Humanistic Buddhism From Venerable Tai Xu to Grand Master Hsing Yun [1]
by Darui Long
Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism
Volume 1 (2000)
pp. 53-84
Copyright 2000 by International Academy of Buddhism, Hsi Lai University
NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT
YOU ARE REQUIRED TO READ THE COPYRIGHT NOTICE AT THIS LINK BEFORE YOU READ THE FOLLOWING WORK, THAT IS AVAILABLE SOLELY FOR PRIVATE STUDY, SCHOLARSHIP OR RESEARCH PURSUANT TO 17 U.S.C. SECTION 107 AND 108. IN THE EVENT THAT THE LIBRARY DETERMINES THAT UNLAWFUL COPYING OF THIS WORK HAS OCCURRED, THE LIBRARY HAS THE RIGHT TO BLOCK THE I.P. ADDRESS AT WHICH THE UNLAWFUL COPYING APPEARED TO HAVE OCCURRED. THANK YOU FOR RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF COPYRIGHT OWNERS.
-- Taixu [Tai Hsu], by Wikipedia
-- Chapter 2: The Sound of the Tide for a New China [Taixu/Tai Hsu] [Bodhi Society] [Right Faith Buddhist Society of Hankou], Excerpt from Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms, by Don Alvin Pittman
-- The Communist Pure Land: The Legacy of Buddhist Reforms in the Early Chinese Revolutionary Period, by Kenneth J. Tymick
-- Humanistic Buddhism From Venerable Tai Xu to Grand Master Hsing Yun, by Darui Long
ABSTRACT
The present essay aims at a historical analysis of Humanistic Buddhism that was preached by Master Tai Xu in the 1930s and the great contribution Grand Master Hsing Yun has made to the development of Humanistic Buddhism.
What is Humanistic Buddhism? Why did Tai Xu raise this issue of constructing Humanistic Buddhism as his guiding principle in his reform of Chinese Buddhism? What did he do in his endeavors to realize his goal? Did he succeed in bringing back the humanistic nature of Buddhism? What contributions has Grand Master Hsing Yun made to this cause?
This essay makes attempts to answer these questions. It is divided into four parts. The first deals with the history of Humanistic Buddhism. It was Sakyamuni who first advanced Humanistic Buddhism. He lectured, meditated, propagated his way of life, and finally attained his Nirvana in the world. Hui-neng (638-713 CE) emphasized that Buddhism is in the world and that it is not realized apart from the world.
The second chapter touches upon the historical background of development and decline of Chinese Buddhism. It illustrates in detail how Buddhism declined in the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. Corrupt officials vied with one another to confiscate the property of Buddhism in the late Qing and early years of the Republic of China. Even the lay Buddhist scholars made strong commentaries on the illness of Buddhism and Buddhists.
Chapter 3 discusses the life and reform career of Venerable Tai Xu (1889-1947). Being a revolutionary monk, Tai Xu raised the term "Humanistic Buddhism" again and introduced it in his reform.
What is "Humanistic Buddhism"? This word witnessed three stages of development. Tai Xu first advanced this concept by using the Chinese word "rencheng fojiao" in 1916. This word "rencheng" refers to the people of rebirth among men conveyed by observing the five precepts -- people of the first vehicle. In other words, "rencheng fojiao" means "ordinary people's Buddhism." He slightly changed the word as "rensheng fojiao" (human life Buddhism) in 1928. The word "rensheng" means "human life." Tai Xu further developed his concept of the Humanistic Buddhism by the word "renjian fojiao." The original Chinese term "renjian" consists of two words "ren" meaning "human," or "person," and the word "jian" referring to "certain space" or "period of time." When the two Chinese words are combined to form one word "renjian," it means "human society," "human society, " "human world, " "the world, " or "man's world."
The Humanistic Buddhism advanced by Tai Xu aimed at bringing back Buddhism into the human world. Tai Xu urged Buddhists to offer service to the society so that Buddhism would be widely accepted and developed. However, his life-long efforts failed in the reform due to the Japanese invasion, civil wars and inner struggles among Buddhists themselves.
