Freda Bedi Cont'd (#2)

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Hermann Adler
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The [World Parliament of Religions], as described in its published objectives, sought answers not simply to domestic issues but to "the great problems of the present age," although even here the centrality of America is apparent in the repetition of Bonney's listing of, as examples, "temperance, labour, education, wealth and poverty." It aimed not just for domestic harmony but for "securing permanent international peace." The World's Parliament of Religions had grown from Bonney's vision of a fellowship of liberal, humanist theists to a great international event bringing "together in conference, for the first time in history, the leading representatives of the great historic religions of the world." He specifically desired representatives not simply of Judaism but of "the Brahman, Buddhist, Confucian, Parsee, Mohammedan" faiths as well. In this expanded vision the heathen were now welcome, but for what purpose? The text adopted for the World's Parliament of Religions had been suggested by the Reverend H. Adler, chief rabbi of the British Empire: "Have we not all one Father? Hath not one God created us?" It confirmed Bonney's ecumenical vision for the United States of America but did nothing to accommodate Buddhists.

-- Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition, by Judith Snodgrass

Rabbi Hermann Adler CVO
Hermann Adler, by H. S. Mendelssohn ca. 1900
Title: Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth
Personal
Religion: Judaism
Jewish leader
Predecessor: Nathan Marcus Adler
Successor: Joseph Hertz
Synagogue: Bayswater Synagogue
Position: Chief Rabbi
Organisation: United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth
Began: 1891
Ended: 1911


Adler caricatured by Spy for Vanity Fair, 1904

Hermann Adler HaKohen CVO (30 May 1839 – 18 July 1911) was the Chief Rabbi of the British Empire from 1891 to 1911. The son (and successor as Chief Rabbi) of Nathan Marcus Adler, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica writes that he "raised the position [of Chief Rabbi] to one of much dignity and importance."

Biography

Naftali (Hermann) Adler was born in Hanover. Like his father, he had both a rabbinical education and a university education in Germany, and like him he subscribed to a modernised orthodoxy. He attended University College School in London from 1852–54 and rabbinical college in Prague. He graduated from Leipzig in 1862 with a PhD.[1] He later received honorary degrees from Scottish and English universities, including Oxford.

Rabbinic career

He was head of the congregation of Bayswater Synagogue, Paddington, during his father's lifetime, and his father's assistant from the time his father's health began to deteriorate in 1879, before succeeding him on his death in 1891.

In 1909 he was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO).[2]

Once he was having a lunch with British Catholic cardinal Herbert Vaughan. The cardinal asked the rabbi "Now, Dr. Adler, when may I have the pleasure of helping you to some ham?" The rabbi responded: "At Your Eminence's wedding".[3]

Adler wrote extensively on topics of Anglo-Jewish history and published two volumes of sermons. He was a vigorous defender of his co-religionists and their faith, as well as their sacred scriptures.[4]

He is buried in the Willesden United Synagogue Cemetery in London.

See also

• List of British Jews

References

1. Gilman D. C. et al. The New International Encyclopedia, Dodd, Mead and Company, New York 1905, pp.119-120. Accessed 25 July 2014 at Archive.org
2. London Gazette Issue 28263 pp.4856-7
3. Lawrence Jeffrey Epstein (1989). A treasury of Jewish anecdotes. p. 8. Retrieved 2010-04-03.
4. Jung, Leo (ed.) "Three Chief Rabbis", Cecil Roth in Jewish Leaders, (Jerusalem 1953)

External links

• Hermann Adler at Find a Grave
• Hermann Adler: Chief Rabbi
• Articles on the British Chief Rabbinate

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William Fairfield Warren
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

Just how important was the carnival aspect of the Asian presence and how calculated was it? W. F. [William Fairfield] Warren, president of Boston University, wrote in response to the idea of the [World Parliament of Religions], apparently confirming a suggestion made to him in Barrows's letter, that "even a museum of idols and objects used in ceremonial worship would attract beyond any other museum. Models and illustrations of the great temples of the world and of the world's history would be in a high degree instructive. Add to these things the living word of living teachers, and the whole world may well pause to listen." Is it mere coincidence that Barrows subsequently invited these "living teachers" of exotic religions? Or that the official record was profusely illustrated with photographs of ritual objects, great temples, and Oriental practitioners? Of the nonportrait illustrations only twelve are Christian, and these are the great monuments: St. Paul's Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, St. Peter's in Rome, and the cathedrals of St. Petersburg, Worcester, Milan. Non-Christian religions are also represented by major buildings, among which is the Pearl Mosque in Delhi, Mandalay Pagoda, and the Temple of Heaven in Peking. There are rather more photographs of "heathen" curiosities such as those labeled "The Burning Ghat at Calcutta," "A Group of Fakirs," "A Chinese Idol," "Hindus at Devotion," and of assorted poorly dressed Oriental devotees. The abiding impression from thumbing through the volume is one of contrast between the cathedrals soaring toward heaven and the earthbound and materially backward heathen. The illustrated history echoed the message of the Midway, the object lesson in the transition from the primitive to the sublime.

-- Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition, by Judith Snodgrass

William Fairfield Warren (March 13, 1833 – December 7, 1929) was the first president of Boston University.

Biography

Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, he graduated from Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut (1853), and there became a member of the Mystical Seven.

The Mystical Seven is a society founded in 1837 at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. There are two separate groups. Members are called Mystics.

The Mystical Seven was founded in 1837, just six years after the founding of Wesleyan University. It was recognized by the university on October 16, 1837. It was Wesleyan's first society...

The society was especially known for the quality of its arcana. "Never have I seen anything so original, so quaint, so completely unique, or irresistible in its solemn humor, as the Mystical Seven initiation and the ceremonies of its meetings." A similar commentator noted that the Mystical Seven, "in some respects [was] among the most ambitious efforts at creating a college secret society with a good ritual."

The Mystical Seven also had a serious academic and philosophical aspect, including public events like bringing Ralph Waldo Emerson to speak at the campus...

The Mystical Seven expanded to several other universities. The chapters of the society were recognized as "temples", with the "Temple of the Wand" being the parent chapter at Wesleyan...Henry Branham brought the society from Wesleyan to Emory, and there interested in membership the president of the university, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, the humorist author of Georgia Scenes...When Longstreet moved his family to Oxford, Mississippi to become president of the University of Mississippi, they created the Temple of the Star at Mississippi.

-- Mystical Seven (Wesleyan), by Wikipedia

He later studied at Andover Theological Seminary and at Berlin and Halle. He entered the New England Conference in 1855 and was professor of systematic theology in the Methodist Episcopal Missionary Institute at Bremen, Germany (1860–1866). He was acting president of the Boston University School of Theology (1866–1873), president of Boston University (1873–1903), and dean of the Boston University School of Theology (1903–1911). After 1873 he was also professor of comparative theology and philosophy of religion. He published:

• The True Key of Ancient Cosmology (1882)
• Paradise Found—the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole (1885)
• The Quest of the Perfect Religion (1886)
• In the Footsteps of Arminius (1888)
• The Story of Gottlieb (1890)
• Religions of the World and the World Religion (1900)
• The Earliest Cosmologies (1909)
• The Universe as Pictured in Milton's Paradise Lost (1915)

When Boston University was chartered in 1869, he helped make it the first university in the country fully open to women. He also helped create Wellesley College in 1870. He was the brother of Henry White Warren.

William was married to Harriet Merrick Warren, the first editor of The Heathen Woman's Friend. He died on December 7, 1929, at the age of 96.

Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole

Warren wrote a book promoting his belief that the original centre of mankind once sat at the North Pole entitled Paradise Found: The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole (1885). In this work Warren placed Atlantis at the North Pole, as well as the Garden of Eden, Mount Meru, Avalon and Hyperborea.[1] Warren believed all these mythical lands were folk memories of a former inhabited far northern seat where man was originally created.[2]

Warren's identification of Atlantis with the North Pole was maintained by positioning Atlas in the far north by mapping out ancient Greek cosmology. Warren equated the primordial Titan Atlas of Greek mythology who supported the Heavens on his shoulders (or supported the earth on a pillar) to the Atlas described in Plato's dialogue Critias as the first ruler of Atlantis (Critias, 114a). In Warren's view, all the axis mundi or cosmic-axis of ancient legends (Yggdrasil, Irminsul and Atlas' pillar) had to be in the far north "at the top of the world":

...To locate these in right mutual relations, one must begin by representing to himself the earth as a sphere or spheroid, and as situated within, and concentric with, the starry sphere, each having its axis perpendicular, and its north pole at the top. The pole-star is thus in the true zenith, and the heavenly heights centring about it are the abode of the supreme god or gods.[2]

Warren noted how Homer, Virgil and Hesiod all placed Atlas or his world pillar at the "ends of the earth", meaning in his view the far northern arctic regions, while Euripides related Atlas to the Pole Star. Therefore, in Warren's view Atlantis sat in the far north, at the North Pole, since the Atlas in his ancient Greek cosmological mapping stood in the far northern zenith, under the Pole Star.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist and historian, quotes extensively from this book and presents his own studies of Vedas and Persian Avesta in his book THE ARCTIC HOME IN THE VEDAS arguing for the presence of ancient humans in the Arctic.

References

1. Paradise Found: Index of Subjects. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved on February 2, 2012.
2. Paradise Found: Part Fourth: Chapter I. Ancient Cosmology and Mythical Geography. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved on February 2, 2012.

External links

• Women Helping Younger Women Since 1876.
• W.F. WARREN DIES, NOTED EDUCATOR; President Emeritus and a Founder of Boston University Was in His 97th Year. WIDELY KNOWN ORGANIZER Helped Start Wellesley College and Other Institutions—Was Also a Prominent Theologian. New York Times

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Mystical Seven (Wesleyan)
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

This article is about the intercollegiate society founded at Wesleyan University. For the University of Missouri secret society, see Mystical Seven (Missouri).

Mystical Seven
Information
Founded: July 17, 1837, Wesleyan University
Founders: Hamilton Brewer, Francis A. Bates, Sidera Chase, David B. Jennings, John H. Rolston, Samuel Henry Ward, Hiram Willey.
Color(s): Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red; or simply White
Temples: Eleven, of which two currently exist.

The Mystical Seven is a society founded in 1837 at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. There are two separate groups. Members are called Mystics.

Early history

The Mystical Seven was founded in 1837, just six years after the founding of Wesleyan University. It was recognized by the university on October 16, 1837.[1] It was Wesleyan's first society, founded a half year before Eclectic (May 1838). Of the seven founding members, senior Hamilton Brewer was recognized as primus inter pares behind the establishment of the society. The members met each week at their meeting space in the furnished attic of Wesleyan's North College. The society began Wesleyan's first student publication, The Classic, in 1840.[2]

The Mystical Seven is always referred to as a society, but it is one of the early college fraternities. Through the 1840s and 1850s it was a peer organization with Wesleyan's Eclectic Society, Psi Upsilon, Alpha Delta Phi and Chi Psi. However, instead of Greek references, it chose Hebraic. I.K.A. at Trinity (1829), and Skull and Bones at Yale (1832), were other nearby non-Greek inspired college fraternities.

From about 1856 to 1865 the Mystical Seven was partners in the Alpha Eating Club with the Eclectic Society.[3]

The society was especially known for the quality of its arcana. "Never have I seen anything so original, so quaint, so completely unique, or irresistible in its solemn humor, as the Mystical Seven initiation and the ceremonies of its meetings."[4] A similar commentator noted that the Mystical Seven, "in some respects [was] among the most ambitious efforts at creating a college secret society with a good ritual."[5]

The Mystical Seven also had a serious academic and philosophical aspect, including public events like bringing Ralph Waldo Emerson to speak at the campus, or later Orestes Brownson, whose address to the society was later published as "Social Reform: An Address Before the Society of the Mystical Seven".[6]

The Mystical Seven was the first college fraternal organization to admit women, and initiated several during the 1840s. Later a law was enacted in the society that allowed the wife of a member to become initiated at that member's discretion.

The Mystical Seven expanded to several other universities. The chapters of the society were recognized as "temples", with the "Temple of the Wand" being the parent chapter at Wesleyan. In 1841, the first temple was founded outside of Wesleyan, when Mystical Seven was established at Emory University.[2] Henry Branham brought the society from Wesleyan to Emory, and there interested in membership the president of the university, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, the humorist author of Georgia Scenes. Branham later became Longstreet's son-in-law. Longstreet, his two daughters, and his two sons-in-law were all eventually made Mystics. When Longstreet moved his family to Oxford, Mississippi to become president of the University of Mississippi, they created the Temple of the Star at Mississippi.[7] Historical accounts conflict as to whether or not the Temple of the Wand recognized the legitimacy of any of the other temples founded throughout southern universities. Most were established by one another, with Emory being the only one that may have had a direct tie back to the Wesleyan temple.[8]

• Temple of the Wand – Wesleyan University – 1837
• Temple of the Sword – Emory University – 1841–1860
• Temple of the Wreath (first) – Transylvania University – 1843–1844
• Temple of the Skull – University of Georgia – 1846–1854
• Temple of the Star – University of Mississippi – 1848–1878
• Temple of the Wreath – Centenary College – 1849–1861
• Temple of the Scroll & Pen – Genesee College – 1855–1871
• Temple of the Hands and Torch – University of Virginia – 1868–1885
• Temple of the Serpent – Cumberland University – 1867–1873
• Temple of the Star and of the South – University of North Carolina – 1884–1885 (founded by Temple of the Hands and Torch)
• Temple of the Sword and Shield – Davidson College – 1884–1885 (founded by Temple of the Hands and Torch)

The Transylvania temple was destroyed in the Mexican War. The Wesleyan, Emory, Centenary, and Georgia temples did not survive the Civil War. The Genesee temple did not survive the closing of the college. The Mississippi temple did not survive campus politics.

The Mississippi temple did create the Virginia temple, but did not pass to it the traditions of the society.

Influences on other organizations

Since the Mystical Seven introduced the idea of the college fraternity into the South, it had considerable influence on the development of organizations in the Antebellum South. All private college societies were, for a time, called 'Mystic Associations' in Georgia.[9] A competitor society called W.W.W. was designed on principles more similar to the Mystical Seven than to Northern college fraternities.[10] It has also been assumed that a society for adult men, not connected to colleges and universities, called the Order of Heptasophs, was at least organized on principles parallel to the Mystical Seven, if not by alumni of the Mystical Seven themselves. The resemblances of the ceremonies of the two societies "cannot be given at length; but they leave little room for doubt that...the Heptasophs or Seven Wise Men...is an indirect descendent of the Mystical Seven college fraternity."[11]

Mystic Seven Fraternity and Phi Theta Alpha

In the early 1880s, the Virginia temple was virtually alone. In 1884, it created chapters at North Carolina and Davidson. In the following year, it reconstituted itself as the Mystic Seven Fraternity, and also used the name Phi Theta Alpha.[12] This new society was led by Cooper D. Schmidt. The fraternity had lost almost all the traditions of the older society. It also had a publication, The Mystic Messenger, which published articles including annual reports and history of the society, and some questioned why the society even had such a distinctive, non-Greek letter name. This three-chapter organization began negotiations with Beta Theta Pi in 1888, and merged with Beta Theta Pi in 1889.[13]

Subsequent history at Wesleyan

The Mystical Seven society became dormant at Wesleyan in 1861;[14] it had not been meeting as a society since 1858. In 1867, a petitioning group for a Delta Kappa Epsilon chapter claimed initiation into the Mystical Seven for the purposes of securing a DKE charter, which was successful.[15]

In 1868, the DKE members formed a new society called Owl & Wand, which was to be a senior society and use the premises of the old Mystical Seven (the attic of North College). As a senior society, it took as members individuals who were already members of four-year college fraternities,[16] and was considered an 'honorary'. In 1890, the Owl & Wand group, without any knowledge of the workings of the Mystical Seven or an intent to restore them, claimed to be the older society.[17] The senior society died off in the 1960s. In 1970-71, some Mystical Seven alumni restarted the society, and at a time when historically single-sex student groups were pressured to become coed, the new Mystical Seven embraced this change, which helped it to survive a decade that was detrimental to many other student societies and fraternities. The society as it was rebuilt in the 1970s has continued successfully to the present day.

During the 1980s, a group of students also decided to re-establish the original society. Much work was employed in reconstructing the practices of the original society including the addition of much written material from several sources. The two Mystical Seven groups clashed during 1990, (and again in 2001), in a dispute over which group was legitimate. Today, the two groups co-exist with little interaction with one another.

The meeting place of the senior society Mystical Seven on Wyllys Avenue, known as the Mystic Templum, was gutted by fire in 1995. The building remained boarded up until it was razed in the summer of 2007. The seven-sided building, with seven-sashed windows and a seven-paneled door, had been dedicated in 1912.

