Part 2 of 2
SexualityLawrence's biographers have discussed his sexuality at considerable length, and this discussion has spilled into the popular press.[169] There is no reliable evidence for consensual sexual intimacy between Lawrence and any person. His friends have expressed the opinion that he was asexual,[170][171] and Lawrence himself specifically denied any personal experience of sex in multiple private letters.[172] There were suggestions that Lawrence had been intimate with Dahoum, who worked with him at a pre-war archaeological dig in Carchemish,[173] and fellow serviceman R. A. M. Guy,[174] but his biographers and contemporaries found them unconvincing.[173][174][175]
The dedication to his book Seven Pillars is a poem titled "To S.A." which opens:
I loved you, so I drew these tides of men into my hands
and wrote my will across the sky in stars
To earn you Freedom, the seven-pillared worthy house,
that your eyes might be shining for me
When we came.
Lawrence was never specific about the identity of "S.A." Many theories argue in favour of individual men or women, and the Arab nation as a whole. The most popular theory is that S.A. represents (at least in part) his companion Selim Ahmed, "Dahoum", who apparently died of typhus before 1918.[176][177][178]
Lawrence lived in a period of strong official opposition to homosexuality, but his writing on the subject was tolerant. He wrote to Charlotte Shaw, "I've seen lots of man-and-man loves: very lovely and fortunate some of them were."[179] He refers to "the openness and honesty of perfect love" on one occasion in Seven Pillars, when discussing relationships between young male fighters in the war.[180] He wrote in Chapter 1 of Seven Pillars:
In horror of such sordid commerce [diseased female prostitutes] our youths began indifferently to slake one another's few needs in their own clean bodies—a cold convenience that, by comparison, seemed sexless and even pure. Later, some began to justify this sterile process, and swore that friends quivering together in the yielding sand with intimate hot limbs in supreme embrace, found there hidden in the darkness a sensual co-efficient of the mental passion which was welding our souls and spirits in one flaming effort [to secure Arab independence]. Several, thirsting to punish appetites they could not wholly prevent, took a savage pride in degrading the body, and offered themselves fiercely in any habit which promised physical pain or filth.[181]
There is considerable evidence that Lawrence was a masochist. He wrote in his description of the Dera'a beating that "a delicious warmth, probably sexual, was swelling through me," and he also included a detailed description of the guards' whip in a style typical of masochists' writing.[182] In later life, Lawrence arranged to pay a military colleague to administer beatings to him,[183] and to be subjected to severe formal tests of fitness and stamina.[184] John Bruce first wrote on this topic, including some other statements that were not credible, but Lawrence's biographers regard the beatings as established fact.[185] French novelist André Malraux admired Lawrence but wrote that he had a "taste for self-humiliation, now by discipline and now by veneration; a horror of respectability; a disgust for possessions".[186]
Psychologist John E. Mack sees a possible connection between Lawrence's masochism and the childhood beatings that he had received from his mother[187] for routine misbehaviours.[188] His brother Arnold thought that the beatings had been given for the purpose of breaking his brother's will.[188] Angus Calder suggested in 1997 that Lawrence's apparent masochism and self-loathing might have stemmed from a sense of guilt over losing his brothers Frank and Will on the Western Front, along with many other school friends, while he survived.[189]
The Aldington ControversyIn 1955 Richard Aldington published Lawrence of Arabia: A Biographical Enquiry, a sustained attack on Lawrence's character, writing, accomplishments, and truthfulness. Specificaly, Aldington alleges that Lawrence lied and exaggerated continuously, promoted a misguided policy in the Middle East, that his strategy of containing but not capturing Medina was incorrect, and that Seven Pillars of Wisdom was a bad book with few redeeming features. He also revealed Lawrence's illegitimacy and strongly suggested that he was homosexual. For example: "Seven Pillars of Wisdom is rather a work of quasi-fiction than history."[190], and "It was seldom that he reported any fact or episode involving himself without embellishing them and indeed in some cases entirely inventing them."[191]