It was Grand Master Hsing Yun whose efforts and talent have made Tai Xu's dream come true. Having a strong sense of responsibility for the future of Buddhism, Grand Master Hsing Yun has not only made contributions to the concrete practice of Humanistic Buddhism, but also developed the theoretical aspects of Humanistic Buddhism. Chapter 4 focuses on how the Grand Master has dedicated to the cause of Humanistic Buddhism. From an ordinary young monk, empty-handed, Master Hsing Yun exerted great efforts to disseminate Buddhism, first in remote villages and small towns, then in big cities. He has crowned his cause by building first-rate temples in the United States and almost 200 temples affiliated with Fo Guang Shan Buddhist Movement in various countries in the world. In this aspect, the Grand Master successfully carried on the cause of practical reform initiated by Tai Xu. The Grand Master is considered the Martin Luther in the practical reform of Chinese Buddhism.
Hsing Yun also made theoretical contributions to Humanistic Buddhism. He illustrated the points of modernity in Buddhism: the modernity of language, the use of modern facilities and the practice in life and building monasteries as modern school. He further characterizes Humanistic Buddhism with the following: humanity, life, altruism, delight, time frame and universality. He maintains that Humanistic Buddhism should bring people confidence, joy, hope and convenience. He aims at using the teachings of the Buddha for the improvement for our lives and the purification of our mind. The Grand Master emphasizes the importance of reality.
It is Master Hsing Yun 's vision that makes Humanistic Buddhism throw light on the future of Chinese Buddhism. The spirit of universal compassionate and the responsibility for the salvation of all has deeply infiltrated into the mind of the educated scholar class in China. The spirit of Fo Guang Shan has gone beyond its birthplace in Taiwan. If we say that Venerable Tai Xu made the first effort to re-connect us with the essential Buddhist spirit in the first half of the 20th century, then Grand Master Hsing Yun has continued this endeavor and made it realized throughout the world. In this sense, Grand Master Hsing Yun is both a practitioner and theoretician. His integration with the tradition and modernity make him unique in the history of Buddhism, unique in a way that he is truly reviving Chinese Buddhism.
1. Introduction
The present paper discusses a number of issues relating to the decline and revival of Buddhism in the 20th century. In the past, Buddhism flourished and progressed steadily in China, especially during the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties. It, however, declined significantly during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. Why and how did Buddhism decline? Has it always been merely a religion for funeral service, as some members of intellectual elite called it scornfully? Was it separated from society and people in those days, too? What reform and stimulation did Buddhism need for its revival in the twentieth century? Who are the key players in the revival and reform movement? To answer these questions, it is necessary to trace the historical background of the rise and fall of Buddhism in China with special reference to the late Qing dynasty (1644-1911) and early Republican period. But such a historical analysis has to be preceded by a scrutiny of the humanistic elements of Chinese Buddhism that seem to have exercised an enormous effect on its popularity.
It was Sakyamuni Buddha who first advanced Humanistic Buddhism. He lectured, meditated, propagated his way of life, and finally attained his Nirvana in the world. He said, "The Buddhas came from this world and they could not become the Buddhas in the heaven." [2] In this way, they brought the teachings of the dharma to every family. They were active in the human world.
The Vimalakiirti Suutra says that we should seek the Buddha state or Buddha land among sentient beings. We cannot find Buddha if there are no sentient beings. We cannot find the way if we are separated from the people. Here is a stanza from The Sutra of Hui-neng (638-713), the Sixth Patriarch of the Chan (Zen) School of Buddhism.
Buddhism is in the world;
It is not realized apart from the world.