Notable alumni

Wesleyan Alumni:[18][19]

• Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, President of Emory University (1840–1848), President of Centenary College (1848–1849), President of University of Mississippi (1850–1856)[7]
• Miles Tobey Granger, judge and U.S. Congressman (1887–1889)
• William Henry Huntington, Paris correspondent of the New York Tribune (1858–1878)
• Orestes Augustus Brownson, Transcendentalist author
• Robert Carter Pitman, President of Massachusetts Senate (1869)
• Samuel Nelles, first President of Victoria University in the University of Toronto (1884–1887)
• Edward Gayer Andrews, Methodist Bishop (1876–1904)
• Alonzo Jay Edgerton, U.S. Senator from Minnesota (1881–1883)
• Henry White Warren, Massachusetts legislature, Methodist Bishop (1880–1912)
• William Fairfield Warren, first President of Boston University (1873–1903)
• David J. Brewer, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court (1890–1910; nephew of founder Hamilton Brewer)

Other a:

• John Brown Gordon, Major General, Confederate States of America, (1846-1848), University of Georgia, Temple of The Skull and Bones
• L. Q. C. Lamar, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court (1888–1893)[20]

Notes

1. Price, 25.
2. Judson, Robert (2002-04-19). "Secret societies: past & present". Wesleyan Argus.
3. Alumni Record of Wesleyan University, Annals, Frank W. Nicholson, ed., 1883 edition, pg. xcviii
4. Price, 16.
5. Stevens, 356.
6. Social Reform: An Address Before the Society of the Mystical Seven, August 7, 1844. Boston: Waite, Pearce, & Co. 1844. p. 42.
7. Sansing, David G. (1999). The University of Mississippi: A Sesquicentennial History. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. p. 63. ISBN 9781578060917.
8. Wyatt-Greene, Benjamin. "Mystical 7: A History". Wesleyan History Project. Archived from the original on 2009-03-29. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
9. "James R. Thomas". Emory University Housing. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
10. Stevens, 364.
11. Stevens, 179.
12. Constitution of the Mystic Seven Fraternity. Charlottesville, Virginia: Blakey & Prout, Steam Book & Job Printers. 1885., available at University of Illinois fraternity archives; see finding aid at http://www.library.uiuc.edu/archives/uasfa/4102055.pdf
13. Brown, James Taylor (1917). Catalogue of Beta Theta Pi (9 ed.). pp. vi.
14. Stevens, 178.
15. See the 1866 Olla Podrida.
16. See the May 1868 Wesleyan Argus.
17. See the 1889 Olla Podrida.
18. Price, 54 ff.
19. Careers published in Nicolson, F. W., Orange Judd, eds. (1883). Alumni Record of Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. Middletown, Connecticut: Press of Avery Rand.
20. Wade, John Donald (1924). Augustus Baldwin Longstreet: A Study of the Development of Culture in the South. New York: Macmillan. pp. 254–264. ISBN 9781432594909.

References

• Price, Carl Fowler (1937). The Mystical Seven, Wesleyan University, 1837-1937. Middletown, Connecticut: James D. Young.
• Stevens, Albert C. (1907). Cyclopedia of Fraternities: A Compilation of Existing Authentic Information and the Results of Original Investigation as to the Origin, Derivation, Founders, Development, Aims, Emblems, Character, and Personnel of More Than Six Hundred Secret Societies in the United States. E. B. Treat and Company.

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Edward White Benson
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The imbalance of the relationship between the American Protestant hosts and the non-Christian guests was simultaneously concealed and strengthened by the conception of the event as a "parliament." This is a powerful metaphor, carrying as it does the fundamental political relationships of majority government and the minority right to be represented and heard and to contribute to the legislative process, which is ultimately under the control of the majority. The hierarchical relationship of religions, which was the lesson of the sideshow aspect of the event, was reinforced by the lesson of this reference to democratic structures. Christianity, which had an overwhelming majority of delegates, was clearly cast in the role of universal religion, a message also projected by the presence of Christian delegates from such far-flung outreaches as Africa, Japan, and India. Buddhism, alone or as part of the larger Oriental, non-Christian contingent, and in spite of its actual vast Asian following, was here cast as a minority party. The function of its delegates was principally to be present, validating the democratic principle of representation -- this was the World's Parliament after all -- and to illustrate the democratic respect for the right of minority groups to be heard.

The equality implied by calling the event a "parliament" upset orthodox sections of the Christian community and forced Barrows to clarify the intentions behind his expansive rhetoric of brotherhood. The Anglican archbishop of Canterbury [Edward White Benson] led the objection. He wrote refusing to participate on the grounds that he did not understand how the Christian religion, "which is the one religion," could be regarded as a member of a parliament of religions "without assuming the equality of the other intended members and the parity of their position and claims." In response Barrows explained that the term was certainly not intended to imply that the various religions were equal in doctrine or truth. Calling the event a "parliament" in no way compromised the Christian claim to superiority and unique revelation. It was only intended to guarantee the parliamentary privilege of equal right to speak and to present opinions. "There was no suggestion on the part of the Christian speakers that Christianity was to be thought of on the same level with other religions."

-- Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition, by Judith Snodgrass

The Most Reverend and Right Honourable Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury
Installed: 29 March 1883
Term ended: 11 October 1896
Predecessor: Archibald Campbell Tait
Successor: Frederick Temple
Personal details
Birth name: Edward White Benson
Born: 14 July 1829, Birmingham, Warwickshire, England
Died: 11 October 1896 (aged 67), Hawarden, Flintshire, Wales
Buried: Canterbury Cathedral
Nationality: British
Denomination: Anglican
Parents: Edward White Benson Sr.
Spouse: Mary (Minnie) Sidgwick

Edward White Benson (14 July 1829 – 11 October 1896) was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1883 until his death. Prior to this, he was the first Bishop of Truro, serving from 1877 to 1883, and began construction of Truro Cathedral.

He was previously a schoolmaster and was the first Master of Wellington College from 1859 to 1872.

Life

Edward White Benson was born at Lombard Street in Highgate, Birmingham, on 14 July 1829, the eldest of eight children of chemical manufacturer Edward White Benson senior (26 August 1802 – 7 February 1843) and his wife Harriet Baker Benson (13 June 1805 – 29 May 1850).[1] He was baptised in St Martin in the Bull Ring, Birmingham, on 31 March 1830. The family moved to Wychbold when his father became manager of the British Alkali Works at Stoke Prior, Worcestershire.

From 1840, he was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham and then Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated BA (8th in the Classical tripos) in 1852.[2] At King Edward's, under James Prince Lee, Benson "manifested a deeply religious tone of mind and was fond of sermons".[3]:7–8

Cambridge Ghost Society

The Cambridge Association for Spiritual Inquiry, known informally as the Cambridge Ghost Society or the Ghostlie Guild, was founded by Benson and Brooke Foss Westcott in 1851 at Trinity College.[4][5] Westcott worked as its secretary until 1860.[6] The society collected and investigated reports of ghosts. Other notable members included Alfred Barry and Henry Sidgwick.[4] It has been described as a predecessor of the Society for Psychical Research.[4][7] According to the Notebooks of Henry James, his source for the novella The Turn of the Screw was the Archbishop of Canterbury (i.e. Benson) at Addington Palace on 10 January 1895.[8]

Schoolmaster at Rugby and Wellington

Benson began his career as a schoolmaster at Rugby School in 1852, and was ordained deacon in 1852 and priest in 1857. In 1859 Benson was chosen by Prince Albert as the first Master of Wellington College, Berkshire, which had recently been built as the nation's memorial to the Duke of Wellington. Benson was largely responsible for establishing Wellington as a leading public school, closely modelled upon Rugby School.[1]

Lincoln and Truro


A stained glass window depicting the foundation of Truro Cathedral

From 1872 to 1877, he was Chancellor of Lincoln Cathedral. In 1874, he set up Lincoln Theological College.

He was appointed the first Bishop of Truro, where he served from 1877 to 1882. He was consecrated bishop by Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury, on St Mark's day, 25 April 1877 at St Paul's Cathedral.[9] The Diocese of Truro was established in December 1876. Construction of Truro Cathedral began in 1880 to a design by the Gothic Revival architect John Loughborough Pearson. From 24 October 1880 until 1887 a temporary wooden building on an adjacent site served as the cathedral. As archbishop, Benson consecrated the cathedral on 3 November 1887.

He founded Truro High School for Girls in 1880.[10]

Archbishop of Canterbury, 1883–1896


Archbishop Benson

In 1883 he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury.

Five years later Benson avoided the prosecution before a lay tribunal of Edward King, Bishop of Lincoln, under the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 for six ritual offences by hearing the case in his own archiepiscopal court (inactive since 1699).[11]:354 In his judgement (often called "the Lincoln Judgement"), he found against the bishop on two points, with a proviso as to a third that when performing the manual acts during the prayer of consecration in the Holy Communion service, the priest must stand in a way that is visible to the people.[12]

Benson tried to amalgamate the two Convocations and the new houses of laity into a single assembly. In 1896 it was established that they could 'unofficially' meet together.[11]:365

In September of the same year, the papal bull Apostolicae curae, which denied the validity of Anglican orders, was published and Benson had started on a reply before his sudden death of heart failure. He was taken ill while attending Sunday service in St Deiniol's Church, Hawarden, Wales, on 11 October 1896, during a visit to the former Prime Minister, William Ewart Gladstone. Three days later his body was put on the train at Sandycroft station to be returned to London.[13]

He was buried at Canterbury Cathedral, in a magnificent tomb located at the western end of the nave. The tomb is emblazoned with the epitaph Benson had chosen: Miserere mei Deus Per crucem et passionem tuam libera me Christe ("Have mercy on me O Christ our God, Through Thy Cross and Passion, deliver thou me").[14][15]

His work concerning Saint Cyprian, Cyprian: his life, his times, his work,[16] was published posthumously, in the year after his death.[12]

Legacy

[x]
Order of Service for the first Nine Lessons and Carols in 1880 on display in Truro Cathedral

Benson is best remembered for devising the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols, an order first used in Truro Cathedral on Christmas Eve, 1880. Considerably revised by Eric Milner-White for King's College, Cambridge, this service is now broadcast every Christmas around the world.[17]

Benson was the founder of the Church of England Purity Society,[18] an organisation which later merged with the White Cross Army. Alfred Ryder served as a trustee of the organisation.[19]

The White Cross Army was an organisation set up in 1883 by philanthropist [Jane] Ellice Hopkins with help from the Bishop of Durham, to promote "social purity". The recruits –- all of them men -– pledged to show a "chivalrous respect for womanhood", to apply ideas of purity equally to men and women, and not to indulge in foul language or indecent behaviour. It was renamed the White Cross League in 1891, and merged with the Church of England Purity Society, which had been formed by Edward White Benson.

-- White Cross Army, by Wikipedia

Benson told Henry James a simple, rather inexpert story he had heard about the ghosts of evil servants who tried to lure young children to their deaths. James recorded the idea in his Notebooks and eventually used it as the starting-point for his classic ghost story, The Turn of the Screw.[20]

[x]
Pulpit in Lincoln Cathedral commemorating Archbishop Benson

[x]
Memorial to Benson in Hawarden Church

The hymn "God Is Working His Purpose Out" was written by Arthur C. Ainger as a tribute to Benson as both were Masters at Eton and Rugby respectively.[clarification needed][21]

In 1914, a boarding house at Wellington College was named in his honour. Benson House carries the emblem of a blue Tudor Rose, and is situated in its own corner of the college grounds.[22]

In 2011, a book about Mary Benson characterised her husband as living "a life of relentless success".[23]

Personal life

Benson married his second cousin Mary (Minnie) Sidgwick, the sister of philosopher Henry, when she was 18, having proposed to her when she was 12 and he was 24. The couple had six children. Benson also supervised the education of his younger sister Ada Benson who was left an orphan in 1852.[24]

Their fifth child was the novelist Edward Frederic Benson, best remembered for his Mapp and Lucia novels. Another son was Arthur Christopher Benson, the author of the lyrics to Elgar's "Land of Hope and Glory" and master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. Their sixth and youngest child, Robert Hugh Benson, became a priest in the Church of England before converting to Roman Catholicism and writing many popular novels. Their daughter, Margaret Benson, was an artist, author and Egyptologist. None of the children married; and some appeared to suffer from mental illnesses, possibly bipolar disorder.[25]

After the archbishop's death, his widow set up household with Lucy Tait, daughter of the previous Archbishop of Canterbury, Archibald Campbell Tait.[26] A biography of Mary Benson, using her numerous letters, was published in 2011.[23]

Ancestry

The Benson family was of Scandinavian origin with the name of Bjornsen. The Bensons "emerge into history" as an English family in 1348 when John Benson held a "toft" from the Abbey at Swinton-by-Masham in Yorkshire.[3]:1–2

Arthur Christopher Benson, the Archbishop's son, wrote a genealogy of his family.[27] He found that "Old" Christopher Benson (born 1703) was the "real founder of the fortunes" of the Benson family having acquired a "good deal" of land. He also "established a large business."[27]:7–8[28]

Archbishop Edward White Benson's grandfather was Captain White Benson, of the 6th Regiment of Foot. The Archbishop's seal and the Captain's coat of arms show their branch of the Benson family arms were blazoned: Argent, a quatrefoil between two trefoils slipped in bend sable, between four bendlets gules.[29]

The Archbishop's father was Edward White Benson (born in York in 1802, died at Birmingham Heath in 1843). He was a Fellow of the Royal Botanical Society of Edinburgh and the author of books on education and religion.[29] He was also an inventor whose inventions made "considerable fortunes" for others, but not for him.[30]

Works

• Boy-life, Its Trial, Its Strength, Its Fulness: Sundays in Wellington College, 1859–1873. London: Macmillan & Co. 1883.
• The Seven Gifts. London: Macmillan & Co. 1885.
• Christ and His Times: Addressed to the Diocese of Canterbury in His Second Visitation. London: Macmillan & Co. 1889.
• Living Theology. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company. 1893.
• Cyprian: His Life, His Times, His Work. London: Macmillan & Co. 1897.
• Bernard, J. H., ed. (1896). Archbishop Benson in Ireland: A Record of His Irish Sermons and Addresses 1896. London: Macmillan & Co.
• The Apocalypse,: An introductory Study of the Revelation of St. John the Divine. London: Macmillan & Co. 1900.

References

1. Chapman, Mark D. "Benson, Edward White (1829–1896)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/2139. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
2. "Benson, Edward White (BN848EW)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
3. Carr, James Anderson (1898). Life-work of Edward White Benson, D.D.: Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Elliot Stock.
4. Oppenheim, Janet (1985). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68, 123. ISBN 978-0-521-26505-8.
5. Byrne, Georgina (2010). Modern Spiritualism and the Church of England, 1850-1939. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 50–51. ISBN 978-1-84383-589-9.
6. Broad, C.D. (2014). Religion, Philosophy and Psychical Research: Selected Essays. Routledge. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-317-83006-1.
7. McCorristine, Shane (2010). Spectres of the Self: Thinking about Ghosts and Ghost-Seeing in England, 1750–1920. Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-521-76798-9.
8. The Notebooks of Henry James, edited by F.O. Matthiessen and Kenneth B. Murdock, published George Braziller Inc, New York, 1955
9. "Consecration of the Bishop of Truro". Church Times (#744). 27 April 1877. p. 245. ISSN 0009-658X. Retrieved 26 December 2016 – via UK Press Online archives.
10. Clarke, Amy Key (1979). The Story of Truro High School, the Benson Foundation. Truro: Oscar Blackford.
11. Chadwick, Owen (1980). The Victorian Church (Part 2). Adam & Charles Black.
12. Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A., eds. (2005). "Benson, Edward White". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 190. ISBN 9780192802903.
13. "Death of the Archbishop of Canterbury at Hawarden Rectory" (PDF). Brief History. Flintshire County Council. p. 19.
14. Waymarking.com
15. Donaldson, Augustus Blair (1902). The Bishopric of Truro: the First Twenty-five Years, 1877–1902. London: Rivingtons. p. 191.
16. Benson 1897.
17. "The History of A Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols". whychristmas.com.
18. "The Church of England Purity Society". The Official Year-book of the Church of England. London: SPCK. 1884. p. 126.
19. Prettejohn, Elizabeth (1999). After the Pre-Raphaelites: Art and Aestheticism in Victorian England. Manchester University Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780719054068.
20. Hadey, Tessa (2002). Henry James and the Imagination of Pleasure. Cambridge University Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780521811699.
21. "God Is Working His Purpose Out". hymnary.org.
22. "The Benson". Wellington College. Archived from the original on 20 January 2016.
23. Bolt, Rodney (2011). As Good as God, as Clever as the Devil: The Impossible Life of Mary Benson. London: Atlantic Books. ISBN 9781843548614.
24. Pryor, Ruth. "Benson, Ada (1840–1882)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/48641. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
25. Ridley, Jane (9 July 2011). "The gay Lambeth way" (review of Rodney Bolt, As Good as God, as Clever as the Devil: The Impossible Life of Mary Benson)". The Spectator.
26. Vicinus, Martha (2004). Intimate Friends: women who loved women (1778–1928). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-85563-5.
27. Benson, Arthur Christopher (1894). Genealogy of the Family of Benson of Banger House and Northwoods, in the Parish of Ripon and Chapelry of Pateley Bridge. Eton: George New.
28. Note that the above family tree gives “Old” Christopher Benson’s birth date as 1708.
29. Howard, Joseph Jackson; Crisp, Frederick Arthur (1897). Visitation of England and Wales. Priv. print. pp. 122–.
30. Benson 1900a, pp. 4–5.

Sources

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Benson, Edward White" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Mason, Arthur James (1901). "Benson, Edward White" . Dictionary of National Biography (1st supplement). London: Smith, Elder & Co.
• Prettejohn, Elizabeth (1999). After the Pre-Raphaelites. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-5406-0.

Further reading

• Carr, James Anderson (1898). Life-work of Edward White Benson, D.D.: Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Elliot Stock.
• Bolt, Rodney (2011). As Good as God, as Clever as the Devil: The Impossible Life of Mary Benson. Reprinted in paperback as The Impossible Life Of Mary Benson: The Extraordinary Story of a Victorian Wife. 2012.
• Gwen Watkins, E. F. Benson & His Family and Friends (2003)
• G. Palmer, N. Lloyd, Father of the Bensons (1998)
• David Williams, Genesis and Exodus: A Portrait of the Benson Family (1979)
• Benson, A. C. (1900a). The Life of Edward White Benson, Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Vol I. London: Macmillan.
• Benson, A. C. (1900b). The Life of Edward White Benson, Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury. Vol II. London: Macmillan.
• "Benson, Edward White". New American Supplement to the New Werner Edition of The Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol I. Werner Co. 1903. p. 422.
• Benson, Arthur Christopher (1894). Genealogy of the Family of Benson of Banger House and Northwoods, in the Parish of Ripon and Chapelry of Pateley Bridge. Eton: George New.
• Goldhill, Simon (2016). A Very Queer Family Indeed: Sex, Religion, and the Bensons in Victorian Britain. University of Chicago Press.

