1987, v. 2, 58–59.)
• Practical Ethics. London, 1898, 2nd edition 1909.
• Philosophy; its Scope and Relations. London, 1902.
• Lectures on the Ethics of T. H. Green, Mr Herbert Spencer and J. Martineau. 1902.
• The Development of European Polity. 1903, 3rd edition 1920
• Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses. 1904.
• Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant and other philosophical lectures and essays. 1905.
• Sidgwick's writings available online

See also

People

• Alfred Marshall
• Derek Parfit
• Peter Singer

Topics

• Analytic philosophy
• Palm Sunday Case

Citations

• Anonymous (9 November 1895). "Exit Eusapia!". The British Medical Journal. British Medical Association. 2 (1819): 1182.
• Brooke, Christopher Nugent Lawrence; Leader, Damian Riehl (1988). "1: Prologue". A History of the University of Cambridge: 1870–1990. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780521343503. In 1869 Henry Sidgwick, who had become a devout agnostic, made protest against the survival of religious tests in Cambridge by resigning his Trinity fellowship.
• Bryce, James (1903). "Henry Sidgwick". Studies in Contemporary Biography. New York: Macmillan.
• Collini, Stefan (1992). "The ordinary experience of civilized life: Sidgwick's politics and the method of reflective analysis". In Schultz, Bart (ed.). Essays on Henry Sidgwick. Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–368. ISBN 0-521-39151-2.
• Deane, Phyllis (1987). "Sidgwick, Henry". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. 4. pp. 328–329.
• de Lazari-Radek, Katarzyna; Singer, Peter (4 January 2010). "Secrecy in consequentialism: A defence of esoteric morality". Ratio. Wiley. 23 (1): 34–58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9329.2009.00449.x.
• Deigh, John (12 November 2007). "Sidgwick's Epistemology". Utilitas. Cambridge University Press. 19 (4): 435–446. doi:10.1017/S0953820807002737.
• Medema, Steven G. (1 December 2008). ""Losing My Religion": Sidgwick, Theism, and the Struggle for Utilitarian Ethics in Economic Analysis". History of Political Economy. 40 (5): 189–211. doi:10.1215/00182702-2007-066.
• Nussbaum, Martha (6 June 2005). "The Epistemology of the Closet". The Nation.
• Philips, David (2011). Sidgwickian Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Rawls, John (September 1980). "Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory". The Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy, Inc. 77 (9): 515–572.
• Rawls, John (1981). "Foreward to The Methods of Ethics". The Methods of Ethics (7th ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. p. v-vi. ISBN 978-0915145287.
• Schultz, Bart (2009) [2004]. Henry Sidgwick - Eye of the Universe: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498336. ISBN 9780511498336.
• Schultz, Barton (2019). "Henry Sidgwick". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
• Sidgwick, Henry (16 November 1895). "Exit Eusapia". The British Medical Journal. British Medical Association. 2 (1820): 1263. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.1820.1263-e.
• Sidgwick, Henry (1981) [1907]. The Methods of Ethics (7th ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0915145287.
• Smart, J.J.C.; Williams, Bernard (1973). Smart, J.J.C. (ed.). Utilitarianism: For and Against. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09822-9.
• Williams, Bernard (2009) [1982]. "The Point of View of the Universe: Sidgwick and the Ambitions of Ethics". The Sense of the Past: Essays in the History of Philosophy. Princeton University Press. pp. 277–296. doi:10.1515/9781400827107.277. ISBN 978-0-691-13408-6.
• Wood, Allen (2008). Kantian Ethics. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521671149.
1. Bryce 1903, p. 327-342.
2. Schultz 2009.
3. "Sidgwick, Henry (SGWK855H)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
4. Rawls 1980.
5. "Sidgwick, Henry". 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Volume 25. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
6. Nussbaum 2005.
7. Brooke & Leader 1988.
8. Sidgwick 1981, p. xxii.
9. Smart & Williams 1973, p. 4.
10. Philips 2011, p. 10-13.
11. de Lazari-Radek & Singer 2010.
12. Williams 2009, p. 291.
13. Rawls 1981.
14. Wood 2008, p. 45.
15. Schultz 2009, p. 4.
16. Deigh 2007, p. 439.
17. Collini 1992, p. 340-341.
18. Medema 2008.
19. Deane 1987.
20. Schultz 2009, p. 275-276.
21. Schultz 2019.
22. Anonymous 1895.
23. Sidgwick 1895.
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sidgwick, Henry". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

• Blum, Deborah (2006). Ghost hunters : William James and the search for scientific proof of life after death. New York: Penguin Press.
• de Lazari-Radek, Katarzyna; Singer, Peter (2014). The Point of View of the Universe: Sidgwick and Contemporary Ethics. Oxford University Press.
• Geninet, Hortense (2009). Geninet, Hortense (ed.). Politiques comparées, Henry Sidgwick et la politique moderne dans les «Éléments Politiques» (in French). France. ISBN 978-2-7466-1043-9.
• Nakano-Okuno, Mariko (2011). Sidgwick and Contemporary Utilitarianism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-32178-6.
• Schneewind, Jerome (1977). Sidgwick's Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy. Clarendon Press.
• Shaver, Robert (2009) [1990]. Rational Egoism: A Selective and Critical History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521119962. - Study of rational egoism that focuses on Sidgwick's thought on the subject, alongside that of Thomas Hobbes.