Seeking enlightenment apart from the world
Is like looking for horns on a hare. ... [3]
Good friends, if you want to put this into practice, you can do it at home -- it doesn't depend on being in a monastery. Being able to practice at home is like someone of the East whose mind is good. [4]
Lai Yonghai has pointed out that such a style differed from the ways the previous five patriarchs who upheld in their reclusive practice. Venerable Xuanjue (665-713), [5] who became a convert to Hui-neng's philosophy, said in his excellent poem Yongjia Zhengdao Ge, "I have traveled many mountains and rivers, visiting masters in quest of Buddhist truth. Ever since I was familiar with Caoxi, [6] I have understood that life and death are irrelevant." After Hui-neng, the concepts of life and death, Nirvana and samsara, this world and the world beyond gradually lost their lines of demarcation. Here we have the beginning of "Humanistic Buddhism." [7]
2. Historical Background
In the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties, Buddhism flourished in China. Chinese Buddhists engaged themselves in many welfare activities. Temples were involved in commercial practices such as the establishment and management of their Inexhaustible Treasury. According to Taiping Guangji (Miscellaneous Records Collected in the Taiping Reign Period) the Inexhaustible Treasury was divided into three parts. The first part was designated for the building and maintenance of monasteries; the second part was social service projects and for donations to the people suffering from hunger; the third part was for the use of monks and nuns. [8] The "fotuhu" initiated in the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534 C.E.) consisted of criminals and slaves of governmental offices. They were assigned to the monasteries to do odd work. The monastic economy provided these people with an opportunity to earn a living. It played a positive role in the stability of the society and economy. [9] The so-called "Beitian" (literary meaning "field of pity," practical meaning "fields for the aged and widowed") was intended for widows and destitute people. Many monasteries also set up "Beitianfang," homes for the aged and widowed. [10] Venerable Baizhang (720-814) established a rule: "Every day that you do not work, you shall not eat." In this way, the monks and nuns were able to lead a life of self-reliance and contribute to the welfare of society.
Time and again Venerable Shenhui (670-762) emphasized, "There is a Buddha if there is a world. If there is no world, then there is no Buddha." (Quotations from Venerable Shenhui). Another Chan Master, Dazhu Huihai, [11] strongly emphasized "this worldliness" by saying, "We seek salvation not by leaving the world." Venerable Xiyun [12] of Huangbi (ooboku sect in Japanese) thus made no difference between this world and the world beyond. He considered this world and the world beyond and sentient beings and Buddhas to be the same.
The Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties saw the significant decline of Chinese Buddhism. Zhu Yuanzhang (reigned 1368-1398), [13] the First Emperor of the Ming dynasty, was fully aware of the role that the religion might play in a rebellion, for he himself had joined the peasant rebellion organization called "The Red Kerchief Bandits." The family members of the chief of The Red Kerchief Bandits were members of White Lotus Society. [14] Accordingly, when Zhu Yuanzhang ascended the throne, he placed strict regulations on Buddhism, and ordered monks to live and meditate in temples in high mountains. He also ordered monks to either live in mountains or travel around, but not to cities or villages where ordinary people dwell. "Two monks might keep their hermitage in the same high mountain for meditation, but no more than three or four." [15] "The abbots or wandering monks who make friends with officials are to be severely punished." [16] On the surface, the First Emperor appeared to protect the Buddhist religion, but in fact, he was restricting its development. Thus Chinese Buddhism rapidly declined as a result of the emperor's policy of separating monks from lay Buddhists. This situation worsened in the end of the Qing dynasty. Monks were either meditating in the mountains or depending on the donations of the lay people. Isolated as they were, the only social function was to perform funeral services. Consequently, Buddhism was criticized for its insignificant contribution to the welfare of society.
The late Qing witnessed changes in values, public life, and even the collapse of the empire. Corrupt and hopeless in reforming, the Qing Court was repeatedly humiliated by foreign invasions and weakened by the peasant uprisings and exhausting wars with foreigners. Shocked by the powerful weapons that the foreign troops held and frustrated by the defeat of the Qing troops, Chinese scholars and officials alike began to explore ways and means to make China strong by standing on its own feet. Zhang Zhidong (1837-1909), Governor of Hunan Province, suggested that the Chinese could stick to traditional learning for its social content while simultaneously studying those aspects of Western learning that offered practical benefits. [17] In 1898, he called for the establishment of more schools, going so far as to suggest that the Qing Court should issue a decree ordering 70% of the nation's temples to be used for educational purposes. But the trend that was set from 1901 to 1906 was to seize Buddhist lands and property without actually serving the interests of education. Local officials and warlords alike saw in it a golden opportunity to gain more money for themselves to support their military expenses. Things got no better after the downfall of the Qing dynasty. A typical example was Yuan Shikai (1859-1916), [18] who promulgated the Monastery Control Regulations that were directed at confiscating wealth from Buddhist monasteries in order to finance the expansion of his army. [19] This encroachment upon the Buddhist monastic properties ranged from bad to worse, depending upon the location. In opposition, Venerable Jing An, [20] president of the Chinese General Buddhist Association, went to Beijing with the objective of having Yuan Shikai's government ratify a proposal of his for a new charter. Unfortunately, the officer in charge of religious affairs at the Ministry of the Interior, Du Guan, was a firm supporter of policies aimed at confiscating monastic property. He obstinately refused to listen to Venerable Jing An's arguments. He ridiculed and insulted the old man who, as a result of this treatment, became so incensed that he died the next day from anger and humiliation. The martyrdom of Venerable Jing An aroused much anger among Buddhists and temporarily prevented further confiscation of Buddhist monastic property.