External links

• Bibliographic directory from Project Canterbury
• Archbishop Benson's papers are held at Lambeth Palace Library
• BirminghamNet: Edward White Benson

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Henry Sidgwick
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

Sedgewick [Sidgwick]
NEW YORK CITY
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-- Henry Sidgwick, by Barton Schultz, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Henry Sidgwick
Born: 31 May 1838, Skipton, Yorkshire, England
Died: 28 August 1900 (aged 62), Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England
Alma mater: Trinity College, Cambridge
Era: 19th-century philosophy
Region: Western philosophy
School: Utilitarianism
Institutions: Trinity College, Cambridge
Main interests: Ethics, political philosophy
Notable ideas: Average and total utilitarianism, Ethical hedonism, ethical intuitionism, paradox of hedonism
Influences: Jeremy Bentham, David Hume, John Stuart Mill
Influenced: R. M. Hare, Mordecai Kaplan, Alfred Marshall, G. E. Moore, Derek Parfit, Arthur Cecil Pigou, Hastings Rashdall, John Rawls, Bertrand Russell, Peter Singer, J. J. C. Smart

Henry Sidgwick (/ˈsɪdʒwɪk/; 31 May 1838 – 28 August 1900) was an English utilitarian philosopher and economist.[1] He was the Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1883 until his death, and is best known in philosophy for his utilitarian treatise The Methods of Ethics.[2] He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research and a member of the Metaphysical Society and promoted the higher education of women. His work in economics has also had a lasting influence.

Sidgwick joined the Cambridge “Ghost Society” as an undergraduate, and he had already devoted many years to informal psychical research before the formation of the Society for Psychical Research, in 1882.

-- Henry Sidgwick, by Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

In 1875 he co-founded Newnham College, a women-only constituent college of the University of Cambridge. It was the second Cambridge college to admit women, after Girton College. Newnham College's co-founder was Millicent Garrett Fawcett.

In 1856 Sidgwick joined the Cambridge Apostles intellectual secret society.

Biography

Henry Sidgwick was born at Skipton in Yorkshire, where his father, the Reverend W. Sidgwick (died 1841), was headmaster of the local grammar school, Ermysted's Grammar School. Henry's mother was Mary Sidgwick, née Crofts (1807–79).

Henry Sidgwick was educated at Rugby (where his cousin, subsequently his brother-in-law, Edward White Benson, later Archbishop of Canterbury, was a master), and at Trinity College, Cambridge. While at Trinity, Sidgwick became a member of the Cambridge Apostles. In 1859, he was senior classic, 33rd wrangler, chancellor's medallist and Craven scholar. In the same year, he was elected to a fellowship at Trinity and soon afterwards he became a lecturer in classics there, a post he held for ten years.[3] The Sidgwick Site, home to several of the university's arts and humanities faculties, is named after him.

In 1869, he exchanged his lectureship in classics for one in moral philosophy, a subject to which he had been turning his attention. In the same year, deciding that he could no longer in good conscience declare himself a member of the Church of England, he resigned his fellowship. He retained his lectureship and in 1881 he was elected an honorary fellow. In 1874 he published The Methods of Ethics (6th ed. 1901, containing emendations written just before his death), by common consent a major work, which made his reputation outside the university. John Rawls called it the "first truly academic work in moral theory, modern in both method and spirit".[4]

In 1875, he was appointed praelector on moral and political philosophy at Trinity, and in 1883 he was elected Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy. In 1885, the religious test having been removed, his college once more elected him to a fellowship on the foundation.

Besides his lecturing and literary labours, Sidgwick took an active part in the business of the university and in many forms of social and philanthropic work. He was a member of the General Board of Studies from its foundation in 1882 to 1899; he was also a member of the Council of the Senate of the Indian Civil Service Board and the Local Examinations and Lectures Syndicate and chairman of the Special Board for Moral Science.[5]

He married Eleanor Mildred Balfour, who was a member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, with 11 other members, and was sister to Arthur Balfour.

A 2004 biography of Sidgwick by Bart Schultz sought to establish that Sidgwick was a lifelong homosexual, but it is unknown whether he ever consummated his inclinations. According to the biographer, Sidgwick struggled internally throughout his life with issues of hypocrisy and openness in connection with his own forbidden desires.[2][6]

He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research, and was a member of the Metaphysical Society.[5]

He also took in promoting the higher education of women. He helped to start the higher local examinations for women, and the lectures held at Cambridge in preparation for these. It was at his suggestion and with his help that Anne Clough opened a house of residence for students, which developed into Newnham College, Cambridge. When, in 1880, the North Hall was added, Sidgwick lived there for two years. His wife became principal of the college after Clough's death in 1892, and they lived there for the rest of his life. During this whole period, Sidgwick took the deepest interest in the welfare of the college. In politics, he was a liberal, and became a Liberal Unionist (a party that later effectively merged with the Conservative party) in 1886.

Early in 1900 he was forced by ill-health to resign his professorship, and died a few months later.[5] Sidgwick, who died an agnostic,[7] is buried in Terling All Saints Churchyard, Terling, Essex, with his wife.

Ethics

See also: The Methods of Ethics

Sidgwick summarizes his position in ethics as utilitarianism “on an Intuitional basis”.[8] This reflects, and disputes, the rivalry then felt among British philosophers between the philosophies of utilitarianism and ethical intuitionism, which is illustrated, for example, by John Stuart Mill’s criticism of ethical intuitionism in the first chapter of his book Utilitarianism.

Sidgwick developed this position due to his dissatisfaction with an inconsistency in Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism, between what he labels “psychological hedonism” and “ethical hedonism”. Psychological hedonism states that everyone always will do what is in their self interest, whereas ethical hedonism states that everyone ought to do what is in the general interest. Sidgwick believed neither Bentham nor Mill had an adequate answer as to how the prescription that someone ought to sacrifice their own interest to the general interest could have any force, given they combined that prescription with the claim that everyone will in fact always pursue their own individual interest. Ethical intuitions, such as those argued for by philosophers such as William Whewell, could, according to Sidgwick, provide the missing force for such normative claims.

As Sidgwick sees it, one of the central issues of ethics is whether self-interest and duty always coincide. To a great extent they do, Sidgwick argues, but it cannot be proved that they never conflict, except by appeal to a divine system of punishments and rewards that Sidgwick believes is out of place in a work of philosophical ethics. The upshot is that there is a "dualism of practical reason."

Sidgwick does not use the terms act utilitarian or rule utilitarian, these being terms that would come into currency only after his death; nevertheless, J.J.C. Smart labels him an act utilitarian.[9]

Meta-ethics

Sidgwick's meta-ethics involve an explicit defense of an non-naturalist form of moral realism. He is committed to moral cognitivism: that moral language is robustly truth-apt, and that moral properties are not reducible to any natural properties. This non-naturalist realism is combined with an ethical intuitionist epistemology to account for the possibility of knowing moral truths.[10]

Esoteric morality

Sidgwick is closely, and controversially, associated with esoteric morality: the position that a moral system (such as utiltiarianism) may be acceptable, but that it is not acceptable for that moral system to be widely taught or accepted.[11]

Bernard Williams would refer to Sidgwickian esoteric utilitarianism as "Government House Utilitarianism" and claim that it reflects the elite British colonialist setting of Sidgwick's thought.[12]

Philosophical legacy

According to John Rawls, Sidgwick's importance to modern ethics rests with two contributions: providing the most sophisticated defense available of utilitarianism in its classical form, and providing in his comparative methodology an exemplar for how ethics is to be researched as an academic subject.[13] Allen Wood describes Sidgwick-inspired comparative methodology as the "standard model" of research methodology among contemporary ethicists.[14]

Despite his importance to contemporary ethicists, Sidgwick’s reputation as a philosopher fell precipitously in the decades following his death, and he would be regarded as a minor figure in philosophy for a large part of the first half of the 20th century. Bart Schultz argues that this negative assessment is explained by the tastes of groups which would be influential at Cambridge in the years following Sidgwick's death: Wittgensteinian ordinary language philosophers, the remnants of British idealism, and, most importantly, the Bloomsbury Group.[15] John Deigh, however, disputes Schultz's explanation, and instead attributes this fall in interest in Sidgwick to changing philosophical understandings of axioms in mathematics, which would throw into question whether axiomatization provided an appropriate model for a foundationalist epistemology of the sort Sidgwick tried to build for ethics.[16]

Economics

Sidgwick worked in economics at a time when the British economics mainstream was undergoing the transition from the classical economics of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill to the neo-classical economics of William Stanley Jevons and Alfred Marshall. Sidgwick responded to these changes by preferring to emphasize the similarities between the old economics and the new, choosing to base his work on J.S. Mill’s Principles of Political Economy, incorporating the insights of Jevons.[17]

Sidgwick would have a major influence on the development of welfare economics, due to his own work on the subject inspiring Arthur Cecil Pigou's work The Economics of Welfare.[18]

Alfred Marshall, founder of the Cambridge School of economics, would describe Sidgwick as his "spiritual mother and father."[19]

Parapsychology

Sidgwick had a lifelong interest in the paranormal. This interest, combined with his personal struggles with religious belief, motivated his gathering of young colleagues interested in assessing the empirical evidence for paranormal or miraculous phenomena. This gathering would be known as the "Sidgwick Group", and would be a predecessor of the Society for Psychical Research, which would count Sidgwick as founder and first president.[20]

Sidgwick would connect his concerns with parapsychology to his research in ethics. He believed the dualism of practical reason might be solved outside of philosophical ethics if it were shown, empirically, that the recommendations of rational egoism and utilitarianism coincided due to the reward of moral behaviour after death.

According to Bart Schultz, despite Sidgwick’s prominent role in institutionalizing parapsychology as a discipline, he had upon it an “overwhelmingly negative, destructive effect, akin to that of recent debunkers of parapsychology”; he and his Sidgwick Group associates became notable for exposing fraud mediums.[21] One such incident was the exposure of the fraud of Eusapia Palladino.[22][23]

Religion

Brought up in the Church of England, Sidgwick drifted away from orthodox Christianity, and as early as 1862 he described himself as a theist, independent from established religion.[18] For the rest of his life, although he regarded Christianity as "indispensable and irreplaceable – looking at it from a sociological point of view," he found himself unable to return to it as a religion.

Works by Sidgwick

• The Ethics of Conformity and Subscription. 1870.
• The Methods of Ethics. London, 1874, 7th edition 1907.
• The Theory of Evolution in its application to Practice, in Mind, Volume I, Number 1 January 1876, 52–67,
• Principles of Political Economy. London, 1883, 3rd edition 1901.
• The Scope and Method of Economic Science. 1885.
• Outlines of the History of Ethics for English Readers. 1886 5th edition 1902 (enlarged from his article Ethics in the Encyclopædia Britannica).
• The Elements of Politics. London, 1891, 4th edition 1919.
• "The Philosophy of Common Sense", in Mind, New Series, Volume IV, Number 14, April 1895, 145–158.
• Economic science and economics, Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, 1896, v. 1, (reprinted in The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, 1987, v. 2, 58–59.)
• Practical Ethics. London, 1898, 2nd edition 1909.
• Philosophy; its Scope and Relations. London, 1902.
• Lectures on the Ethics of T. H. Green, Mr Herbert Spencer and J. Martineau. 1902.
• The Development of European Polity. 1903, 3rd edition 1920
• Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses. 1904.
• Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant and other philosophical lectures and essays. 1905.
• Sidgwick's writings available online

See also

People

• Alfred Marshall
• Derek Parfit
• Peter Singer

Topics

• Analytic philosophy
• Palm Sunday Case

Citations

• Anonymous (9 November 1895). "Exit Eusapia!". The British Medical Journal. British Medical Association. 2 (1819): 1182.
• Brooke, Christopher Nugent Lawrence; Leader, Damian Riehl (1988). "1: Prologue". A History of the University of Cambridge: 1870–1990. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780521343503. In 1869 Henry Sidgwick, who had become a devout agnostic, made protest against the survival of religious tests in Cambridge by resigning his Trinity fellowship.
• Bryce, James (1903). "Henry Sidgwick". Studies in Contemporary Biography. New York: Macmillan.
• Collini, Stefan (1992). "The ordinary experience of civilized life: Sidgwick's politics and the method of reflective analysis". In Schultz, Bart (ed.). Essays on Henry Sidgwick. Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–368. ISBN 0-521-39151-2.
• Deane, Phyllis (1987). "Sidgwick, Henry". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics. 4. pp. 328–329.
• de Lazari-Radek, Katarzyna; Singer, Peter (4 January 2010). "Secrecy in consequentialism: A defence of esoteric morality". Ratio. Wiley. 23 (1): 34–58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9329.2009.00449.x.
• Deigh, John (12 November 2007). "Sidgwick's Epistemology". Utilitas. Cambridge University Press. 19 (4): 435–446. doi:10.1017/S0953820807002737.
• Medema, Steven G. (1 December 2008). ""Losing My Religion": Sidgwick, Theism, and the Struggle for Utilitarian Ethics in Economic Analysis". History of Political Economy. 40 (5): 189–211. doi:10.1215/00182702-2007-066.
• Nussbaum, Martha (6 June 2005). "The Epistemology of the Closet". The Nation.
• Philips, David (2011). Sidgwickian Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Rawls, John (September 1980). "Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory". The Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy, Inc. 77 (9): 515–572.
• Rawls, John (1981). "Foreward to The Methods of Ethics". The Methods of Ethics (7th ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. p. v-vi. ISBN 978-0915145287.
• Schultz, Bart (2009) [2004]. Henry Sidgwick - Eye of the Universe: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498336. ISBN 9780511498336.
• Schultz, Barton (2019). "Henry Sidgwick". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
• Sidgwick, Henry (16 November 1895). "Exit Eusapia". The British Medical Journal. British Medical Association. 2 (1820): 1263. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.1820.1263-e.
• Sidgwick, Henry (1981) [1907]. The Methods of Ethics (7th ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0915145287.
• Smart, J.J.C.; Williams, Bernard (1973). Smart, J.J.C. (ed.). Utilitarianism: For and Against. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09822-9.
• Williams, Bernard (2009) [1982]. "The Point of View of the Universe: Sidgwick and the Ambitions of Ethics". The Sense of the Past: Essays in the History of Philosophy. Princeton University Press. pp. 277–296. doi:10.1515/9781400827107.277. ISBN 978-0-691-13408-6.
• Wood, Allen (2008). Kantian Ethics. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521671149.
1. Bryce 1903, p. 327-342.
2. Schultz 2009.
3. "Sidgwick, Henry (SGWK855H)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
4. Rawls 1980.
5. "Sidgwick, Henry". 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Volume 25. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
6. Nussbaum 2005.
7. Brooke & Leader 1988.
8. Sidgwick 1981, p. xxii.
9. Smart & Williams 1973, p. 4.
10. Philips 2011, p. 10-13.
11. de Lazari-Radek & Singer 2010.
12. Williams 2009, p. 291.
13. Rawls 1981.
14. Wood 2008, p. 45.
15. Schultz 2009, p. 4.
16. Deigh 2007, p. 439.
17. Collini 1992, p. 340-341.
18. Medema 2008.
19. Deane 1987.
20. Schultz 2009, p. 275-276.
21. Schultz 2019.
22. Anonymous 1895.
23. Sidgwick 1895.
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sidgwick, Henry". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

• Blum, Deborah (2006). Ghost hunters : William James and the search for scientific proof of life after death. New York: Penguin Press.
• de Lazari-Radek, Katarzyna; Singer, Peter (2014). The Point of View of the Universe: Sidgwick and Contemporary Ethics. Oxford University Press.
• Geninet, Hortense (2009). Geninet, Hortense (ed.). Politiques comparées, Henry Sidgwick et la politique moderne dans les «Éléments Politiques» (in French). France. ISBN 978-2-7466-1043-9.
• Nakano-Okuno, Mariko (2011). Sidgwick and Contemporary Utilitarianism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-32178-6.
• Schneewind, Jerome (1977). Sidgwick's Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy. Clarendon Press.
• Shaver, Robert (2009) [1990]. Rational Egoism: A Selective and Critical History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521119962. - Study of rational egoism that focuses on Sidgwick's thought on the subject, alongside that of Thomas Hobbes.

External links

• Works by Henry Sidgwick at Project Gutenberg
• Henry Sidgwick Website
• Official website of the 2nd International congress : Henry Sidgwick Ethics, Psychics, Politics. University of Catania – Italy
• Henry Sidgwick. Comprehensive list of online writings by and about Sidgwick.
• Contains Sidgwick's "Methods of Ethics", modified for easier reading
• Henry Sidgwick, Leslie Stephen, MInd, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 37 (January 1901), pp. 1-17 [At Internet Archive]
• The Ethical System of Henry Sidgwick, James Seth, MInd, New Series, Vol. 10, No. 38 (April 1901), pp.172-187 [At Internet Archive]

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Metaphysical Society
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The Metaphysical Society was a British society, founded in 1869 by James Knowles. Many of its members were prominent clergymen.

Sir James Thomas Knowles KCVO (13 October 1831 – 13 February 1908) was an English architect and editor. He was intimate with the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson and the founder of the Metaphysical Society to seek rapprochement between religion and science.

-- James Thomas Knowles, by Wikipedia

Papers were read and discussed at meetings on such subjects as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective and moral sciences, the immortality of the soul, etc. A description of one of the meetings was given by William Connor Magee (then Bishop of Peterborough) in a letter on 13 February 1873:

Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant bishops right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the Spectator, an Arian; then came Father Dalgairns, a very able Roman Catholic priest; opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two Scotch metaphysical writers, Freethinkers; then Knowles, the very broad editor of the Contemporary; then, dressed as a layman and looking like a country squire, was Ward, formerly Rev. Ward, and earliest of the perverts to Rome; then Greg, author of The Creed of Christendom, a Deist; then Froude, the historian, once a deacon in our Church, now a Deist; then Roden Noël, an actual Atheist and red republican, and looking very like one! Lastly Ruskin, who read a paper on miracles, which we discussed for an hour and a half! Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or even, on the whole, more reverent than the discussion. In my opinion, we, the Christians, had much the best of it. Dalgairns, the priest, was very masterly; Manning, clever and precise and weighty; Froude, very acute, and so was Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Muslim to make our Religious Museum complete (Life, i. 284).