It is significant that Aldington was a colonialist, arguing that the French colonial administration of Syria (strongly resisted by Lawrence) had benefited that country[192] and that Arabia's peoples were "far enough advanced for some government though not for complete self-government."[193] He was also a Francophile, railing against Lawrence's "Francophobia, a hatred and an envy so irrational, so irresponsible and so unscrupulous that it is fair to say his attitude towards Syria was determined more by hatred of France than by devotion to the 'Arabs' - a convenient propaganda word which grouped many disharmonious and even mutually hostile tribes and peoples."[194]
Prior to the publication of Aldington's book, its contents became known in London's literary community. A group Aldington and some subsequent authors referred to as "The Lawrence Bureau"[195], led by B. H. Liddell Hart[196] tried energetically, starting in 1954, to have the book suppressed.[197] That effort having failed, Liddell Hart prepared and distributed hundreds of copies of Aldington's 'Lawrence': His Charges--and Treatment of the Evidence, a 7-page single-spaced document.[198] This worked: Aldington's book received many extremely negative and even abusive reviews, with strong evidence that some reviewers had read Liddell's rebuttal but not Aldington's book.[199]
Aldington wrote that Lawrence embellished many stories and invented others, and in particular that his claims involving numbers were usually inflated - for example claims of having read 50,000 books in the Oxford Union library, of having blown up 79 bridges, of having had a price of £50,000 on his head, and of having suffered 60 or more injuries. Many of Aldington's specific claims against Lawrence have been accepted by subsequent biographers. In Richard Aldington and Lawrence of Arabia: A Cautionary Tale, Fred D. Crawford writes "Much that shocked in 1955 is now standard knowledge--that TEL was illegitimate, that this profoundly troubled him, that he frequently resented his mother's dominance, that such reminiscences as T.E. Lawrence by His Friends are not reliable, that TEL's leg-pulling and other adolescent traits could be offensive, that TEL took liberties with the truth in his official reports and Seven Pillars, that the significance of his exploits during the Arab Revolt was more political than military, that he contributed to his own myth, that when he vetted the books by Graves and Liddell he let remain much that he knew was untrue, and that his feelings about publicity were ambiguous."[200]
This has not prevented most post-Aldington biographers (including Fred D. Crawford, who studied the Aldington claims intensely) from expressing strong admiration for Lawrence’s military, political, and writing achievements.
Awards and commemorationsEric Kennington's bust of Lawrence at St Paul's CathedralThe head of Lawrence's effigy in St Martin's Church, WarehamLawrence was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 7 August 1917,[1] appointed a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order on 10 May 1918,[2] awarded the Knight of the Legion of Honour (France) on 30 May 1916[3] and awarded the Croix de guerre (France) on 16 April 1918.[4]
A bronze bust of Lawrence by Eric Kennington was placed in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, London, on 29 January 1936, alongside the tombs of Britain's greatest military leaders.[201] A recumbent stone effigy by Kennington was installed in St Martin's Church, Wareham, Dorset, in 1939.[202][203]
An English Heritage blue plaque marks Lawrence's childhood home at 2 Polstead Road, Oxford, and another appears on his London home at 14 Barton Street, Westminster.[204][205] Lawrence appears on the album cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band by The Beatles. In 2002, Lawrence was named 53rd in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.[206]
In popular culture
Film· Alexander Korda bought the film rights to The Seven Pillars in the 1930s. The production was in development, with various actors cast as the lead, such as Leslie Howard.[207]
· Peter O'Toole was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Lawrence in the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia.[208]
· Lawrence portrayed by Robert Pattinson in the 2014 biographical drama about Gertrude Bell, Queen of the Desert.[209]
· Peter O'Toole's portrayal of Lawrence inspired behavioural affectations in the synthetic model called David, portrayed by Michael Fassbender in the 2012 film Prometheus, and in the 2017 sequel Alien: Covenant, part of the Alien franchise.[210]
Literature· T.E. Lawrence is a 1980 manga by Tomoko Kousaka, which retells the story of Lawrence and his participation in the Arab Revolt.[211]
· The T.E. Lawrence Poems was published by Canadian poet Gwendolyn MacEwen in 1982.[212]. The poems rely heavily, and quote directly from, primary material including Seven Pillars and the collected letters.