The confiscation of temple property taught Chinese Buddhists a painful lesson: if they wanted to survive, they had to change their old ways of staying away from society and people. They had to promote education among themselves. The famous scholar Zhang Taiyan (1868-1936) and Su Mansu (1884-1918) pointed out that:
The cause for the corruption of Chinese Buddhists lay not in outer reasons, but in the Buddhists themselves. ... Although there can be found many rules and regulations for monks to observe in the temples, the monks are actually lax in discipline. ... Many monks are not engaged in meditation in accordance with the regulations, but are enjoying a cozy and banal life. They do not preach scriptures, but devote themselves to ceremonies for the dead. When they are entrusted with the cause of dharma, they are only interested in money. The monks have conflicts among themselves over property. They indulge in the offerings from the believers. What they offer as their service just leads to the decline of Buddhism. In fact, they are generally looked down upon. Some fawn upon rich and powerful persons. They claim that they have to rely on the good emperors in order to protect the dharma. Actually they are bent on their own interests... They deserve to suffer the government policy of confiscating their property for education. [21]
Yang Wenhui (1837-1911) [22] made a comment on the same topic:
Since the end of the scripture examination and with the slack implementation of the decree banning ordination, Buddhist monks have become ignorant, incompetent and satisfied with the existing state of affairs as they are. [23]
From the sharpness of these words we see a picture of the decline of Chinese Buddhism at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.
In a few days, the 20th century will come to an end. In this century the Chinese people have witnessed massive and untold suffering in their transformation to a modem state. As Tu Wei-ming puts it, "Without exaggeration or a stretch of the imagination, an examination of the frequency and magnitude of destructiveness in China since the mid-nineteenth century may reveal it to have been one of the most violent countries in human history." [24] It is a century that the Chinese have encountered both hope and despair. It is a century full of conflicts between the new and the old, the belligerence between warlords, imperialist aggressions, the Japanese invasion of China, civil wars between the Nationalists and Communists, endless power struggles, and conflicts among the masses themselves, and so forth. The conflicts started in the "Opium War" in 1840s and lasted until recent decades in the 20th century. They have shocked and shaped generations of Chinese intelligentsia even until today.
3. Life and Career of Venerable Tai Xu (1889-1947)
Tai Xu was one of the key reformers at this time when the very existence of Buddhism was at stake. He was born in 1889 in Congde district, Zhejiang Province. Buddhism had sunk deep roots in this place dating from the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220 C.E.) when it was introduced from India during the reign of Emperor Ming-di (reigned 58-75 C.E.). The religion has furthermore remained intact here in spite of the political changes and social revolutions that have occurred over a long two-thousand-year period.
Tai Xu's family name was Lu, and his given name Ganlin. His father died when he was still a baby. His grandmother was a pious Buddhist who often took him to nearby Buddhist temples. In 1904, he left his home with the view in mind to seek something magic pertaining to the immortals and gods he had read about in the novels [25] he greatly admired. At this young age he was still unaware of the distinction between Taoism and Buddhism. He eventually found his way to a small temple where he had previously accompanied his grandmother on a visit to pay homage. Subsequently, he decided to join the monastic order. Upon his ordination, he was given the Buddhist name Tai Xu (literary meaning "space" or "void"). In the same year, he was taken by his supervisor to visit Venerable Jing An, the Eight Fingered Monk, [26] who ordained him in Tiantong Temple, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province. Two years later, he came to realize that Taoist and Buddhist divinities were not the same. He studied the Tripitaka and practiced meditation under the guidance of Venerable Jing An, the Eight Fingered Monk, who had a profound impact on him.