The last meeting of the society was held on 16 May 1880 and it was dissolved later in November of that year.[1] Huxley said that it died "of too much love"; Tennyson, "because after ten years of strenuous effort no one had succeeded in even defining metaphysics." According to Dean Stanley, "We all meant the same thing if we only knew it."

Members

The members from first to last were as follows:[2]

• Dean Stanley, of Westminster Abbey
• John Robert Seeley, English essayist and historian.
• Roden Noël, poet
• James Martineau, English philosopher
• William Benjamin Carpenter, physiologist and naturalist
• James Hinton, surgeon and author
• Thomas Henry Huxley, Darwinist biologist
• John Tyndall, physicist
• Charles Pritchard, astronomer
• Richard Holt Hutton, writer and theologian.
• William George Ward, Catholic theologian
• Walter Bagehot, economist and editor
• James Anthony Froude, historian
• Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Poet Laureate
• Alfred Barry
• Lord Arthur Russell, British politician
• William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal Prime Minister
• Henry Edward Manning, Archbishop and Cardinal
• James Knowles, architect and editor
• John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury
• Henry Alford, churchman, scholar, and poet
• Alexander Grant
• Connop Thirlwall
• Frederic Harrison
• Father Dalgairns
• Sir George Grove
• Shadworth Hodgson
• Henry Sidgwick
• Edmund Lushington
• Bishop Charles Ellicott
• Mark Pattison
• George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll
• John Ruskin
• Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke
• Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant-Duff
• William Rathbone Greg
• Alexander Campbell Fraser
• Henry Acland
• John Frederick Denison Maurice
• Archbishop Thomson
• Thomas Mozely
• Richard William Church
• William Connor Magee
• George Croom Robertson
• James Fitzjames Stephen
• James Joseph Sylvester
• John Charles Bucknill
• Andrew Clark
• William Kingdon Clifford
• St. George Jackson Mivart
• Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, classicist and amateur scientist
• William Waldegrave Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne
• John Morley
• Leslie Stephen
• Frederick Pollock
• Francis Aidan Gasquet
• C Barnes Upton
• William Withey Gull
• Robert Clarke
• Arthur Balfour
• James Sully
• Alfred Barratt

Continuing their discussion of the membership of "The Society of the Elect," Stead asked permission to bring in Milner and Brett. Rhodes agreed, so they telegraphed at once to Brett, who arrived in two hours. They then drew up the following "ideal arrangement' for the society:

1. General of the Society: Rhodes
2. Junta of Three: (1) Stead, (2) Brett, (3) Milner
3. Circle of Initiates: (1) Cardinal Manning, (2) General Booth, (3) Bramwell Booth, (4)"Little" [Harry] Johnston, (5) Albert Grey, (6) Arthur Balfour
4. The Association of Helpers
5. A College, under Professor Seeley, to be established to train people in the English-speaking idea."

Within the next few weeks Stead had another talk with Rhodes and a talk with Milner, who was "filled with admiration" for the scheme, according to Stead's notes as published by Sir Frederick Whyte.

-- The Anglo-American Establishment: From Rhodes to Cliveden, by Carroll Quigley

References

Citations

1. Christopher A. Kent, "Metaphysical Society (act. 1869–1880)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/theme/45584), 2004. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
2. "The Metaphysical Society. A Reminiscence" by R. H. Hutton, published in 1885 in The Nineteenth Century magazine.

Bibliography

• Brown, Alan Willard The Metaphysical Society: Victorian Minds in Crisis, 1869-1880. New York: Columbia U.P., 1947.
• The papers of the Metaphysical Society, 1869-1880 : a critical edition, Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2015, 3 volumes.
• Catherine Marshall; Bernard V Lightman; Richard England, The Metaphysical Society (1869-1880) : intellectual life in mid-Victorian England, Oxford ; New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2019.

Further reading

• Hajdenko-Marshall, Catherine. Believing After Darwin: The Debates of the Metaphysical Society (1869–1880), Cahiers victoriens et édouardien online, Vol. 76, Autumn, 2012, published online 20 April 2013, p. 69–83.
• Hutton, R. H. "The Metaphysical Society: a reminiscence", The Nineteenth Century magazine, 18 August 1885, pp. 177–196.
• Metcalf, P. "James Knowles: Victorian editor and architect", 1980.

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James Thomas Knowles (1831–1908)
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

For the subject's father, see James Thomas Knowles (1806–1884).

Sir James Thomas Knowles KCVO (13 October 1831 – 13 February 1908) was an English architect and editor.[1] He was intimate with the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson and the founder of the Metaphysical Society to seek rapprochement between religion and science.

Life

James Knowles was born in London, the son of the architect James Thomas Knowles (1806–1884), and himself trained in architecture at University College and in Italy. Among the buildings he designed were three churches in Clapham, South London, Mark Masons' Hall, London (later the Thatched House Club), Lord Tennyson's house at Aldworth, the Leicester Square garden (as restored at the expense of Albert Grant), Albert Mansions, Victoria Street in Westminster,[2] and an 1882 enlargement of the Royal Sea Bathing Hospital at Margate in Kent.[3]

However, his preferences led him simultaneously into a literary career. In 1860 he published The Story of King Arthur. In 1866 he was introduced to Alfred Lord Tennyson and later agreed to design his new house on condition there was no fee. This led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting Tennyson in business matters, and among other things helping to design scenery for the play The Cup, when Henry Irving produced it in 1880.

Knowles corresponded with a number of the most interesting men of the day, and in 1869, with Tennyson's cooperation, he founded the Metaphysical Society, the object of which was to attempt some intellectual rapprochement between religion and science by getting the leading representatives of faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views. Members included Tennyson, Gladstone, W. K. Clifford, W. G. Ward, John Morley, Cardinal Manning, Archbishop Thomson, T. H. Huxley, Arthur Balfour, Leslie Stephen, and Sir William Gull.[2] The society formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of contributors who supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor.

In 1870 he succeeded Dean Alford as editor of the Contemporary Review, but left it in 1877 owing to the objection of the proprietors to the insertion of articles (by W. K. Clifford notably) attacking Theism and founded the Nineteenth Century (to the title of which, in 1901, were added the words And After). Both periodicals became very influential under him, and formed the type of the new sort of monthly review which came to occupy the place formerly held by the quarterlies. For example, it was prominent in checking the Channel Tunnel project, by publishing a protest signed by many distinguished men in 1882. In 1904 he received a knighthood. He was a considerable collector of works of art.

Knowles was married twice, first in 1860 to Jane Borradaile, then in 1865 to Isabel Hewlett. He died in Brighton and was buried at the Brighton Extra Mural Cemetery.[2]

Notes

1. Lee, Sidney (1912). "Knowles, James Thomas" . Dictionary of National Biography (2nd supplement). London: Smith, Elder & Co.
2. James Dodsley (1909), The Annual Register, digitized by Google
3. Harry Wells, "Mark Masons' Hall, 86 St. James's Street: A brief history of the present building", 28 May 2015 (online), access date 4 July 2015

References

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Knowles, Sir James". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links

• Works by James Knowles at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about James Thomas Knowles at Internet Archive

[admin]

Cambridge Apostles [The Apostles' Club]
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The Cambridge Apostles (also known as Conversazione Society) is an intellectual society at the University of Cambridge founded in 1820 by George Tomlinson, a Cambridge student who went on to become the first Bishop of Gibraltar.[1]

The origin of the Apostles' nickname dates from the number, twelve, of their founders. Membership consists largely of undergraduates, though there have been graduate student members, and members who already hold university and college posts. The society traditionally drew most of its members from Christ's, St John's, Jesus, Trinity and King's Colleges.

Activities and membership


King's College, Cambridge

The society is essentially a discussion group. Meetings are held once a week, traditionally on Saturday evenings, during which one member gives a prepared talk on a topic, which is later thrown open for discussion.

The usual procedure was for members to meet at the rooms of those whose turn it was to present the topic. The host would provide refreshments consisting of coffee and sardines on toast, called "whales".[2] Women first gained acceptance into the society in the 1970s.

The Apostles retain a leather diary of their membership ("the book") stretching back to its founder, which includes handwritten notes about the topics on which each member has spoken. It is included in the so-called "Ark", which is a cedar chest containing collection of papers with some handwritten notes from the group's early days, about the topics members have spoken on, and the results of the division in which those present voted on the debate. It was a point of honour that the question voted on should bear only a tangential relationship to the matter debated.[3] The members referred to as the "Apostles" are the active, usually undergraduate members; former members are called "angels". Undergraduates apply to become angels after graduating or being awarded a fellowship. Every few years, amid great secrecy, all the angels are invited to an Apostles' dinner at a Cambridge college. There used to be an annual dinner, usually held in London.

Undergraduates being considered for membership are called "embryos" and are invited to "embryo parties", where members judge whether the student should be invited to join. The "embryos" attend these parties without knowing they are being considered for membership. Becoming an Apostle involves taking an oath of secrecy and listening to the reading of a curse, originally written by Apostle Fenton John Anthony Hort, the theologian, in or around 1851.

Former members have spoken of the lifelong bond they feel toward one another. Henry Sidgwick, the philosopher, wrote of the Apostles in his memoirs that "the tie of attachment to this society is much the strongest corporate bond which I have known in my life."

Eleven former members of the Apostles are buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge: Henry Jackson, classicist (1863); Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, classicist (1859); Desmond MacCarthy, newspaper critic (1896); Sir Donald MacAlister, physician (1876); Norman McLean, orientalist (1888), G. E. Moore, philosopher (1894); Frank P. Ramsey, economist and philosopher (1921); Gerald Shove, economist (1909); Vincent Henry Stanton, Professor of Divinity (1872), Arthur Woollgar Verrall, Classicist (1871), and Ludwig Wittgenstein, philosopher (1912). These eleven members were from Christ's, King's, St. Johns College and Trinity. A twelfth member Benjamin Hall Kennedy is buried in the Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge.

Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore joined as students, as did John Maynard Keynes, who invited Ludwig Wittgenstein to join. However, Wittgenstein did not enjoy it and attended infrequently. Russell had been worried that Wittgenstein would not appreciate the group's unseriousness and style of humour.[4] He was admitted in 1912 but resigned almost immediately because he could not tolerate the level of the discussion on the Hearth Rug; they took him back though in the 1920s when he returned to Cambridge. (He also had trouble tolerating the discussions in the Moral Sciences Club.)[/b]

Bloomsbury

The Apostles became well known outside Cambridge in the years before the First World War with the rise to eminence of the group of intellectuals known as the Bloomsbury Group. John Maynard Keynes, Leonard Woolf, Lytton Strachey and his brother James, G. E. Moore, E. M. Forster and Rupert Brooke were all Apostles. Keynes, Woolf and Lytton Strachey subsequently gained prominence as members of Bloomsbury.

Cambridge spy ring

Main article: Cambridge Five

The Apostles came to public attention again following the exposure of the Cambridge spy ring in 1951. Three Cambridge graduates with access to the top levels of government in Britain, one of them a former Apostle, were eventually found to have passed information to the KGB. The three known agents were Apostle Guy Burgess, an MI6 officer and secretary to the deputy foreign minister; Donald MacLean, foreign office secretary; and Kim Philby, MI6 officer and journalist.

In 1963, American writer Michael Straight, also an Apostle, and later publisher of The New Republic magazine, admitted to a covert relationship with the Soviets, and he named Anthony Blunt, MI5 officer, director of the Courtauld Institute, and art adviser to the Queen as his recruiter and a Soviet spy. Confronted with Straight's confession, Blunt acknowledged his own treason and revealed that he had also drawn into espionage his fellow Apostle Leonard "Leo" Long. Straight also told investigators that the Apostle John Peter Astbury had been recruited for Soviet intelligence by either Blunt or Burgess. Leo Long confessed to delivering classified information to the Soviets from 1940 until 1952.

Writers have accused several other Apostles of being witting Soviet agents. Roland Perry in his book, The Fifth Man (London: Pan Books, 1994) makes a circumstantial case against Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild, who was a friend to both Burgess and Blunt. The espionage historian John Costello in The Mask of Treachery (London: William Collins & Sons, 1988) points a finger at the mathematician Alister Watson. Kimberley Cornish, in his controversial The Jew of Linz (London: Century, 1998), makes the rather extravagant claim that Ludwig Wittgenstein was the "éminence grise" of the Cambridge spies.

In the 1930s when Guy Burgess and Anthony Blunt were elected the membership was mainly Marxist. Documents from the Soviet archives included in the book The Crown Jewels (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), by Nigel West and Oleg Tsarev, indicate that it was Burgess who seduced and led Blunt into the Soviet underground. As the Queen's art adviser, Blunt was knighted in 1956, but was stripped of his knighthood in 1979 after Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher publicly named him as a spy—his confession having been kept secret before then.

Known members

• Partha Dasgupta, emeritus Frank Ramsey Professor of Economics at St John's College, Cambridge
• Geoffrey Lloyd, emeritus professor of classics at Cambridge; member of Darwin College, Cambridge (195?)
• Richard Layard, professor of economics at the London School of Economics
• Garry Runciman, 3rd Viscount Runciman of Doxford
• Amartya Sen, Nobel Prize–winning economist and philosopher and previously master of Trinity College[5]
• Quentin Skinner, historian of political philosophy (196?)
• David Wootton, City of London lawyer and liveryman

Former members

Members of the Apostles include (with the year they joined in brackets, where known);[6]

A

• Thomas Ainger (1820)[7]
• Noel Annan, intelligence officer, provost of King's College, Cambridge, provost of University College, London, vice-chancellor of the University of London, member of the House of Lords (1948)

B

• Francis Maitland Balfour (1875)
• Gerald William Balfour (1872)
• Theodore Beck (1881)
• Ferenc Békássy, Hungarian poet (1912)
• Julian Bell, poet (1928) killed in 1937 in the Spanish Civil War
• Francis Birrell, critic and journalist (?) query
• Hugh Blackburn (1844) ODNB
• Joseph Blakesley[8] (1827)
• Anthony Blunt,[3] art adviser to the Queen, MI5 officer, KGB spy (1927)
• R. B. Braithwaite, philosopher (1921)
• Rupert Brooke,[3] poet (1908)
• Oscar Browning, educator (1858)
• Arthur William Buller, judge of the Supreme Court, Calcutta (1828)
• Charles Buller, barrister and MP (1826)
• Guy Burgess,[3] MI6 officer, KGB spy (1932)
• John Butcher, 1st Baron Danesfort (1873)
• Samuel Henry Butcher[9] (1871) ODNB
• Arthur John Butler[3] (1865)
• Henry Montagu Butler (1853)

C

• John Cairncross,[3] Civil Servant, KGB Spy
• James Carter (judge) (1824)
• D. G. Champernowne (1934)
• William Dougal Christie (1836)
• William K. Clifford[10] (1866)
• Arthur Clough[3] (1883)
• Andrew Cohen (colonial governor), Sir (192?)
• William Johnson Cory

D

• Erasmus Alvey Darwin, brother of Charles Darwin (1823)
• Hugh Sykes Davies (1932)[11]
• Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, historian and philosopher (1885)
• James Hamilton Doggart (1919)
• James Duff Duff (1884)

E

• Sir Howard Elphinstone, 3rd Baronet (1851)

F

• Julian Fane (diplomat)[12]
• James Farish
• Frederic Farrar[13]
• Charles Fletcher-Cooke
• E. M. Forster,[1] writer (1901)
• Hugh Fortescue, 3rd Earl Fortescue
• John Fortune
• Roger Eliot Fry,[3] art historian (1887)
• John Monteith Furness[14]

G

• Robin Gandy, mathematician (1947)
• Sydney Gedge
• Leonard Greenwood,[15] classicist (1903)

H

• Arthur Hallam,[16] poet (1829) ODNB
• Sir William Harcourt, Chancellor of the Exchequer (1847)
• Joseph Hardcastle (politician)
• G. H. Hardy, mathematician (1898)
• Francis Haskell
• Ralph George Hawtrey,[3] Sir (1900)
• Douglas Heath, last of the early members
• Dunbar Isidore Heath
• Arthur Helps
• Arthur Hobhouse, Sir (1905)
• Eric Hobsbawm, historian (193?)
• Alan Lloyd Hodgkin (1935)
• Francis James Holland
• John Hopkinson
• Fenton John Anthony Hort,[1] theologian (1851)
• George Howard, 9th Earl of Carlisle

J

• Henry Jackson[3][17][18] OM, FBA, Regius Professor of Greek (Cambridge), Classicist, Vice-Master Trinity College, Cambridge 1914–1919, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge (1863) [2D47]
• Lal Jayawardena, economist, diplomat (19??) query
• Sir Richard Jebb[17][19] OM, MP, FBA, Regius Professor of Greek (Cambridge), Classicist, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge (1859) [4I2]
• Harry Gordon Johnson (1951)

K

• Anthony Kelly (academic)
• John Mitchell Kemble,[1][20] historian (1826)
• Benjamin Hall Kennedy,[21] Latinist (1824)
• John Maynard Keynes,[1][3] economist, member of the House of Lords (1903)

L

• Walter Leaf
• D. W. Lucas, classicist (1925)
• F. L. Lucas, writer and critic (1914)
• Gordon Luce, scholar (1912)
• Edmund Law Lushington[22]
• Henry Lushington
• Vernon Lushington