Television· He was portrayed by Judson Scott in the 1982 TV series Voyagers![213]
· Ralph Fiennes portrayed Lawrence in the 1992 British made-for-TV movie A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia.[214]
· Joseph A. Bennett and Douglas Henshall portrayed him in the 1992 TV series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles.[215]
· He was also portrayed in a Syrian series, directed by Thaer Mousa, called Lawrence Al Arab. The series consisted of 37 episodes, each between 45 minutes and one hour in length.[216]
Theatre· Lawrence was the subject of Terence Rattigan's controversial play Ross, which explored Lawrence's alleged homosexuality. Ross ran in London in 1960–61, starring Alec Guinness, who was an admirer of Lawrence, and Gerald Harper as his blackmailer, Dickinson. The play had originally been written as a screenplay, but the planned film was never made. In January 1986 at the Theatre Royal, Plymouth, on the opening night of the revival of Ross, Marc Sinden, who was playing Dickinson (the man who recognised and blackmailed Lawrence, played by Simon Ward), was introduced to the man on whom the character of Dickinson was based. Sinden asked him why he had blackmailed Ross, and he replied, "Oh, for the money. I was financially embarrassed at the time and needed to get up to London to see a girlfriend. It was never meant to be a big thing, but a good friend of mine was very close to Terence Rattigan and years later, the silly devil told him the story."[217]
· Alan Bennett's Forty Years On (1968) includes a satire on Lawrence; known as "Tee Hee Lawrence" because of his high-pitched, girlish giggle. "Clad in the magnificent white silk robes of an Arab prince ... he hoped to pass unnoticed through London. Alas he was mistaken."[218]
· The character of Private Napoleon Meek in George Bernard Shaw's 1931 play Too True to Be Good was inspired by Lawrence. Meek is depicted as thoroughly conversant with the language and lifestyle of the native tribes. He repeatedly enlists with the army, quitting whenever offered a promotion. Lawrence attended a performance of the play's original Worcestershire run, and reportedly signed autographs for patrons attending the show.[219]
· Lawrence's first year back at Oxford after the War to write was portrayed by Tom Rooney in a play, The Oxford Roof Climbers Rebellion, written by Canadian playwright Stephen Massicotte (premiered Toronto 2006). The play explores Lawrence's reactions to war, and his friendship with Robert Graves. Urban Stages presented the American premiere in New York City in October 2007; Lawrence was portrayed by actor Dylan Chalfy.[220]
· Lawrence's final years are portrayed in a one-man show by Raymond Sargent, The Warrior and the Poet.[221]
· His 1922 retreat from public life forms the subject of Howard Brenton's play Lawrence After Arabia, commissioned for a 2016 premiere at the Hampstead Theatre to mark the centenary of the outbreak of the Arab Revolt.[222]
· A highly fictionalised version of Lawrence featured in the 2016 Swedish-language comedic play Lawrence i Mumiedalen.[223]
See also· Hashemite
· Kingdom of Iraq
· Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorised Biography of T. E. Lawrence
· The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones (1992–1993)
· Suleiman Mousa
References
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59. Wilson, 1989, p. 313. In note 24, Wilson argues that Lawrence must have known about Sykes-Picot prior to his relationship with Faisal, contrary to a later statement.
60. Wilson, 1989, p. 300.
61. Wilson, 1989, p. 302.
62. Wilson, pp. 307–311.
63. Wilson, 1989, p. 312.
64. Wilson, p. 321.
65. Wilson, 1989, p. 323.
66. Wilson, 1989, p. 347. Also see note 43, where the origin of the repositioning idea is examined closely.
67. Wilson, 1989, p. 358.
68. Wilson, 1989, p. 348
69. Wilson, 1989, p. 388.
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74. Wilson, 1989, p. 448.
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76. Mack, 1976, pp. 158, 161.
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89. Wilson, 1989, pp. 383–384 describes Lawrence's arrival at this conclusion. However, Aldington 1955 disagrees strongly with the value of the strategy, p. 178.
90. Wilson, 1989, pp. 361–362 argues that Lawrence knew the details and briefed Faisal in February 1917.
91. Wilson, 1989, p. 444. shows Lawrence definitely knew of Sykes-Picot in September 1917.
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118. Aldington, 1955, p. 284.
119. Aldington, 1955, p. 108.
120. Aldington, 1955, pp. 293, 295.
121. Korda, 2010, pp. 513, 515.
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123. Korda, 2010, p. 519.
124. Korda, 2010, p. 505.
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175. Wilson, 1989, chapter 27.
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178. Korda, 2010, p. p. 498.
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184. Knightley and Simpson, p. 29
185. Wilon, 1989, chapter 34.
186. Meyers, Jeffery "Lawrence: The Mechanical Monk" pages 124–136 from The T. E. Lawrence Puzzleedited by Stephen Tabachnick, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984 page 134.
187. Mack, 1976, p. 420.
188. Mack, 1976, p. 33.
189. Lawrence, T. E. (1997). Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Wordsworth Classics of World Literature). Wordswroth. pp. vi, vii. ISBN 978-1853264696. Introduction by Angus Calder, who says that returning soldiers often feel intense guilt at having survived when others did not, even to the point of self-harm.