External links

• Works by Henry Sidgwick at Project Gutenberg
• Henry Sidgwick Website
• Official website of the 2nd International congress : Henry Sidgwick Ethics, Psychics, Politics. University of Catania – Italy
• Henry Sidgwick. Comprehensive list of online writings by and about Sidgwick.
• Contains Sidgwick's "Methods of Ethics", modified for easier reading
• Henry Sidgwick, Leslie Stephen, MInd, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 37 (January 1901), pp. 1-17 [At Internet Archive]
• The Ethical System of Henry Sidgwick, James Seth, MInd, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 38 (April 1901), pp.172-187 [At Internet Archive]

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Metaphysical Society
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The Metaphysical Society was a British society, founded in 1869 by James Knowles. Many of its members were prominent clergymen.

Sir James Thomas Knowles KCVO (13 October 1831 – 13 February 1908) was an English architect and editor. He was intimate with the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson and the founder of the Metaphysical Society to seek rapprochement between religion and science.

-- James Thomas Knowles, by Wikipedia

Papers were read and discussed at meetings on such subjects as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective and moral sciences, the immortality of the soul, etc. A description of one of the meetings was given by William Connor Magee (then Bishop of Peterborough) in a letter on 13 February 1873:

Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant bishops right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the Spectator, an Arian; then came Father Dalgairns, a very able Roman Catholic priest; opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two Scotch metaphysical writers, Freethinkers; then Knowles, the very broad editor of the Contemporary; then, dressed as a layman and looking like a country squire, was Ward, formerly Rev. Ward, and earliest of the perverts to Rome; then Greg, author of The Creed of Christendom, a Deist; then Froude, the historian, once a deacon in our Church, now a Deist; then Roden Noël, an actual Atheist and red republican, and looking very like one! Lastly Ruskin, who read a paper on miracles, which we discussed for an hour and a half! Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or even, on the whole, more reverent than the discussion. In my opinion, we, the Christians, had much the best of it. Dalgairns, the priest, was very masterly; Manning, clever and precise and weighty; Froude, very acute, and so was Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Muslim to make our Religious Museum complete (Life, i. 284).

The last meeting of the society was held on 16 May 1880 and it was dissolved later in November of that year.[1] Huxley said that it died "of too much love"; Tennyson, "because after ten years of strenuous effort no one had succeeded in even defining metaphysics." According to Dean Stanley, "We all meant the same thing if we only knew it."

Members

The members from first to last were as follows:[2]

• Dean Stanley, of Westminster Abbey
• John Robert Seeley, English essayist and historian.
• Roden Noël, poet
• James Martineau, English philosopher
• William Benjamin Carpenter, physiologist and naturalist
• James Hinton, surgeon and author
• Thomas Henry Huxley, Darwinist biologist
• John Tyndall, physicist
• Charles Pritchard, astronomer
• Richard Holt Hutton, writer and theologian.
• William George Ward, Catholic theologian
• Walter Bagehot, economist and editor
• James Anthony Froude, historian
• Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Poet Laureate
• Alfred Barry
• Lord Arthur Russell, British politician
• William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal Prime Minister
• Henry Edward Manning, Archbishop and Cardinal
• James Knowles, architect and editor
• John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury
• Henry Alford, churchman, scholar, and poet
• Alexander Grant
• Connop Thirlwall
• Frederic Harrison
• Father Dalgairns
• Sir George Grove
• Shadworth Hodgson
• Henry Sidgwick
• Edmund Lushington
• Bishop Charles Ellicott
• Mark Pattison
• George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll
• John Ruskin
• Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke
• Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant-Duff
• William Rathbone Greg
• Alexander Campbell Fraser
• Henry Acland
• John Frederick Denison Maurice
• Archbishop Thomson
• Thomas Mozely
• Richard William Church
• William Connor Magee
• George Croom Robertson
• James Fitzjames Stephen
• James Joseph Sylvester
• John Charles Bucknill
• Andrew Clark
• William Kingdon Clifford
• St. George Jackson Mivart
• Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, classicist and amateur scientist
• William Waldegrave Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne
• John Morley
• Leslie Stephen
• Frederick Pollock
• Francis Aidan Gasquet
• C Barnes Upton
• William Withey Gull
• Robert Clarke
• Arthur Balfour
• James Sully
• Alfred Barratt

Continuing their discussion of the membership of "The Society of the Elect," Stead asked permission to bring in Milner and Brett. Rhodes agreed, so they telegraphed at once to Brett, who arrived in two hours. They then drew up the following "ideal arrangement' for the society:

1. General of the Society: Rhodes
2. Junta of Three: (1) Stead, (2) Brett, (3) Milner
3. Circle of Initiates: (1) Cardinal Manning, (2) General Booth, (3) Bramwell Booth, (4)"Little" [Harry] Johnston, (5) Albert Grey, (6) Arthur Balfour
4. The Association of Helpers
5. A College, under Professor Seeley, to be established to train people in the English-speaking idea."