M

• Sir Donald MacAlister,[17][23] Vice-Chancellor Glasgow, Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge (1876)
• Kenneth Macaulay
• Sir Desmond MacCarthy,[3][17][24] Literary and drama critic (1896) [1H2]
• Malcolm Macnaghten[3]
• Henry Maine
• Frederic William Maitland
• John Gorham Maitland
• Edward Howard Marsh[3]
• Frederick Denison Maurice,[1][16][25] theologian, Christian socialist, founder of the Working Men's College, one of the original Cambridge Apostles (1823)
• James Clerk Maxwell,[1] physicist (1852)
• Norman McLean[17][26] FBA, orientalist, Master Christ's College, Cambridge (1888)
• J. M. E. McTaggart, philosopher (1886)
• Charles Merivale[27]
• Sir Jonathan Miller, physician, comic, member of Beyond the Fringe, theatre, opera and film director (1957)
• Karl Miller
• James Mirrlees, Nobel Prize–winning economist
• Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton[16][28]
• Robert Monteith
• George Edward Moore[3][17][29] OM, FBA, philosopher, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Professor of Philosophy (1894) [1H1]
• E. J. C. Morton[30]
• John Fletcher Moulton
• Arthur Thomas Myers

P

• Lionel Penrose (1920)
• Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Baronet[3]
• John Henry Pratt
• Derek Prince (1938)
• Philip Dennis Proctor
• Marlborough Pryor[3]

R

• Walter Alexander Raleigh[3]
• Frank P. Ramsey[17][31] Philosopher and mathematician, Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge (1921)
• Sir Dennis Robertson ODNB, economist (1926)
• Henry John Roby
• Edward Romilly
• Victor Rothschild, financier, member of the House of Lords (1933)
• Bertrand Russell,[3] philosopher, mathematician, social activist and logician, member of the Royal Society, Nobel prize winner, member of the House of Lords (1892)
• Dadie Rylands (1922) ODNB

S

• J. T. Sheppard,[3] classicist, provost of King's College (1902)
• Peter Shore, Labour politician (1947)
• Gerald Shove, economist (1909)[32]
• Henry Sidgwick,[1][33] philosopher (1857)
• Arthur H. Smith[3]
• Henry Babington Smith,[34] Sir (1885)
• James Parker Smith
• James Spedding[35]
• Stephen Spring Rice, civil servant
• W. J. H. Sprott
• Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby[36]
• John Stanning
• Vincent Henry Stanton,[3] Rev., Regius Professor of Divinity, (1872), (2D50)
• James Fitzjames Stephen,[37] Sir (1847)
• James Kenneth Stephen,[38] poet, tutor to Prince Albert Victor (Eddy) and suspect for Jack the Ripper (1879)
• Thoby Stephen[39]
• John Sterling,[1][16][40] ODNB, writer and poet, one of the original Cambridge Apostles (1825)
• James Strachey,[3] translator of Freud[41]
• Lytton Strachey,[1][3] writer and critic (1902)
• Michael Whitney Straight, American magazine publisher, member of the Whitney family, Presidential speechwriter (1936)[42]
• Saxon Sydney-Turner,[3] civil servant (1902)

T

• Charles Henry Tawney
• Alfred Tennyson,[16] English poet, member of the House of Lords (1829).
• Henry Yates Thompson (1860)
• Nicholas Tomalin
• George Tomlinson,[1] Bishop of Gibraltar, founder of the Cambridge Apostles (1820)
• Stephen Edelston Toulmin
• Richard Chenevix Trench,[1][16][43] Christian writer, Archbishop of Dublin, one of the original Cambridge Apostles (1827)
• G. M. Trevelyan, historian (1895)
• Sir George Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet (1859)
• Robert Trevelyan,[3] poet and translator (1893)

V

• George Stovin Venables
• Arthur Woollgar Verrall,[17][44] Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, classicist, (1871), King Edward VII professorship of literature, literary scholar [2B33]

W

• Spencer Horatio Walpole,[45] one of the original Cambridge Apostles
• William Grey Walter (1933), ODNB
• James Ward, psychologist
• Alister Watson
• Henry William Watson (1848)
• Sir Ralph Wedgwood, 1st Baronet
• Brooke Foss Westcott
• A. N. Whitehead, OM, mathematician, logician and philosopher (1884)
• Ludwig Wittgenstein,[17][46] philosopher, Professor of Philosophy, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge (1912)
• Leonard Woolf[3] writer and publisher (1902)

Appearances in literature

• A Royal Pain by Rhys Bowen
• Avenging Angel, a murder mystery by the philosopher Kwame Anthony Appiah
• The Children's Book by A. S. Byatt
• The Indian Clerk by David Leavitt
• The Longest Journey by E. M. Forster
• The Philosopher's Ring by Randall Collins
• The Stranger's Child by Alan Hollinghurst
• The White Garden by Stephanie Barron

References

1. W. C. Lubenow, The Cambridge Apsotles 1820-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
2. Brookfield, Frances Mary. The Cambridge "Apostles", C. Scribner's Sons, 1907
3. "A Cambridge secret revealed: the Apostles", King's College, Cambridge, January 2011
4. McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: A Life: Young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988, p. 118.
5. "Interview of Professor Quentin Skinner - part 2". YouTube. 2 June 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
6. Lubenow, W.C. (1998). The Cambridge Apostles, 1820-1914: Liberalism, Imagination, and Friendship in British Intellectual and Professional Life. Cambridge University Press. p. 127.
7. Levy, Paul (1979). Moore: G. E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 300-311
8. Blakesley, Joseph Williams. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
9. Butcher, Samuel Henry. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
10. Clifford, William Kingdon. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
11. The Times obituary, 8 June 1984.
12. Fane, Julian Henry Charles. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
13. Farrar, Frederic William. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
14. The Cambridge Apostles, A History of Cambridge University's elite intellectual secret society, by Richard Deacon. Published in Great Britain by Robert Royce Limited, 1985. ISBN 0-9477-28-13-9
15. Hale, Keith, ed. (1998). Friends and Apostles: The Correspondence of Rupert Brooke and James Strachey. Yale University Press. p. 107.
16. "Tennyson at Cambridge: The Apostles", Faculty of English, Cambridge, July 2014
17. "A Cambridge Necropolis" by Dr. Mark Goldie, March 2000, for the Friends of The Parish of The Ascension Burial Ground
18. Henry Jackson at Find a Grave
19. Sir Richard Jebb at Find a Grave
20. Kemble, John Mitchell. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
21. Kennedy, Benjamin Hall. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
22. Lushington, Edmund Law. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
23. Sir Donald Macalister at Find a Grave
24. Sir Desmond MacCarthy at Find a Grave
25. Maurice, John Frederick Denison. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Retrieved 30 July2014.[permanent dead link]
26. Norman McLean at Find a Grave
27. Merivale, Charles. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
28. Milnes, Richard Monckton. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
29. George Edward Moore at Find a Grave
30. Morton, Edward John Chalmers. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
31. Frank P. Ramsey at Find a Grave
32. The Times obituary, 18 August 1947.
33. Sidgwick, Henry. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
34. Smith, Henry Babington. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
35. Spedding, James. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
36. Stanley, Edward Henry. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
37. Stephen, James Fitzjames. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
38. Stephen, James Kenneth. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
39. Lubenow 1998, p. 240.
40. Sterling, John. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
41. The Times obituary, 11 May 1967.
42. Norton-Taylor, Richard (9 January 2004). "Obituary: Michael Straight". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 3 October 2008.
43. Trench, Richard Chenevix. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
44. Arthur Woollgar Verrall at Find a Grave
45. Walpole, Spencer Horatio. "A Cambridge Alumni Database". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
46. Brian McGuinness, Young Ludwig, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 146.

Bibliography

• Allen, Peter (1978). The Cambridge Apostles: The Early Years. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21803-0.
• Deacon, Richard (1986). The Cambridge Apostles: A History of Cambridge University's Elite Intellectual Secret Society. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-11820-4.
• Levy, Paul (1980). Moore: G. E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-053616-8.
• Lubenow, W. C. (1998). The Cambridge Apostles, 1820-1914: Liberalism, Imagination, and Friendship in British Intellectual and Professional Life. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57213-2.

External links

• http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/archive-cent ... -2011.html

[admin]

Henry Edward Manning
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

Continuing their discussion of the membership of "The Society of the Elect," Stead asked permission to bring in Milner and Brett. Rhodes agreed, so they telegraphed at once to Brett, who arrived in two hours. They then drew up the following "ideal arrangement' for the society:

1. General of the Society: Rhodes
2. Junta of Three: (1) Stead, (2) Brett, (3) Milner
3. Circle of Initiates: (1) Cardinal Manning, (2) General Booth, (3) Bramwell Booth, (4) "Little" [Harry] Johnston, (5) Albert Grey, (6) Arthur Balfour
4. The Association of Helpers
5. A College, under Professor Seeley, to be established to train people in the English-speaking idea."

Within the next few weeks Stead had another talk with Rhodes and a talk with Milner, who was "filled with admiration" for the scheme, according to Stead's notes as published by Sir Frederick Whyte.

-- The Anglo-American Establishment: From Rhodes to Cliveden, by Carroll Quigley

His Eminence Henry Edward Cardinal Manning, Archbishop of Westminster
Cardinal Manning, c. 1880s
Province: Westminster
Diocese: Westminster
Appointed: 16 May 1865
Term ended: 14 January 1892
Predecessor: Nicholas Wiseman
Successor: Herbert Vaughan
Other posts: Cardinal-Priest of Santi Andrea e Gregorio al Monte Celio
Orders
Ordination: 23 December 1833 (Anglican priest)
14 June 1851 (Catholic priest), by Nicholas Wiseman
Consecration: 8 June 1865, by William Bernard Ullathorne
Created cardinal: 15 March 1875
Rank Cardinal-Priest
Personal details
Born: 15 July 1808, Totteridge, Hertfordshire, England
Died: 14 January 1892 (aged 83), London, England
Buried: Westminster Cathedral
Nationality: British
Denomination: Roman Catholic (formerly Anglican)
Parents: William and Mary (née Hunter) Manning
Spouse: Caroline Sargent
Previous post: Archdeacon of Chichester 1840–1851 (Anglican)[1]

Henry Edward Cardinal Manning (15 July 1808 – 14 January 1892) was an English prelate of the Roman Catholic church, and the second Archbishop of Westminster from 1865 until his death in 1892.[2]

Early life


Copped Hall, Hertfordshire

Manning was born on 15 July 1808 at his grandfather's home, Copped Hall, Totteridge, Hertfordshire. He was the third and youngest son of William Manning, a West India merchant, who served as a director and (1812–1813) as a governor of the Bank of England[3] and also sat in Parliament for 30 years, representing in the Tory interest Plympton Earle, Lymington, Evesham and Penryn consecutively. Manning's mother, Mary (died 1847), daughter of Henry Leroy Hunter, of Beech Hill, and sister of Sir Claudius Stephen Hunter, 1st Baronet, came of a family said to be of French extraction.

Manning spent his boyhood mainly at Coombe Bank, Sundridge, Kent, where he had for companions Charles Wordsworth and Christopher Wordsworth, later bishops of St Andrews and Lincoln respectively. He attended Harrow School (1822–1827) during the headmastership of George Butler, but obtained no distinction beyond playing for two years in the cricket eleven.[4] However, this proved to be no impediment to his academic career.

Manning matriculated at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1827, studying Classics, and soon made his mark as a debater at the Oxford Union, where William Ewart Gladstone succeeded him as president in 1830. At this date he had ambitions of a political career, but his father had sustained severe losses in business and, in these circumstances, having graduated with first-class honours in 1830, he obtained the year following, through Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, a post as a supernumerary clerk in the Colonial Office.[3] Manning resigned from this position in 1832, his thoughts having turned towards a clerical career under Evangelical influences, including his friendship with Favell Lee Mortimer, which affected him deeply throughout life.

Anglican cleric

Returning to Oxford in 1832, he gained election as a fellow of Merton College and received ordination as a deacon in the Church of England. In January 1833 he became curate to John Sargent, Rector of Lavington-with-Graffham, West Sussex. In May 1833, following Sargent's death, he succeeded him as rector[5] due to the patronage of Sargent's mother.

Manning married Caroline, John Sargent's daughter,[5] on 7 November 1833, in a ceremony performed by the bride's brother-in-law, the Revd Samuel Wilberforce, later Bishop of Oxford and Winchester. Manning's marriage did not last long: his young and beautiful wife came of a consumptive family and died childless on 24 July 1837. When Manning died many years later, for decades a celibate Roman Catholic cleric, a locket containing his wife's picture was found on a chain around his neck.

Though he never became an acknowledged disciple of John Henry Newman (later Cardinal Newman), the latter's influence meant that from this date Manning's theology assumed an increasingly High Church character and his printed sermon on the "Rule of Faith" publicly signalled his alliance with the Tractarians.

In 1838 he took a leading part in the church education movement, by which diocesan boards were established throughout the country; and he wrote an open letter to his bishop in criticism of the recent appointment of the ecclesiastical commission. In December of that year he paid his first visit to Rome and called on Nicholas Wiseman in company with Gladstone.[6]

In January 1841 Philip Shuttleworth, Bishop of Chichester, appointed Manning as the Archdeacon of Chichester,[7] whereupon he began a personal visitation of each parish within his district, completing the task in 1843. In 1842 he published a treatise on The Unity of the Church and his reputation as an eloquent and earnest preacher being by this time considerable, he was in the same year appointed select preacher by his university, thus being called upon to fill from time to time the pulpit which Newman, as vicar of St Mary's, was just ceasing to occupy.

Four volumes of Manning's sermons appeared between the years 1842 and 1850 and these had reached the 7th, 4th, 3rd and 2nd editions respectively in 1850, but were not afterwards reprinted. In 1844 his portrait was painted by George Richmond, and the same year he published a volume of university sermons, omitting the one on the Gunpowder Plot. This sermon had annoyed Newman and his more advanced disciples, but it was a proof that at that date Manning was loyal to the Church of England.[6]

Newman's secession in 1845 placed Manning in a position of greater responsibility, as one of the High Church leaders, along with Edward Bouverie Pusey, John Keble and Marriott; but it was with Gladstone and James Robert Hope-Scott that he was at this time most closely associated.[6]

Conversion to Catholicism


Manning by Alphonse Legros


1882 caricature from Punch

Manning's belief in Anglicanism was shattered in 1850 when, in the so-called Gorham judgement, the Privy Council ordered the Church of England to institute an evangelical cleric who denied that the sacrament of baptism had an objective effect of baptismal regeneration. The denial of the objective effect of the sacraments was to Manning and many others a grave heresy, contradicting the clear tradition of the Christian Church from the Fathers of the Church on. That a civil and secular court had the power to force the Church of England to accept someone with such an unorthodox opinion proved to him that, far from being a divinely created institution, that church was merely a man-made creation of the English Parliament.[8]

The following year, on 6 April 1851, Manning was received into the Catholic Church and then studied at the academia in Rome where he took his Doctorate, and on 14 June 1851, was ordained a Catholic priest at the Church of the Imaculate Conception, Farm Street. Given his great abilities and prior fame, he quickly rose to a position of influence. He served as Provost of the Cathedral Chapter under Cardinal Wiseman.

In 1857, he established at Wiseman's direction, the mission of St Mary of the Angels, Bayswater, to serve labourers building Paddington Station. There, he founded, at Wiseman's request, the Congregation of the Oblates of St. Charles.[9] This new community of secular priests was the joint work of Cardinal Wiseman and Manning, for both had independently conceived the idea of a community of this kind, and Manning had studied the life and work of Charles Borromeo in his Anglican days at Lavington and had, moreover, visited the Oblates at Milan, in 1856, to satisfy himself that their rule could be adapted to the needs of Westminster. Manning became superior of the congregation.[3]

Archbishop

In 1865 he was appointed Archbishop of Westminster.[10]

Among his accomplishments as head of the Catholic Church in England were the acquisition of the site for Westminster Cathedral, but his focus was on a greatly expanded system of Roman Catholic education,[10] including the establishment of the short lived Catholic University College in Kensington.

In 1875 Manning was created Cardinal-Priest of Ss Andrea e Gregorio al Monte Celio. Manning participated in the conclave that elected Pope Leo XIII in 1878.

Manning approved the founding of the Catholic Association Pilgrimage.

Influence on social justice teaching


Manning in his 83rd year

Manning was very influential in setting the direction of the modern Catholic Church. His warm relations with Pope Pius IX and his ultramontane views gained him the trust of the Vatican, though "it was ordained that he should pass the evening of his days in England, and that he should outlive his intimacy at the Vatican and his influence on the general policy of the Church of Rome."[11]

Manning used this goodwill to promote a modern Roman Catholic view of social justice. These views are reflected in the papal encyclical Rerum novarum issued by Leo XIII which marks the beginning of modern Roman Catholic social justice teaching.

For a portion of 1870, he was in Rome attending the First Vatican Council.[10] Manning was among the strongest supporters of the doctrine of papal infallibility, unlike Cardinal Newman who believed the doctrine but thought it might not be prudent to define it formally at the time. (For a comparison of Manning and Newman, see the section entitled "Relationships with other converts" in the article on Cardinal Newman.)

Manning was instrumental in settling the London dock strike of 1889[3] at the behest of Margaret Harkness.[12] He had a significant role in the conversion of notable figures including Elizabeth Belloc, the mother of the famous British author Hilaire Belloc, upon whose thinking Manning had a profound influence. Manning did not however support the move towards enfranchising women, in 1871 at St. Mary Moorfield he said he hoped English womanhood would ‘resist by a stern moral refusal, the immodesty which would thrust women from their private life of dignity and supremacy into the public conflicts of men.'[13]

View of the priesthood

In 1883, Manning published The Eternal Priesthood, his most influential work.[14] In the book, Manning defended an elevated idea of the priesthood as, "in and of itself, an outstanding way to perfection, and even a 'state of perfection'".[15] In comparison to his polemical writings, The Eternal Priesthood is "austere" and "glacial",[14] arguing for a rigorous conception of the moral duties of the office. Manning additionally stressed the social function of the priest, who must be more to his community than a dispenser of the sacraments.[16]

Death and burial

Manning died on 4 January 1892, at which time his estate was probated at £3,527. He received a formal burial at St Mary's Roman Catholic Cemetery in Kensal Green. Some years later, in 1907, his remains were transferred to the newly completed Westminster Cathedral.