In 1908, Tai Xu met a radical monk named Hua Shan, who told his young friend about new trends at home and abroad. Hua Shan introduced Tai Xu to a variety of books, such as Kang Yuwei's Datongshu (The Grand Unity), Liang Qichao's Xinmin congbao (the name of a journal), Yan Fu's translation of T. H. Huxley's Evolution and Tan Sitong's Renxue (On Humanitarianism). In 1909, he attended a class on Buddhist literature offered by Yang Wenhui. Though he studied only one semester, he was deeply impressed by Yang's lectures. That same year, he made friends with a monk who was not only a reformer, but a revolutionary as well. This monk, named Qiyun, was also a disciple of the Eight Fingered Monk. He had studied in Japan where he joined the Tong-meng Hui, a revolutionary alliance founded by Dr. Sun Yat-sen in 1905. Qiyun also lent Tai Xu revolutionary literature such as the Mingbao (People's Tribune) and Zou Rong's Gemingjun (Revolutionary Army). In 1910, Tai Xu went to Guangzhou, where he became intimate with revolutionaries. He read widely the socialist, communist and anarchist literature, authors such as Bakunin, Proudhon, Kropotkin and Marx. He was even involved in the secret activities of the Guangzhou Uprising in 1911. He escaped to Shanghai when the uprising was put down. When the Qing government was overthrown in 1911, Tai Xu began his life-long career of Buddhist reform.
What is "Humanistic Buddhism"? Let us first see the definition of this word in Chinese. Tai Xu first advanced the concept of "Humanistic Buddhism" by using the Chinese word "rencheng" in 1916 when he was staying in self-confinement at Putuo Island, Zhejiang Province. [27] This word "rencheng" refers to the people of rebirth among men conveyed by observing the five precepts. Buddhism divides people into five vehicles. "Rencheng" refers to people of the first vehicle -- the ordinary people.
Tai Xu continued his exploration in the transformation of Chinese Buddhism. He raised the issue of "rensheng fojiao" which is a combination of two words "rensheng" plus "fojiao" (Buddhism) in an article entitled "Instructions to the Chinese Revolutionary Monks" in April, 1928. The word "rensheng" means "human life." This may be considered the second stage of his thinking in "Humanistic Buddhism." He touched upon the aims of Chinese Buddhist revolution in three aspects. First, they should get rid of the superstitions that the rulers imposed on the people by using Buddhism and Taoism as instruments, and transforming the hereditary property system into a shared property system. Second, the Buddhists should change their living style of hermitage imposed by Confucians so that the Buddhists may be engaged in the service to guide the masses and bring them benefits. In addition, the Buddhists should change their orientation in offering service to the ghosts and the dead, a service requested by emperors and hierarchies down to the common people, and receiving donations from them. They should change their attitudes of being ghost-oriented and serve the people. Third, the Buddhists should work on the establishment of "human-life Buddhism," from human beings to Bodhisattvas and the Buddha. They should transform the old temples with the spirit of "human-life Buddhism" and build up the Sangha system adapted to the modern Chinese environment. They should propagate this "human-life Buddhism" to attract more followers. [28]
According to Tai Xu, therefore, the starting point of this "human life Buddhism" is to be a good person. Then the good person learns how to practice Bodhisattva and finally becomes a Buddha. Tai Xu considered the human beings in this concept of "human life Buddhism" as the basis. It is a process of evolution, from being a human to Bodhisattva and to become a Buddha.
Why did Tai Xu raise this concept of "human life Buddhism"? Let me quote Tai Xu's words to explain what he had in mind:
What is human life? I use the term "human life" to refute the fallacies in the teachings of Buddhism by some people in the past. The Buddhist teachings may be divided into two: the Buddhism of the death and the Buddhism of the ghosts. Many people thought that the aim of learning the teachings of Buddhism is to encounter death in a painless way and to have good fortune after death. This is not the true meaning of the Buddhist teaching. ... As I talk about human Buddhism, I emphasize the improvement of human life. [29]
Firstly, Tai Xu used this term "human life" to reject the focus on death in contemporary Buddhism in China. Secondly, the basic teachings of the Buddha urge people to take care of practical issues in human life. Tai Xu held that the Buddha did not teach people to leave human society for the purpose of becoming gods or ghosts or encourage people to become monks by leaving their household. The Buddhists aim at reforming the society, helping human beings make progress and improving the world environment with the teachings of the Buddha. [30] Thirdly, Tai Xu further developed his concept of the Humanistic Buddhism by the word "renjian fojiao." The original Chinese term "renjian" consists of two words "ren" and "jian." "Ren'' means persons, people, human beings, and "jian" refers to "certain space or "period of time." When the two Chinese words are combined to form one word "renjian", it means "human society," "human world," "the world," or "man's world." Therefore, the-word-for-word translation of the word "renjian fojiao" may be rendered as "Buddhism in human society," and "Buddhism in the world."