190. Aldington, 1955, p. 13
191. Aldington, 1955, p. 27.
192. Aldington, 1955, p. 266-67
193. Aldington, 1955, p. 253.
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220. Massicotte, Stephen (2007). Oxford Roof Climber's Rebellion Paperback. Theatre Communications Group – Playwrights Canada Press. ISBN 978-0887544996.
221. ""The Warrior and The Poet"". Raymondsargent.com. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
222. "Book theatre tickets at Chichester". 25 November 2018.
223. "Linköpings Studentspex: Lawrence i Mumiedalen". 21 July 2019.
Sources· Aldington, Richard (1955). Lawrence of Arabia: A Biographical Enquiry. London: Collins. ISBN 978-1122222594.
· Anderson, Scott (2013). Lawrence in Arabia: War, Deceit, Imperial Folly and the Making of the Modern Middle East. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-53292-1.
· Armitage, Flora (1955). The Desert and the Stars: a Biography of Lawrence of Arabia. illustrated with photographs, New York, Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 9780000005779.
· Asher, Michael (1998). Lawrence. The Uncrowned King of Arabia. Viking.
· Brown, Malcolm; Cave, Julia (1988). A Touch of Genius: The Life of T. E. Lawrence. London, J. M. Brent.
· Brown, Malcolm (2005). Lawrence of Arabia: the Life, the Legend. London, Thames & Hudson: [In association with] Imperial War Museum. ISBN 978-0-500-51238-8.
· Brown, Malcolm (1988). The Letters of T. E. Lawrence.
· Brown, ed., Malcolm (2005). Lawrence of Arabia: The Selected Letters. London.
· Carchidi, Victoria K. (1987). Creation Out of the Void: the Making of a Hero, an Epic, a world: T. E. Lawrence. U. Pennsylvania, Ann Arbor, MI University Microfilms International.
· Ciampaglia, Giuseppe (2010). Quando Lawrence d'Arabia passò per Roma rompendosi l'osso del collo. Roma: Strenna dei Romanisti, Roma Amor edit.
· Crawford, Fred D. (1998). Aldington and Lawrence of Arabia: A Cautionary Tale. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-8093-2166-1.
· Graves, Richard Perceval (1976). Lawrence of Arabia and His World. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500130544.
· Graves, Robert (1934). Lawrence and the Arabs. London: Jonathan Cape.
· Graves, Robert (1928). Lawrence and the Arabian Adventure. New York: Doubleday, Doran.
· Hoffman, George Amin. T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) and the M1911.[permanent dead link]
· Hulsman, John C. (2009). To Begin the World over Again: Lawrence of Arabia from Damascus to Baghdad. New York, Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61742-1.
· Hyde, H. Montgomery (1977). Solitary in the Ranks: Lawrence of Arabia as Airman and Private Soldier. London, Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-462070-4.
· James, Lawrence (2008). The Golden Warrior: The Life and Legend of Lawrence of Arabia. Skyhorse Publishing, New York. ISBN 978-1-60239-354-7.
· Knightley, Phillip; Simpson, Colin (1970). The Secret Lives of Lawrence of Arabia. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1299177192.
· Korda, Michael (2010). Hero: The Life and Legend of Lawrence of Arabia. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-171261-6.
· Lawrence, A. W. (1967) [1937]. T. E. Lawrence by His Friends: insights about Lawrence by those who knew him. Doubleday Doran.
· Lawrence, M.R. (1954). The Home Letters of T E Lawrence and his Brothers. Oxford.
· Lawrence, T. E. (1926). Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1926 Subscribers' Edition). ISBN 978-0-385-41895-9.
· Lawrence, T. E. (1935). Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1935 Doubleday Edition). ISBN 978-0-385-07015-7.
· Lawrence, T. E. (2003). Seven Pillars of Wisdom: The Complete 1922 Text). ISBN 978-1-873141-39-7.
· Leclerc, C (1998). Avec T E Lawrence en Arabie, La Mission militaire francaise au Hedjaz 1916–1920. Paris.
· Leigh, Bruce (2014). T. E. Lawrence: Warrior and Scholar. Tattered Flag. ISBN 978-0954311575.
· Mack, John E. (1976). A Prince of Our Disorder: The Life of T. E. Lawrence. Boston, Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-54232-6.