Works

• Rule of Faith (1839)
• Unity of the Church (1842)
• A charge delivered at the ordinary visitation of the archdeaconry of Chichester in July (1843)
• Sermons 4 vols. (1842–1850)
• The Present Crisis of the Holy See (1861)
• Rome and the Revolution (1867)
• Christ and Antichrist (1867)
• Petri Privilegium (1871)
• The Glories of the Sacred Heart (1876)[17]
• The True Story of the Vatican Council (1877)
• The Eternal Priesthood (1883)

See also

• Catholic Church in England and Wales
• Oblates of St. Charles

Notes

1. "Archdeacons of Chichester". British History Online. Retrieved 15 April 2009.
2. Miranda, Salvador. "Henry Edward Manning". The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church. Retrieved 9 April 2009.
3. Kent, William. "Henry Edward Manning." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 29 December 2015 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
4. Russell, G.W., Collections & Recollections (Revised edition, Smith Elder & Co, London, 1899), at page 42
5. Cross, F. L., ed. (1957) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. London: Oxford University Press; p. 849-50
6. "BiographicalSketch", Pitts Theology Library
7. "Classical Victorians: Scholars, Scoundrels and Generals in Pursuit of Antiquity" Richardson, E p196: Cambridge, CUP, 2013 ISBN 978-1-107-02677-3
8. Strachey, Lytton (1918). Eminent Victorians. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co. pp. 54–57.
9. O'Donnell, Sean. "Exhibition on life and legacy of Cardinal Manning", Catholic Ireland, 10 February 2018
10. Taylor, I.A., The Cardinal Democrat: Henry Edward Manning, London. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., Ltd., 1908 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
11. G.W.Russell, Collections & Recollections (Revised edition, Smith, Elder & Co, London, 1899), at page 47.
12. John Lucas, ‘Harkness, Margaret Elise (1854–1923)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2005 accessed 29 Dec 2015
13. "Votes for Women! The Catholic Contribution - Diocese of Westminster". rcdow.org.uk. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
14. Adshead, S. A. M. (2000). The Philosophy of Religion in Nineteenth-century England and Beyond. London: Macmillan Press. p. 55.
15. Nichols, Aidan, O.P. (2011). Holy Order: Apostolic Priesthood from the New Testament to the Second Vatican Council. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 120.
16. Aubert, Roger; et al. History of the Church: IX. The Church in the Industrial age. Translated by Margit Resch. London: Burns & Oates. p. 136.
17. Manning, Henry Edward. The Glories of the Sacred Heart, London: Burns & Oates, 1876

References

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Manning, Henry Edward". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Henry Edward Manning". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.

Further reading

• McClelland, Vincent Alan. Cardinal Manning: the Public Life and Influences, 1865–1892. London: Oxford University Press, 1962. xii, 256 p.
• Player, Robert. Lets Talk of Graves, of Worms, of Epitaphs, a fictionalised version of Manning's life, largely based on the polemic of Lytton Strachey in his Eminent Victorians.

External links

• Henry Edward Cardinal Manning http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org
• Works by or about Henry Edward Manning at Internet Archive
• Works by Henry Edward Manning at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• "Manning, Henry Edward" . The Nuttall Encyclopædia. 1907.
• Henry Edward Manning collection, 1826-1901(letters, sermons, and transcriptions) at Pitts Theological Library, Candler School of Theology
Individual works
• The rule of faith: a sermon, preached in the cathedral church of Chichester, June 13, 1838; at the primary visitation of the right Reverend William, Lord Bishop of Chichester (1839)
• Sermons on ecclesiastical subjects: with an introduction on the relations of England to Christianity (1869)
• The fourfold sovereignty of God (1872)
• Lytton Strachey's essay on Manning from Eminent Victorians is available at http://www.bartleby.com/189/100.html
• "Cardinal Manning" poem by Dunstan Thompson

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Arthur Balfour
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/2/20

The members [of the Metaphysical Society] from first to last were as follows:...

• Arthur Balfour

-- The Metaphysical Society, by Wikipedia

Continuing their discussion of the membership of "The Society of the Elect," Stead asked permission to bring in Milner and Brett. Rhodes agreed, so they telegraphed at once to Brett, who arrived in two hours. They then drew up the following "ideal arrangement' for the society:

1. General of the Society: Rhodes
2. Junta of Three: (1) Stead, (2) Brett, (3) Milner
3. Circle of Initiates: (1) Cardinal Manning, (2) General Booth, (3) Bramwell Booth, (4) "Little" [Harry] Johnston, (5) Albert Grey, (6) Arthur Balfour
4. The Association of Helpers
5. A College, under Professor Seeley, to be established to train people in the English-speaking idea."

Within the next few weeks Stead had another talk with Rhodes and a talk with Milner, who was "filled with admiration" for the scheme, according to Stead's notes as published by Sir Frederick Whyte.

-- The Anglo-American Establishment: From Rhodes to Cliveden, by Carroll Quigley

The Right Honourable The Earl of Balfour KG OM PC FRS FBA DL
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
In office: 12 July 1902 – 4 December 1905
Monarch: Edward VII
Preceded by: The 3rd Marquess of Salisbury
Succeeded by: Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
Lord President of the Council
In office: 27 April 1925 – 4 June 1929
Prime Minister: Stanley Baldwin
Preceded by: The Marquess Curzon of Kedleston
Succeeded by: The Lord Parmoor
In office: 23 October 1919 – 19 October 1922
Prime Minister: David Lloyd George
Preceded by: The Earl Curzon of Kedleston
Succeeded by: The 4th Marquess of Salisbury
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
In office: 10 December 1916 – 23 October 1919
Prime Minister: David Lloyd George
Preceded by: The Viscount Grey of Fallodon
Succeeded by: The Earl Curzon of Kedleston
First Lord of the Admiralty
In office: 25 May 1915 – 10 December 1916
Prime Minister: H. H. Asquith; David Lloyd George
Preceded by: Winston Churchill
Succeeded by: Sir Edward Carson
Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal
In office: 11 July 1902 – 17 October 1903
Preceded by: The 3rd Marquess of Salisbury
Succeeded by: The 4th Marquess of Salisbury
Chief Secretary for Ireland
In office: 7 March 1887 – 9 November 1891
Prime Minister: The 3rd Marquess of Salisbury
Preceded by: Sir Michael Hicks Beach
Succeeded by: William Jackson
Secretary for Scotland
In office: 5 August 1886 – 11 March 1887
Prime Minister: The 3rd Marquess of Salisbury
Preceded by: The Earl of Dalhousie
Succeeded by: The Marquess of Lothian
Leadership positions: Parliamentary offices
Personal details
Born: Arthur James Balfour, 25 July 1848, Whittingehame House, East Lothian, Scotland
Died: 19 March 1930 (aged 81), Woking, Surrey, England
Resting place: Whittingehame Church, Whittingehame
Nationality: British
Political party: Conservative
Parents: James Maitland Balfour (father)
Alma mater: Trinity College, Cambridge
Occupation: Politician

Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour, KG, OM, PC, FRS, FBA, DL (/ˈbælfər, -fɔːr/,[1] traditionally Scottish /bəlˈfʊər/;[2][3] 25 July 1848 – 19 March 1930) was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1902 to 1905. As Foreign Secretary in the Lloyd George ministry, he issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917 on behalf of the cabinet.

Entering Parliament in 1874, Balfour achieved prominence as Chief Secretary for Ireland, in which position he suppressed agrarian unrest whilst taking measures against absentee landlords. He opposed Irish Home Rule, saying there could be no half-way house between Ireland remaining within the United Kingdom or becoming independent. From 1891 he led the Conservative Party in the House of Commons, serving under his uncle, Lord Salisbury, whose government won large majorities in 1895 and 1900. An esteemed debater, he was bored by the mundane tasks of party management.

In July 1902 he succeeded his uncle as Prime Minister. In domestic policy he passed the Irish Land Act 1903, which bought out most of the Anglo-Irish land owners. The Education Act 1902 had a major long-term impact in modernising the school system in England and Wales and provided financial support for schools operated by the Church of England and by the Catholic Church. Nonconformists were outraged and mobilized their voters, but were unable to reverse it. In foreign and defence policy, he oversaw reform of British defence policy and supported Jackie Fisher's naval innovations. He secured the Entente Cordiale with France, an alliance that isolated Germany. He cautiously embraced imperial preference as championed by Joseph Chamberlain, but resignations from the Cabinet over the abandonment of free trade left his party divided. He also suffered from public anger at the later stages of the Boer war (counter-insurgency warfare characterized as "methods of barbarism") and the importation of Chinese labour to South Africa ("Chinese slavery"). He resigned as Prime Minister in December 1905 and the following month the Conservatives suffered a landslide defeat at the 1906 election, in which he lost his own seat. He soon re-entered Parliament and continued to serve as Leader of the Opposition throughout the crisis over Lloyd George's 1909 budget, the narrow loss of two further General Elections in 1910, and the passage of the Parliament Act 1911. He resigned as party leader in 1911.

Balfour returned as First Lord of the Admiralty in Asquith's Coalition Government (1915–16). In December 1916 he became Foreign Secretary in David Lloyd George's coalition. He was frequently left out of the inner workings of foreign policy, although the Balfour Declaration on a Jewish homeland bore his name. He continued to serve in senior positions throughout the 1920s, and died on 19 March 1930 aged 81, having spent a vast inherited fortune. He never married. Balfour trained as a philosopher – he originated an argument against believing that human reason could determine truth – and was seen as having a detached attitude to life, epitomised by a remark attributed to him: "Nothing matters very much and few things matter at all".

Background and early life


Whittingehame House

Arthur Balfour was born at Whittingehame House, East Lothian, Scotland, the eldest son of James Maitland Balfour (1820–1856) and Lady Blanche Gascoyne-Cecil (1825–1872). His father was a Scottish MP, as was his grandfather James; his mother, a member of the Cecil family descended from Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, was the daughter of the 2nd Marquess of Salisbury and a sister to the 3rd Marquess, the future Prime Minister.[4] His godfather was the Duke of Wellington, after whom he was named.[5] He was the eldest son, third of eight children, and had four brothers and three sisters. Arthur Balfour was educated at Grange Preparatory School at Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire (1859–1861), and Eton College (1861–1866), where he studied with the influential master, William Johnson Cory. He then went up to the University of Cambridge, where he read moral sciences at Trinity College (1866–1869),[6] graduating with a second-class honours degree. His younger brother was the Cambridge embryologist Francis Maitland Balfour (1851–1882).[7]

Personal life

Balfour met his cousin May Lyttelton in 1870 when she was 19. After her two previous serious suitors had died, Balfour is said to have declared his love for her in December 1874. She died of typhus on Palm Sunday, March 1875; Balfour arranged for an emerald ring to be buried in her coffin. Lavinia Talbot, May's older sister, believed that an engagement had been imminent, but her recollections of Balfour's distress (he was "staggered") were not written down until thirty years later. The historian R. J. Q. Adams points out that May's letters discuss her love life in detail, but contain no evidence that she was in love with Balfour, nor that he had spoken to her of marriage. He visited her only once during her serious three-month illness, and was soon accepting social invitations again within a month of her death. Adams suggests that, although he may simply have been too shy to express his feelings fully, Balfour may also have encouraged tales of his youthful tragedy as a convenient cover for his disinclination to marry; the matter cannot be conclusively proven.[8]:29–33 In later years mediums claimed to pass on messages from her – see the "Palm Sunday Case".[9][10]

Balfour remained a lifelong bachelor. Margot Tennant (later Margot Asquith) wished to marry him, but Balfour said: "No, that is not so. I rather think of having a career of my own."[5] His household was maintained by his unmarried sister, Alice. In middle age, Balfour had a 40-year friendship with Mary Charteris (née Wyndham), Lady Elcho, later Countess of Wemyss and March.[11] Although one biographer writes that "it is difficult to say how far the relationship went", her letters suggest they may have become lovers in 1887 and may have engaged in sado-masochism,[8]:47 a claim echoed by A. N. Wilson.[10] Another biographer believes they had "no direct physical relationship", although he dismisses as unlikely suggestions that Balfour was homosexual, or, in view of a time during the Boer War when he was seen as he replied to a message while drying himself after his bath, Lord Beaverbrook's claim that he was "a hermaphrodite" whom no-one saw naked.[12]

Early career


Balfour early in his career

In 1874 Balfour was elected Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Hertford until 1885. In spring 1878, he became Private Secretary to his uncle, Lord Salisbury. He accompanied Salisbury (then Foreign Secretary) to the Congress of Berlin and gained his first experience in international politics in connection with the settlement of the Russo-Turkish conflict. At the same time he became known in the world of letters; the academic subtlety and literary achievement of his Defence of Philosophic Doubt (1879) suggested he might make a reputation as a philosopher.[13]

Balfour divided his time between politics and academic pursuits. Biographer Sydney Zebel suggested that Belfour continued to appear an amateur or dabbler in public affairs, devoid of ambition and indifferent to policy issues. However, in fact he actually made a dramatic transition to a deeply involved politician. His assets, according to Zebel, included a strong ambition that he kept hidden, shrewd political judgment, a knack for negotiation, a taste for intrigue, and care to avoid factionalism. Most importantly, he deepened his close ties with his uncle Lord Salisbury. He also maintained cordial relationships with Disraeli, Gladstone and other national leaders.[14]:27

Released from his duties as private secretary by the 1880 general election, he began to take more part in parliamentary affairs. He was for a time politically associated with Lord Randolph Churchill, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff and John Gorst. This quartet became known as the "Fourth Party" and gained notoriety for leader Lord Randolph Churchill's free criticism of Sir Stafford Northcote, Lord Cross and other prominent members of the Conservative "old gang".[14]:28–44[15]

Service in Lord Salisbury's governments


Balfour c. 1890

In 1885, Lord Salisbury appointed Balfour President of the Local Government Board; the following year he became Secretary for Scotland with a seat in the cabinet. These offices, while offering few opportunities for distinction, were an apprenticeship. In early 1887, Sir Michael Hicks Beach, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, resigned because of illness and Salisbury appointed his nephew in his place.[16] That surprised the political world and possibly led to the British phrase "Bob's your uncle!"[17] The selection took the political world by surprise, and was much criticized. It was received with contemptuous ridicule by the Irish Nationalists, for none suspected Balfour's immense strength of will, his debating power, his ability in attack and his still greater capacity to disregard criticism.[16] Balfour surprised critics by ruthless enforcement of the Crimes Act, earning the nickname "Bloody Balfour". His steady administration did much to dispel his reputation as a political lightweight.[18]

In Parliament he resisted overtures to the Irish Parliamentary Party on Home Rule, and, allied with Joseph Chamberlain's Liberal Unionists, encouraged Unionist activism in Ireland. Balfour also helped the poor by creating the Congested Districts Board for Ireland in 1890. In 1886–1892 he became one of the most effective public speakers of the age. Impressive in matter rather than delivery, his speeches were logical and convincing, and delighted an ever-wider audience.[16]

On the death of W. H. Smith in 1891, Balfour became First Lord of the Treasury – the last in British history not to have been concurrently Prime Minister as well – and Leader of the House of Commons. After the fall of the government in 1892 he spent three years in opposition. When the Conservatives returned to power, in coalition with the Liberal Unionists, in 1895, Balfour again became Leader of the House and First Lord of the Treasury. His management of the abortive education proposals of 1896 showed a disinclination for the drudgery of parliamentary management, yet he saw the passage of a bill providing Ireland with improved local government under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 and joined in debates on foreign and domestic questions between 1895 and 1900.[16]

During the illness of Lord Salisbury in 1898, and again in Salisbury's absence abroad, Balfour was in charge of the Foreign Office, and he conducted negotiations with Russia on the question of railways in North China. As a member of the cabinet responsible for the Transvaal negotiations in 1899, he bore his share of controversy and, when the war began disastrously, he was first to realise the need to use the country's full military strength. His leadership of the House was marked by firmness in the suppression of obstruction, yet there was a slight revival of the criticisms of 1896.[16]

Prime Minister

Further information: Balfour ministry


Portrait by George Charles Beresford, 1902

With Lord Salisbury's resignation on 11 July 1902, Balfour succeeded him as Prime Minister, with the approval of all the Unionist party. The new Prime Minister came into power practically at the same moment as the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra and the end of the South African War. The Liberal party was still disorganised over the Boers.[19]

In foreign affairs, Balfour and his Foreign Secretary, Lord Lansdowne, improved relations with France, culminating in the Entente Cordiale of 1904. The period also saw the Russo-Japanese War, when Britain, an ally of the Japanese, came close to war with Russia after the Dogger Bank incident. On the whole, Balfour left the conduct of foreign policy to Lansdowne, being busy himself with domestic problems.[14]

Balfour, who had known Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann since 1906, opposed Russian mistreatment of Jews and increasingly supported Zionism as a programme for European Jews to settle in Palestine.[20] However, in 1905 he supported the Aliens Act 1905, one of whose main objectives was to control and restrict Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe.[21][22]

The budget was certain to show a surplus and taxation could be remitted. Yet as events proved, it was the budget that would sow dissension, override other legislative concerns and signal a new political movement. Charles Thomson Ritchie's remission of the shilling import-duty on corn led to Joseph Chamberlain's crusade in favour of tariff reform. These were taxes on imported goods with trade preference given to the Empire, to protect British industry from competition, strengthen the Empire in the face of growing German and American economic power, and provide revenue, other than raising taxes, for the social welfare legislation. As the session proceeded, the rift grew in the Unionist ranks.[19] Tariff reform was popular with Unionist supporters, but the threat of higher prices for food imports made the policy an electoral albatross. Hoping to split the difference between the free traders and tariff reformers in his cabinet and party, Balfour favoured retaliatory tariffs to punish others who had tariffs against the British, in the hope of encouraging global free trade. This was not sufficient for either the free traders or the extreme tariff reformers in government. With Balfour's agreement, Chamberlain resigned from the Cabinet in late 1903 to campaign for tariff reform. At the same time, Balfour tried to balance the two factions by accepting the resignation of three free-trading ministers, including Chancellor Ritchie, but the almost simultaneous resignation of the free-trader Duke of Devonshire (who as Lord Hartington had been the Liberal Unionist leader of the 1880s) left Balfour's Cabinet weak. By 1905 few Unionist MPs were still free traders (Winston Churchill crossed to the Liberals in 1904 when threatened with deselection at Oldham), but Balfour's act had drained his authority within the government.[14]

Balfour resigned as Prime Minister in December 1905, hoping the Liberal leader Campbell-Bannerman would be unable to form a strong government. This was dashed when Campbell-Bannerman faced down an attempt ("The Relugas Compact") to "kick him upstairs" to the House of Lords. The Conservatives were defeated by the Liberals at the general election the following January (in terms of MPs, a Liberal landslide), with Balfour losing his seat at Manchester East to Thomas Gardner Horridge, a solicitor and king's counsel. Only 157 Conservatives were returned to the Commons, at least two-thirds followers of Chamberlain, who chaired the Conservative MPs until Balfour won a safe seat in the City of London.[23]

Achievements and mistakes

According to historian Robert Ensor, writing in 1936, Balfour can be credited with achievement in five major areas:[24]:355

1. The Education Act 1902 (and a similar measure for London in 1903);[25]
2. The Irish Land Purchase Act, 1903 which bought out the Anglo-English land owners;[26][27]
3. The Licensing Act 1904;[28]
4. In military policy, the creation of the Committee of Imperial Defence (1904) and support for Sir John Fisher's naval reforms.
5. In foreign policy, the Anglo-French Convention (1904), which formed the basis of the Entente with France.