Thus, Tai Xu summarized his views under three points: (a) the existence and development of humankind; (b) relief of the masses with the great compassionate love and wisdom of Mahaayaana Buddhism; and (c) attachment of great importance to the scientific methods in tests, the order and evidence. Tai Xu was attempting to bring the Buddhist teachings into the modern world. His general view on Humanistic Buddhism is expressed as follows:
The modem human life may propel the survival of humankind while the survival of humankind may propel the existence of all things in the world. Modern life is the starting point of Buddhism. This is in conformity with the worldly trend. Buddhism helps to develop human life to perfect universal enlightenment and to perfect being. This is the only way leading to the essence of Mahaayaana Buddhism. Buddhism aims at the development of human life instead of eliminating it. Therefore, it tends to be actively involved in human life. [31]
In February 1933, be delivered a speech entitled "Start your Learning of Buddhism from Being a True Person."
From the cradle to the grave, we need food, clothing, shelter, and means of transportation. Where do they come from? ... The endowment of these sources relies on the strength of the masses -- the ability of human beings to cooperate. Your life is sustained by the shared strength of forest laborers, farmers, workers and merchants in the world. In other words, your life is totally dependent on the masses in society. Therefore, you need to serve society. [32]
The following paragraph reflects Tai Xu's orientation:
... Without the state, we cannot resist the intruders. There would be no security for the people and life. We cannot repay the grace to our parents or our society. Therefore, we must take patriotism as our presupposition when repaying the grace of the country. At this moment, enemies are invading China. We, fellow citizens, heroic soldiers and heroes, should endeavor to build our country into a powerful nation. [33]
Tai Xu was labeled a "political monk" because he kept close ties with the Nationalist Party. In fact, he was a member of that party. [34] He often employed his close ties with Chiang Kai-shek [35] to protect rights and benefits of Buddhists. He was abbot of Xuedou Temple in Fenghua, Chiang's hometown. In 1944, Tai Xu wrote a letter to Chiang Kai-shek begging him to check the case of the confiscation of Buddhist temples and property. [36]
On July 15, 1944, Tai Xu expressed his views on the issue of how Buddhists should deal with politics. He advocated the position whereby Buddhists may show concern for politics but not interfere with them. He spoke in a grave tone:
I hesitate to make a point on this issue.
If we transcend politics, we will be easily destroyed when the government and society decide to persecute Buddhism. If we are involved in politics, we will meet our doom when the government is overthrown. In present China, we do not have enough lay Buddhists to form a group in the government or society to protect Buddhism. It is so difficult for Buddhists to take this issue into consideration. Many people are discussing the question. I have to take it into serious consideration. Based on the explanation of the words of political power and power of management expressed by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, I finally found a solution to the problem. What we should do is to show concern about politics but not interfere with them. [37]
Tai Xu goes on to quote Dr. Sun Yat-sen's idea:
Dr. Sun said that politics is the affairs of the masses. It also refers to the management of the people. Political power implies that people have the right to make laws. The power of management means that the government has the power to govern the country and the people. The Sanghas are part of the people. Therefore, they have to concern themselves with their own affairs. ... Being members of the National Congress, they discuss the issues of how to eliminate the sufferings that the people experience and obtain happiness for the people in the Assembly only, and not get involved in the central and local governmental offices. In other words, they only participate in local elections and run for the post of Congressmen, but not pursue the office of governor, nor civil or military posts. [38]
Tai Xu's words aroused great controversy even among his supporters. Zhu Jingzhou, son-in-law of famous scholar Zhang Taiyan [39] wrote six letters to Tai Xu opposing any involvement in politics. [40] He reminded Tai Xu that Ouyang Jingwu [41] raised four objections to any such involvement. Ouyang claimed that any involvement in politics is a violation of both the monastic regulations and secular law.
As for the problem of how to implement the spirit of altruism in society, Tai Xu explained that Humanistic Buddhism meant to save the country at the critical moment. The soldiers of the army fulfill their duties. The farmers, workers, merchants, students and teachers, the civil officers and lawyers do their respective jobs well.