· Marriott, Paul; Argent, Yvonne (1998). The Last Days of T E Lawrence: A Leaf in the Wind. The Alpha Press. ISBN 978-1898595229.
· Meulenjizer, V (1938). Le Colonel Lawrence, agent de l'Intelligence Service. Brussels.
· Meyer, Karl E.; Brysac, Shareen Blair (2008). Kingmakers: the Invention of the Modern Middle East. New York, London, W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-06199-4.
· Mousa, Suleiman (1966). T. E. Lawrence: An Arab View. London, Oxford University Press.
· Norman, Andrew (2014). Lawrence of Arabia and Clouds Hill. Halsgrove. ISBN 978-0857042477.
· Norman, Andrew (2014). T. E. Lawrence: Tormented Hero. Fonthill Media. ISBN 978-1781550199.
· Nutting, Anthony (1961). Lawrence of Arabia: The Man and the Motive. London, Hollis & Carter.
· Ocampo, Victoria (1963). 338171 T. E. (Lawrence of Arabia). London.
· Orlans, Harold (2002). T. E. Lawrence: Biography of a Broken Hero. Jefferson, North Carolina, and London, McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-1307-2.
· Paris, T.J. (September 1998). "British Middle East Policy-Making after the First World War: The Lawrentian and Wilsonian Schools". Historical Journal. 41 (3): 773–793. doi:10.1017/s0018246x98007997.
· Penaud, Guy (2007). Le Tour de France de Lawrence d'Arabie (1908). Editions de La Lauze (Périgueux), France. ISBN 978-2-35249-024-1.
· Rosen, Jacob (2011). "The Legacy of Lawrence and the New Arab Awakening" (PDF). Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. V (3). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
· Sarindar, François (2011). "La vie rêvée de Lawrence d'Arabie: Qantara". Institut du Monde Arabe (in French). Paris, France (80): 7–9.
· Sarindar, François (2010). Lawrence d'Arabie. Thomas Edward, cet inconnu. Editions L'Harmattan, collection ″Comprendre le Moyen-Orient″ (Paris), France. ISBN 978-2-296-11677-1.
· Sattin, Anthony (2014). Young Lawrence: A Portrait of the Legend of a Young Man. John Murray. ISBN 978-1848549128.
· Simpson, Andrew R.B. (2008). Another Life: Lawrence after Arabia. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-86227-464-8.
· Stang, ed., Charles M. (2002). The Waking Dream of T. E. Lawrence: Essays on His Life, Literature, and Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan.
· Stewart, Desmond (1977). T. E. Lawrence. New York, Harper & Row Publishers.
· Storrs, Ronald (1940). Lawrence of Arabia, Zionism and Palestine.
· Thomas, Lowell (2014) [1924]. With Lawrence in Arabia. Nabu Press. ISBN 978-1295830251.
· Wilson, Jeremy (1989). Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorised Biography of T. E. Lawrence. ISBN 978-0-689-11934-7.
External links· Works by T. E. (Thomas Edward) Lawrence at Faded Page (Canada)
· Footage of Lawrence of Arabia with publisher FN Doubleday and at a picnic
· Lawrence of Arabia: The Battle for the Arab World, directed by James Hawes. PBS Home Video, 21 October 2003. (ASIN B0000BWVND)
· T. E. Lawrence Studies, maintained by Lawrence's authorised biographer Jeremy Wilson
· The T. E. Lawrence Society
· T. E. Lawrence's Original Letters on Palestine Shapell Manuscript Foundation
· Works by T. E. Lawrence
· Works by or about T. E. Lawrence at Internet Archive
· T. E. Lawrence's Collection at The University of Texas at Austin's Harry Ransom Center
· The Guardian 19 May 1935 – The death of Lawrence of Arabia
· The Legend of Lawrence of Arabia: The Recalcitrant Hero
· "Creating History: Lowell Thomas and Lawrence of Arabia" online history exhibit at Clio Visualizing History.
· T. E. Lawrence: The Enigmatic Lawrence of Arabia article by O'Brien Browne
· Lawrence of Arabia: True and false (an Arab view) by Lucy Ladikoff
· Europeana Collections 1914–1918 makes 425,000 World War I items from European libraries available online, including manuscripts, photographs and diaries by or relating to Lawrence
· T. E. Lawrence's Personal Manuscripts and Letters
· Newspaper clippings about T. E. Lawrence in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
· T. E. Lawrence at Find a Grave