The Education Act lasted four decades and eventually was highly praised. Eugene Rasor states, "Balfour was credited and much praised from many perspectives with the success [of the 1902 education act]. His commitment to education was fundamental and strong."[29]:20 At the time it hurt Balfour because the Liberal party used it to rally their Noncomformist supporters. Ensor said the Act ranked:

among the two or three greatest constructive measures of the twentieth century....[He did not write it] but no statesman less dominated than Balfour was by the concept of national efficiency would have taken it up and carried it through, since its cost on the side of votes was obvious and deterrent....Public money was thus made available for the first time to ensure properly paid teachers and a standardized level of efficiency for all children alike [including the Anglican and Catholic schools].[24]:355–56

For most of the 19th century, the very powerful political and economic position of the Church of Ireland (Anglican) landowners blocked the political aspirations of Irish nationalists, who by 1900 included both Catholic and Presbyterian elements. Balfour's solution was to buy them out, not by compulsion, but by offering the owners a full immediate payment and a 12% bonus on the sales price. The British government purchased 13 million acres (53,000 km2) by 1920, and sold farms to the tenants at low payments spread over seven decades. It would cost money, but all sides proved amenable.[24]:358–60 Starting in 1923 the Irish government bought out most of the remaining landowners, and in 1933 diverted payments being made to the British treasury and used them for local improvements.[30]

Balfour's introduction of Chinese coolie labour in South Africa enabled the Liberals to counterattack, charging that his measures amounted to "Chinese slavery".[24]:355, 376–78[31] Likerwise Liberals energized the Nonconformists when they attacked Balfour's Licensing Act 1904 which paid pub owners to close down. In the long-run it did reduce the great oversupply of pubs, while in the short run Balfour's party was hurt.[24]:360–61

Balfour failed to solve his greatest political challenge - the debate over tariffs that ripped his party apart. Chamberlain proposed to turn the Empire into a closed trade bloc protected by high tariffs against imports from Germany and the United States. He argued that tariff reform would revive a flagging British economy, strengthen imperial ties with the dominions and the colonies, and produce a positive programme that would facilitate reelection. He was vehemently opposed by Conservative free traders who denounced the proposal as economically fallacious, and open to the charge of raising food prices in Britain. Balfour tried to forestall disruption by removing key ministers on each side, and offering a much narrower tariff programme. It was ingenious, but both sides rejected any compromise, and his party's chances for reelection were ruined.[32][33]:4–6

Balfour may have been personally sympathetic to extending suffrage, with his brother Gerald, Conservative MP for Leeds Central married to women's suffrage activist Constance Lytton's sister Betty.[34] But he accepted the strength of the political opposition to women's suffrage, as shown in correspondence with Christabel Pankhurst, a leader of the WSPU. Balfour argued that he was 'not convinced the majority of women actually wanted the vote', in 1907. A rebuttal which meant extending the activist campaign for women's rights.[34] He was reminded by Lytton of a speech he made in 1892, namely that this question 'will arise again, menacing and ripe for resolution', she asked him to meet WSPU leader, Christabel Pankhurst, after a series of hunger strikes and suffering by imprisoned suffragettes in 1907. Balfour refused on the grounds of her militancy.[34] Christabel pleaded direct to meet Balfour as Conservative party leader, on their policy manifesto for the General Election of 1909, but he refused again as women's suffrage was 'not a party question and his colleagues were divided on the matter'.[34] She tried and failed again to get his open support in parliament for women's cause in the 1910 private member's Conciliation Bill.[34] He voted for the bill in the end but not for its progress to the Grand Committee, preventing it becoming law, and extending the activist campaigns as a result again.[34] The following year Lytton and Annie Kenney in person after another reading of the Bill, but again it was not prioritised as government business.[34] His sister-in-law Lady Betty Balfour spoke to Churchill that her brother was to speak for this policy, and also met the Prime Minister in a 2011 delegation of the women's movements respresenting the Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association.[34] But it was not until 1918 that (some) women were given the right to vote in elections in the United Kingdom, despite a forty year campaign.[34]

Historians generally praised Balfour's achievements in military and foreign policy. Cannon & Crowcroft 2015 stress the importance of the Anglo‐French Entente of 1904, and the establishment of the Committee of Imperial Defence.[35] Rasor points to twelve historians who have examined his key role in naval and military reforms.[29]:39–40[24]:361–71 However there was little political payback at the time. The local Conservative campaigns in 1906 focused mostly on a few domestic issues.[36] Balfour gave strong support for Jackie Fisher's naval reforms.[37]

Balfour created and chaired the Committee of Imperial Defence, which provided better long-term coordinated planning between the Army and Navy.[38] Austen Chamberlain said Britain would have been unprepared for the World War without his Committee of Imperial Defence. He wrote, "It is impossible to overrate the services thus rendered by Balfour to the Country and Empire....[Without the CID] victory would have been impossible."[39] Historians also praised the Anglo-French Convention (1904), which formed the basis of the Entente Cordiale with France that proved decisive in 1914.[40]

Cabinet of Arthur Balfour

This section is transcluded from Unionist government, 1895–1905. (edit | history)

Balfour was appointed Prime Minister on 12 July 1902 while the King was recovering from his recent appendicitis operation. Changes to the Cabinet were thus not announced until 9 August, when the King was back in London.[41] The new ministers were received in audience and took their oaths on 11 August.

Portfolio / Minister / Took office / Left office / Party

First Lord of the Treasury; Lord Privy Seal; Leader of the House of Commons / Arthur Balfour* / 12 July 1902 / 4 December 1905 / Conservative

Lord Chancellor / The Earl of Halsbury / 29 June 1895 4/ December 1905 / Conservative

Lord President of the Council; Leader of the House of Lords / The Duke of Devonshire / 29 June 1895 / 19 October 1903 / Liberal Unionist

Lord President of the Council / The Marquess of Londonderry / 19 October 1903 / 11 December 1905 / Conservative

Leader of the House of Lords / The Marquess of Lansdowne / 13 October 1903 / 4 December 1905 / Liberal Unionist

Secretary of State for the Home Department / Aretas Akers-Douglas / 12 July 1902 / 5 December 1905 / Conservative

Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs / The Marquess of Lansdowne / 12 November 1900 / 4 December 1905 / Liberal Unionist

Secretary of State for the Colonies / Joseph Chamberlain / 29 June 1895 / 16 September 1903 / Liberal Unionist

Secretary of State for the Colonies / Alfred Lyttelton / 11 October 1903 / 4 December 1905 / Liberal Unionist

Secretary of State for War / St John Brodrick / 12 November 1900 / 6 October 1903 / Conservative

Secretary of State for War / H. O. Arnold-Forster / 6 October 1903 / 4 December 1905 / Liberal Unionist

Secretary of State for India / Lord George Hamilton / 4 July 1895 / 9 October 1903 / Conservative

Secretary of State for India / St John Brodrick / 9 October 1903 / 4 December 1905 / Conservative

First Lord of the Admiralty / The Earl of Selborne / 1900 / 1905 / Liberal Unionist

Chancellor of the Exchequer / Charles Ritchie / 11 August 1902 / 9 October 1903 / Conservative

Chancellor of the Exchequer / Austen Chamberlain / 9 October 1903 / 4 December 1905 / Liberal Unionist

President of the Board of Trade / Gerald Balfour / 12 November 1900 / 12 March 1905 / Conservative

President of the Board of Trade / The 4th Marquess of Salisbury / 12 March 1905 / 4 December 1905 / Conservative

Secretary for Scotland / The Lord Balfour of Burleigh / 29 June 1895 / 9 October 1903 / Conservative

Secretary for Scotland / Andrew Murray / 9 October 1903 / 2 February 1905 / Conservative

Secretary for Scotland / The Marquess of Linlithgow / 2 February 1905 / 4 December 1905 / Conservative

Chief Secretary for Ireland / George Wyndham / 9 November 1900 / 12 March 1905 / Conservative

Chief Secretary for Ireland / Walter Long / 12 March 1905 / 4 December 1905 / Conservative

President of the Local Government Board / Walter Long / 1900 / 1905 / Conservative

President of the Local Government Board / Gerald Balfour / 1905 / 11 December 1905 / Conservative

President of the Board of Agriculture / Robert William Hanbury / 16 November 1900 / 28 April 1903 / Conservative

President of the Board of Education / The Marquess of Londonderry / 11 August 1902 / 4 December 1905 / Conservative

Lord Chancellor of Ireland / The Lord Ashbourne / 29 June 1895 / 1905 / Conservative

First Commissioner of Works / The Lord Windsor /11 August 1902 / 4 December 1905 / Conservative

Postmaster General / Austen Chamberlain / 11 August 1902 / 9 October 1903 / Liberal Unionist

Later career


Painting by John Singer Sargent, 1908


Balfour caricatured by Vanity Fair, 1910

After the general election of 1906 Balfour remained party leader, his position strengthened by Joseph Chamberlain's absence from the House of Commons after his stroke in July 1906, but he was unable to make much headway against the huge Liberal majority in the Commons. An early attempt to score a debating triumph over the government, made in Balfour's usual abstruse, theoretical style, saw Campbell-Bannerman respond with: "Enough of this foolery," to the delight of his supporters. Balfour made the controversial decision, with Lord Lansdowne, to use the heavily Unionist House of Lords as a check on the political programme and legislation of the Liberal party in the Commons. Legislation was vetoed or altered by amendments between 1906 and 1909, leading David Lloyd George to remark that the Lords was "the right hon. Gentleman's poodle. It fetches and carries for him. It barks for him. It bites anybody that he sets it on to. And we are told that this is a great revising Chamber, the safeguard of liberty in the country."[42] The issue was forced by the Liberals with Lloyd George's People's Budget, provoking the constitutional crisis that led to the Parliament Act 1911, which limited the Lords to delaying bills for up to two years. After the Unionists lost the general elections of 1910 (despite softening the tariff reform policy with Balfour's promise of a referendum on food taxes), the Unionist peers split to allow the Parliament Act to pass the House of Lords, to prevent mass creation of Liberal peers by the new King, George V. The exhausted Balfour resigned as party leader after the crisis, and was succeeded in late 1911 by Bonar Law.[14]

Balfour remained important in the party, however, and when the Unionists joined Asquith's coalition government in May 1915, Balfour succeeded Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty. When Asquith's government collapsed in December 1916, Balfour, who seemed a potential successor to the premiership, became Foreign Secretary in Lloyd George's new administration, but not in the small War Cabinet, and was frequently left out of inner workings of government. Balfour's service as Foreign Secretary was notable for the Balfour Mission, a crucial alliance-building visit to the US in April 1917, and the Balfour Declaration of 1917, a letter to Lord Rothschild affirming the government's support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire.[43]


Portrait by Walter Stoneman, 1921

Balfour resigned as Foreign Secretary following the Versailles Conference in 1919, but continued in the government (and the Cabinet after normal peacetime political arrangements resumed) as Lord President of the Council. In 1921–22 he represented the British Empire at the Washington Naval Conference and during summer 1922 stood in for the Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, who was ill. He put forward a proposal for the international settlement of war debts and reparations (the Balfour Note), but it was not accepted.[14]

On 5 May 1922, Balfour was created Earl of Balfour and Viscount Traprain, of Whittingehame, in the county of Haddington.[44] In October 1922 he, with most of the Conservative leadership, resigned with Lloyd George's government following the Carlton Club meeting, a Conservative back-bench revolt against continuance of the coalition. Bonar Law became Prime Minister. Like many Coalition leaders, he did not hold office in the Conservative governments of 1922–1924, but as an elder statesman, he was consulted by the King in the choice of Stanley Baldwin as Bonar Law's successor as Conservative leader in May 1923. When asked whether "dear George" (the much more experienced Lord Curzon) would be chosen, he replied, referring to Curzon's wealthy wife Grace, "No, dear, George will not but while he may have lost the hope of glory he still possesses the means of Grace."

Balfour was not initially included in Baldwin's second government in 1924, but in 1925, he returned to the Cabinet, in place of the late Lord Curzon as Lord President of the Council, until the government ended in 1929. With 28 years of government service, Balfour had one of the longest ministerial careers in modern British politics, second only to Winston Churchill .[45]

Last years

Balfour had generally good health until 1928 and remained until then a regular tennis player. Four years previously he had been the first president of the International Lawn Tennis Club of Great Britain. At the end of 1928, most of his teeth were removed and he suffered the unremitting circulatory trouble which ended his life. Before that, he had suffered occasional phlebitis and, by late 1929, he was immobilised by it. Balfour died at his brother Gerald's home, Fishers Hill House in Hook Heath, Woking, on 19 March 1930. At his request a public funeral was declined, and he was buried on 22 March beside members of his family at Whittingehame in a Church of Scotland service although he also belonged to the Church of England. By special remainder, his title passed to his brother Gerald.

His obituaries in The Times, The Guardian and the Daily Herald did not mention the declaration for which he is most famous outside Britain.[46]

Personality


Portrait by Philip de László, c. 1931

Early in Balfour's career he was thought to be merely amusing himself with politics, and it was regarded as doubtful whether his health could withstand the severity of English winters. He was considered a dilettante by his colleagues; regardless, Lord Salisbury gave increasingly powerful posts in his government to his nephew.[16]

Beatrice Webb wrote in her diary:

A man of extraordinary grace of mind and body, delighting in all that is beautiful and distinguished––music, literature, philosophy, religious feeling and moral disinterestedness, aloof from all the greed and crying of common human nature. But a strange paradox as Prime Minister of a great empire! I doubt whether even foreign affairs interest him. For all economic and social questions I gather he has an utter loathing, while the machinery of government and administration would seem to him a disagreeable irrelevance.[47]

Balfour developed a manner known to friends as the Balfourian manner. Edward Harold Begbie, a journalist, attacked him for his self-obsession:

This Balfourian manner...an attitude of mind—an attitude of convinced superiority which insists in the first place on complete detachment from the enthusiasms of the human race, and in the second place on keeping the vulgar world at arm's length....To Mr. Arthur Balfour this studied attitude of aloofness has been fatal, both to his character and to his career. He has said nothing, written nothing, done nothing, which lives in the heart of his countrymen....the charming, gracious, and cultured Mr. Balfour is the most egotistical of men, and a man who would make almost any sacrifice to remain in office.[48]

However, Graham Goodlad argued to the contrary:

Balfour's air of detachment was a pose. He was sincere in his conservatism, mistrusting radical political and social change and believing deeply in the Union with Ireland, the Empire and the superiority of the British race....Those who dismissed him as a languid dilettante were wide of the mark. As Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1887 to 1891 he manifested an unflinching commitment to the maintenance of British authority in the face of popular protest. He combined a strong emphasis on law and order with measures aimed at reforming the landowning system and developing Ireland's backward rural economy.[32]

Churchill compared Balfour to H. H. Asquith: "The difference between Balfour and Asquith is that Arthur is wicked and moral, while Asquith is good and immoral." Balfour said of himself, "I am more or less happy when being praised, not very comfortable when being abused, but I have moments of uneasiness when being explained."[49]

Balfour was interested in the study of dialects and donated money to Joseph Wright's work on the English Dialect Dictionary. Wright wrote in the preface to the first volume that the project would have been "in vain" had he not received the donation from Balfour.[50]

Arthur Balfour was a fan of football and supported Manchester City F.C.[51]

Writings and academic achievements

As a philosopher, Balfour formulated the basis for the evolutionary argument against naturalism. Balfour argued the Darwinian premise of selection for reproductive fitness cast doubt on scientific naturalism, because human cognitive facilities that would accurately perceive truth could be less advantageous than adaptation for evolutionarily useful illusions.[52]

As he says:

[There is] no distinction to be drawn between the development of reason and that of any other faculty, physiological or psychical, by which the interests of the individual or the race are promoted. From the humblest form of nervous irritation at the one end of the scale, to the reasoning capacity of the most advanced races at the other, everything without exception (sensation, instinct, desire, volition) has been produced directly or indirectly, by natural causes acting for the most part on strictly utilitarian principles. Convenience, not knowledge, therefore, has been the main end to which this process has tended.