Within the next few weeks Stead had another talk with Rhodes and a talk with Milner, who was "filled with admiration" for the scheme, according to Stead's notes as published by Sir Frederick Whyte.

-- The Anglo-American Establishment: From Rhodes to Cliveden, by Carroll Quigley

References

Citations

1. Christopher A. Kent, "Metaphysical Society (act. 1869–1880)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/theme/45584), 2004. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
2. "The Metaphysical Society. A Reminiscence" by R. H. Hutton, published in 1885 in The Nineteenth Century magazine.

Bibliography

• Brown, Alan Willard The Metaphysical Society: Victorian Minds in Crisis, 1869-1880. New York: Columbia U.P., 1947.
• The papers of the Metaphysical Society, 1869-1880 : a critical edition, Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2015, 3 volumes.
• Catherine Marshall; Bernard V Lightman; Richard England, The Metaphysical Society (1869-1880) : intellectual life in mid-Victorian England, Oxford ; New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2019.

Further reading

• Hajdenko-Marshall, Catherine. Believing After Darwin: The Debates of the Metaphysical Society (1869–1880), Cahiers victoriens et édouardien online, Vol. 76, Autumn, 2012, published online 20 April 2013, p. 69–83.
• Hutton, R. H. "The Metaphysical Society: a reminiscence", The Nineteenth Century magazine, 18 August 1885, pp. 177–196.
• Metcalf, P. "James Knowles: Victorian editor and architect", 1980.

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James Thomas Knowles (1831–1908)
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

For the subject's father, see James Thomas Knowles (1806–1884).

Sir James Thomas Knowles KCVO (13 October 1831 – 13 February 1908) was an English architect and editor.[1] He was intimate with the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson and the founder of the Metaphysical Society to seek rapprochement between religion and science.

Life

James Knowles was born in London, the son of the architect James Thomas Knowles (1806–1884), and himself trained in architecture at University College and in Italy. Among the buildings he designed were three churches in Clapham, South London, Mark Masons' Hall, London (later the Thatched House Club), Lord Tennyson's house at Aldworth, the Leicester Square garden (as restored at the expense of Albert Grant), Albert Mansions, Victoria Street in Westminster,[2] and an 1882 enlargement of the Royal Sea Bathing Hospital at Margate in Kent.[3]

However, his preferences led him simultaneously into a literary career. In 1860 he published The Story of King Arthur. In 1866 he was introduced to Alfred Lord Tennyson and later agreed to design his new house on condition there was no fee. This led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting Tennyson in business matters, and among other things helping to design scenery for the play The Cup, when Henry Irving produced it in 1880.

Knowles corresponded with a number of the most interesting men of the day, and in 1869, with Tennyson's cooperation, he founded the Metaphysical Society, the object of which was to attempt some intellectual rapprochement between religion and science by getting the leading representatives of faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views. Members included Tennyson, Gladstone, W. K. Clifford, W. G. Ward, John Morley, Cardinal Manning, Archbishop Thomson, T. H. Huxley, Arthur Balfour, Leslie Stephen, and Sir William Gull.[2] The society formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of contributors who supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor.

In 1870 he succeeded Dean Alford as editor of the Contemporary Review, but left it in 1877 owing to the objection of the proprietors to the insertion of articles (by W. K. Clifford notably) attacking Theism and founded the Nineteenth Century (to the title of which, in 1901, were added the words And After). Both periodicals became very influential under him, and formed the type of the new sort of monthly review which came to occupy the place formerly held by the quarterlies. For example, it was prominent in checking the Channel Tunnel project, by publishing a protest signed by many distinguished men in 1882. In 1904 he received a knighthood. He was a considerable collector of works of art.

Knowles was married twice, first in 1860 to Jane Borradaile, then in 1865 to Isabel Hewlett. He died in Brighton and was buried at the Brighton Extra Mural Cemetery.[2]

Notes

1. Lee, Sidney (1912). "Knowles, James Thomas" . Dictionary of National Biography (2nd supplement). London: Smith, Elder & Co.
2. James Dodsley (1909), The Annual Register, digitized by Google
3. Harry Wells, "Mark Masons' Hall, 86 St. James's Street: A brief history of the present building", 28 May 2015 (online), access date 4 July 2015

References

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Knowles, Sir James". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links

• Works by James Knowles at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about James Thomas Knowles at Internet Archive