— Arthur Balfour[53]

He was a member of the Society for Psychical Research, a society studying psychic and paranormal phenomena, and was its president from 1892 to 1894.[54] In 1914, he delivered the Gifford Lectures at the University of Glasgow,[55] which formed the basis for his book Theism and Humanism (1915).[56]

Artistic

After the First World War, when there was controversy over the style of headstone proposed for use on British war graves being taken on by the Imperial War Graves Commission, Balfour submitted a design for a cruciform headstone.[57] At an exhibition in August 1919, it drew many criticisms; the Commission's principal architect, Sir John Burnet, said Balfour's cross would create a criss-cross effect destroying any sense of "restful diginity", Edwin Lutyens called it "extraordinarily ugly", and its shape was variously described as resembling a shooting target or bottle.[57] His design was not accepted but the Commission offered him a second chance to submit another design which he did not take up, having been refused once.[57]:49 After a further exhibition in the House of Commons, the "Balfour cross" was ultimately rejected in favour of the standard headstone the Commission permanently adopted because the latter offered more space for inscriptions and service emblems.[57]:50

Popular culture

Balfour occasionally appears in popular culture.[29]

• Balfour was the subject of two parody novels based on Alice in Wonderland, Clara in Blunderland (1902) and Lost in Blunderland (1903), which appeared under the pseudonym Caroline Lewis; one of the co-authors was Harold Begbie.[58][59]
• The character Arthur Balfour plays a supporting, off-screen role in Upstairs, Downstairs, promoting the family patriarch, Richard Bellamy, to the position of Civil Lord of the Admiralty.
• Balfour was portrayed by Adrian Ropes in the 1974 Thames TV production Jennie: Lady Randolph Churchill.
• Balfour was portrayed by Lyndon Brook in the 1975 ATV production Edward the Seventh.
• A fictionalised version of Arthur Balfour (identified as "Mr. Balfour") appears as British Prime Minister in the science fiction romance The Angel of the Revolution by George Griffith, published in 1893 (when Balfour was still in opposition) but set in an imagined near future of 1903–1905.
• The indecisive Balfour (identified as "Halfan Halfour") appears in "Ministers of Grace", a satirical short story by Saki in which he, and other leading politicians including Quinston, are changed into animals appropriate to their characters.

Legacy


1967 Israel stamp commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Balfour Declaration

A portrait of Balfour by Philip de Laszlo is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge.[60]

Balfouria, a moshav in Israel and many streets in Israel are named after him. The town of Balfour, Mpumalanga in South Africa was named after him.[61]

The Lord Balfour Hotel, an Art Deco hotel on Ocean Drive in the South Beach neighborhood of Miami Beach, Florida, is named after him.

Honours and decorations


Coat of arms of the Lord Balfour KG, as displayed on his Garter stall plate at St. George's Chapel, Windsor, viz.' Argent on a chevron engrailed between three mullets sable, three otters' heads erased of the field.

• He was appointed as a Deputy Lieutenant of Ross-shire on 10 September 1880, giving him the post-nominal letters "DL".[62]
• He was sworn of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1885, giving him the style "The Right Honourable" and after ennoblement the post-nominal letters "PC" for life.[63]
• On 3 June 1916 he was appointed to the Order of Merit, giving him the post-nominal letters "OM" for life.[63]
• In 1919, he was elected Chancellor of his old university, Cambridge, in succession to his brother-in-law, Lord Rayleigh.
• He was made a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter on 24 February 1922, becoming Sir Arthur Balfour and giving him the post-nominal letters "KG" for life.[63]
• On 5 May 1922, Balfour was raised to the peerage as Earl of Balfour and Viscount Thaprain, of Whittingehame, in the county of Haddington. This allowed him to sit in the House of Lords.[63]
• He was awarded the Estonian Cross of Liberty (conferred between 1919–25), third grade, first class, for Civilian Service.

He was given the Freedom of the City/Freedom of the Borough of

• 28 September 1899: Dundee
• 20 September 1902: Haddington, East Lothian[64]
• 19 October 1905: Edinburgh

Honorary degrees

Country / Date / School / Degree

England / 1909 / University of Liverpool / Doctor of Laws (LL.D)[65]
England / 1912 / University of Sheffield / Doctor of Laws (LL.D)[66]
Ontario / 1917 / University of Toronto / Doctor of Laws (LL.D)[67]
Wales / 1921 / University of Wales / Doctor of Letters (D. Litt)
England / 1924 / University of Leeds / Doctor of Laws (LL.D)[68]

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

See also

• Biography portal
• Balfour Declaration
• Balfour Declaration of 1926
• Palm Sunday Case

Notes

1. Oxford Dictionaries Oxford Dictionaries Online
2. Taylor, Simon; Márkus, Gilbert (2008). The Place-Names of Fife. Volume Two: Central Fife between the Rivers Leven and Eden. Donington. p. 408.
3. "Balfour". Fife Place-name Data. Glasgow University. n.d. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
4. Chisholm 1911, p. 250.
5. Tuchman, Barbara (1966). The Proud Tower. Macmillan. p. 46.
6. "Balfour, Arthur (BLFR866AJ)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
7. http://www.burkespeerage.com
8. Adams, Ralph James Q. (2007). Balfour: The Last Grandee. John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5424-7.
9. Oppenheim, Janet (1988). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-0-521-34767-9.
10. Wilson, A. N. (2011). The Victorians. Random House. p. 530. ISBN 978-1-4464-9320-5.
11. Sargent, John Singer (February 2010) [1899]. "The Wyndham Sisters: Lady Elcho, Mrs. Adeane, and Mrs. Tennant". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
12. Mackay, Ruddock F. (1985). Balfour, Intellectual Statesman. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-212245-2.
13. Chisholm 1911, pp. 250–251.
14. Zebel, Sydney Henry (1973). Balfour: A Political Biography. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08536-6.
15. Green, Ewen (2006). Balfour. Haus Publishing. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-1-912208-37-1.
16. Chisholm 1911, p. 251.
17. Langguth, A. J. (1981). Saki, a life of Hector Hugh Munro : with six short stories never before collected. Saki, 1870–1916. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 65. ISBN 9780671247157. OCLC 7554446.
18. Massie, Robert (1991). Dreadnought. New York: Random House. pp. 318–319..
19. Chisholm 1911, p. 252.
20. Viorst, Milton (2016). Zionism: The Birth and Transformation of an Ideal. p. 80. ISBN 9781466890329.
21. Sand, Shlomo (2012). The Invention of the Land of Israel: From Holy Land to Homeland. London: Verso. pp. 14–15.
22. Sabbagh, Karl (2006). Palestine : a personal history. London: Atlantic. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-84354-344-2. Balfour warned the House of Commons in his speech of 'the undoubted evils that had fallen upon the country from an immigration which was largely Jewish'
23. Chisholm 1911, p. 254.
24. Ensor, R. C. K. (1936). England, 1870–1914. Oxford: Clarendon.
25. Robinson, Wendy (2002). "Historiographical reflections on the 1902 Education Act". Oxford Review of Education. 28 (2–3): 159–172. doi:10.1080/03054980220143342. JSTOR 1050905.
26. Bull, Philip (2016). "The significance of the nationalist response to the Irish land act of 1903". Irish Historical Studies. 28 (111): 283–305. doi:10.1017/S0021121400011056. ISSN 0021-1214.
27. Bastable, Charles F. (1903). "The Irish Land Purchase Act of 1903". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 18 (1): 1–21. doi:10.2307/1882773. JSTOR 1882773.
28. Jennings, Paul (2009). "Liquor licensing and the local historian: the 1904 Licensing Act and its administration" (PDF). The Local Historian. 9 (1): 24–37.
29. Rasor, Eugene L. (1998). Arthur James Balfour, 1848-1930: Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood. ISBN 9780313288777.
30. Lee, J. J. (1989). Ireland 1912-1985: politics and society. p. 71.
31. Spencer, Scott C. (2014). "'British Liberty Stained:' Chinese Slavery, Imperial Rhetoric, and the 1906 British General Election". Madison Historical Review. 7 (1): 3–.
32. Goodlad, Graham (2010). "Balfour: Graham Goodlad Reviews the Career of AJ Balfour, an Unsuccessful Prime Minister and Party Leader but an Important and Long-Serving Figure on the British Political Scene". History Review. 68: 22–24.
33. Pearce, Robert; Goodlad, Graham (2013). British Prime Ministers From Balfour to Brown.
34. Atkinson, Diane (2018). Rise up, women! : the remarkable lives of the suffragettes. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 8, 76–77, 137, 169, 184, 201, 209, 253, 267. ISBN 9781408844045. OCLC 1016848621.
35. Adams 2002, p. 199.
36. Russell, A.K. (1973). Liberal landslide: the general election of 1906. p. 92.
37. French, David (1994). "Defending the Empire: The Conservative Party and British Defense Policy, 1899-1915". English Historical Review. 109 (434): 1324–1326.
38. Mackintosh, John P. (1962). "The role of the Committee of Imperial Defence before 1914". English Historical Review. 77 (304): 490–503. JSTOR 561324.
39. Young, Kenneth (1975). "Arthur James Balfour". In Van Thal, Herbert (ed.). The Prime Ministers: From Sir Robert Walpole to Edward Heath. 2. Stein and Day. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-04-942131-8.
40. MacMillan, Margaret (2013). The War that Ended Peace: How Europe abandoned peace for the First World War. Profile. pp. 169–171. ISBN 978-1-84765-416-8.
41. "Mr Balfour´s Ministry – full list of appointments". The Times (36842). London. 9 August 1902. p. 5.
42. "HC Deb 26 June 1907 vol 176 cc1408-523". Hansard. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
43. Schneer, Jonathan (2010). The Balfour Declaration: the origins of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Bond Street Books.
44. "No. 32691". The London Gazette. 5 May 1922. p. 3512.
45. Parkinson, Justin (13 June 2013). "Chasing Churchill: Ken Clarke climbs ministerial long-service chart". BBC News.
46. Teveth, Shabtai (1985). Ben-Gurion and the Palestinian Arabs. From Peace to War. p. 106.
47. MacKenzie, Jeanne, ed. (1983). The Diary of Beatrice Webb. Virago. p. 288. ISBN 9780860682103.
48. Begbie, Harold (1920). Mirrors of Downing Street. pp. 76–79.
49. Anon (n.d.). "History of Arthur James Balfour". gov.uk. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
50. Wright, Joseph (1898). The English Dialect Dictionary, Volume 1 A-C. London: Henry Frowde. p. viii.
51. Sanders, Richard (2010). Beastly Fury: The Strange Birth of British Football. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-55381-935-9. p219
52. Gray, John (2011). The Immortalization Commission.
53. Balfour 1915, p. 68.
54. Lycett, Andrew (2008). The Man Who Created Sherlock Holmes. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 427. ISBN 9780743275255.
55. Theism and Humanism: Being the Gifford Lectures Delivered at the University of Glasgow, 1914. Hodder and Stoughton, George H. Doran Company. 1915.
56. Madigan, Tim (2010). "The Paradoxes of Arthur Balfour". Philosophy Now.
57. Longworth, Philip (1985). The unending vigil: a history of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, 1917-1984. Leo Cooper in association with Secker & Warburg.
58. Sigler, Carolyn, ed. (1997). Alternative Alices: Visions and Revisions of Lewis Carroll's "Alice" Books. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. pp. 340–347.
59. Dickinson, Evelyn (20 June 1902). "Literary Note and Books of the Month". United Australia. II (12).
60. "Trinity College, University of Cambridge". BBC Your Paintings. Archived from the original on 11 May 2014.
61. Raper, P. E. (1989). Dictionary of Southern African Place Names. Jonathan Ball Publishers. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-947464-04-2 – via Internet Archive.
62. "The London Gazette". Retrieved 24 July 2016.
63. "Page 1643". The Peerage. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
64. "Mr. Balfour at Haddington". The Times (36879). London. 22 September 1902. p. 5.
65. "Honorary Graduates of the University" (PDF). University of Liverpool. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
66. "Honorary Graduates" (PDF). University of Sheffield. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
67. "University of Toronto Honorary Degree Recipients 1850 - 2016" (PDF). University of Toronto. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
68. "Honour for Earl of Balfour". The Scotsman (25, 446). 17 December 1924. p. 8 – via British Newspaper Archive.
69. Davies, Edward J. (2013). "The Balfours of Balbirnie and Whittingehame". The Scottish Genealogist(60): 84–90.

References

• Adams, R.J.Q. (2002). Ramsden, John (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century British Politics.
• Cannon, John; Crowcroft, Robert, eds. (2015). A Dictionary of British History (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Torrance, David, The Scottish Secretaries (Birlinn Limited 2006)
• Chisholm, Hugh (1911). "Balfour, Arthur James" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 250–254. This article was written by Chisholm himself soon after Balfour's premiership, while he was still leader of the Opposition. It includes a significant amount of contemporaneous analysis, some of which is summarised here.

Further reading

Biographical

• Adams, R. J. Q.: Balfour: The Last Grandee, John Murray, 2007
• Brendon, Piers: Eminent Edwardians (1980) ch 1
• Buckle, George Earle (1922). "Balfour, Arthur James" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 30 (12th ed.). London & New York. pp. 366–368.
• Dugdale, Blanche: Arthur James Balfour, First Earl of Balfour KG, OM, FRS- Volume 1, (1936); Arthur James Balfour, First Earl of Balfour KG, OM, FRS- Volume 2- 1906–1930, (1936), official life by his niece; vol 1 and 2 online free
• Egremont, Max: A life of Arthur James Balfour, William Collins and Company Ltd, 1980
• Green, E. H. H. Balfour (20 British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century); Haus, 2006. ISBN 1-904950-55-8
• Mackay, Ruddock F.: "Balfour, Intellectual Statesman", Oxford 1985 ISBN 0-19-212245-2
• Mackay, Ruddock F., and H. C. G. Matthew. "Balfour, Arthur James, first earl of Balfour (1848–1930)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 accessed 19 Nov 2016 18,000 word scholarly biography
• Pearce, Robert and Graham Goodlad. British Prime Ministers From Balfour to Brown (2013) pp 1–11.
• Raymond, E. T. (1920). A Life of Arthur James Balfour. Little, Brown. p. 1.
• Young, Kenneth: Arthur James Balfour: The happy life of the Politician, Prime Minister, Statesman and Philosopher- 1848–1930, G. Bell and Sons, 1963
• Zebel, Sydney Henry. Balfour: a political biography (ICON Group International, 1973

Specialty studies

• Ellenberger, Nancy W. Balfour's World: Aristocracy and Political Culture at the Fin de Siècle (2015). excerpt
• Gollin, Alfred M. Balfour's burden: Arthur Balfour and imperial preference(1965).
• Halévy, Élie (1926) Imperialism And The Rise Of Labour (1926) online
• Halévy, Élie (1956) A History Of The English People: Epilogue vol 1: 1895-1905 ' (1929) online as prime minister pp 131ff,.
• Jacyna, Leon Stephen. "Science and social order in the thought of A.J. Balfour." Isis (1980): 11–34. in JSTOR
• Judd, Denis. Balfour and the British Empire: a study in Imperial evolution 1874–1932 (1968).
• Marriott, J. A. R. Modern England, 1885–1945 (1948), pp. 180–99, on Balfour as Prime Minister. online
• Massie, Robert K. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany, and the Coming of the Great War (1992) pp 310–519, a popular account of Balfour's foreign and naval policies as prime minister.
• Mathew, William M. "The Balfour Declaration and the Palestine Mandate, 1917–1923: British Imperialist Imperatives." British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 40.3 (2013): 231–250.
• O'Callaghan, Margaret. British high politics and a nationalist Ireland: criminality, land and the law under Forster and Balfour (Cork Univ Pr, 1994).
• Ramsden, John. A History of the Conservative Party: The age of Balfour and Baldwin, 1902–1940 (1978); vol 3 of a scholarly history of the Conservative Party.
• Rempel, Richard A. Unionists Divided; Arthur Balfour, Joseph Chamberlain and the Unionist Free Traders (1972).
• Rofe, J. Simon, and Alan Tomlinson. "Strenuous competition on the field of play, diplomacy off it: the 1908 London Olympics, Theodore Roosevelt and Arthur Balfour, and transatlantic relations." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 15.1 (2016): 60-79. online
• Shannon, Catherine B. "The Legacy of Arthur Balfour to Twentieth-Century Ireland." in Peter Collins, ed. Nationalism and Unionism (1994): 17–34.
• Shannon, Catherine B. Arthur J. Balfour and Ireland, 1874–1922 (Catholic Univ of America Press, 1988).
• Sugawara, Takeshi. "Arthur Balfour and the Japanese Military Assistance during the Great War." International Relations 2012.168 (2012): pp 44–57. online
• Taylor, Tony. "Arthur Balfour and educational change: The myth revisited." British Journal of Educational Studies 42#2 (1994): 133–149.
• Tomes, Jason. Balfour and foreign policy: the international thought of a conservative statesman (Cambridge University Press, 2002).
• Tuchman, Barbara W.: The Proud Tower – A Portrait of the World Before the War (1966)

Historiography

• Loades David, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (2003) 1:122–24; cover major politicians and issues
• Rasor Eugene L. Arthur James Balfour, 1848–1930: Historiography and Annotated Bibliography (1998)

Primary sources

• Balfour, Arthur James. Criticism and Beauty: A Lecture Rewritten, Being the Romanes Lecture for 1909 (Oxford, 1910) online
• Cecil, Robert, and Arthur J. Balfour. Salisbury-Balfour Correspondence: Letters Exchanged Between the 3. Marquess of Salisbury and His Nephew Arthur James Balfour; 1869-1892 (Hertfordshire Record Society, 1988).
• Ridley, Jane, and Clayre Percy, erds. The Letters of Arthur Balfour and Lady Elcho 1885–1917. (Hamish Hamilton, 1992).
• Short, Wilfrid M., ed. Arthur James Balfour as Philosopher and Thinker: A Collection of the More Important and Interesting Passages in His Non-political Writings, Speeches, and Addresses, 1879-1912 (1912). online