Part 2 of 2
Transport and communicationMap of the Madras and South Mahratta Railway linesIn the early days of the agency, the only means of transportation were bullock-carts known as jhatkas along with palanquins.[178] The roads connecting Madras to Calcutta in the north and the kingdom of Travancore in the south served as lines of communication during wars.[178] From the early 20th century onwards, bullock-carts and horses were gradually replaced by bicycles and motor vehicles, while motor buses were the main means of private road transportation.[179] Presidency Transport and the City Motor Service were pioneers, operating buses manufactured by Simpson and Co. as early as 1910.[179] The first organised bus system in Madras city was operated by Madras Tramways Corporation between 1925 and 1928.[179] The 1939 Motor Vehicles Act imposed restrictions on public-owned bus and motor services. Most of the early bus services were operated by private agencies.
The Nilgiri Mountain Railway, an UNESCO World Heritage SiteThe Pamban railway bridge, which connects the Pamban island with the Indian mainland was constructed in 1914A backwater and canal in Malabar, c. 1913The first organised initiative for the construction of new roads and maintenance of existing roads in the Presidency was initiated in 1845 with the appointment of a special officer for the maintenance of main roads.[180] The principal roads under the aegis of the officer were the Madras-Bangalore road, Madras-Trichinopoly road, Madras-Calcutta road, Madras-Cuddapah road and the Sumpajee Ghaut road.[180] A Public Works Department was initiated by Lord Dalhousie in 1852 and subsequently in 1855 an East coast canal was constructed for the purpose of easy navigation.[180] Roadways were handled by the Public Works Secretariat which was under the control of the member of the Governor's Executive Council. The principal highways of the Presidency were the Madras-Calcutta road, the Madras-Travancore road and the Madras-Calicut road.[181] By 1946–47, the Madras Presidency had 26,201 miles (42,166 km) of metalled roads and 14,406 miles (23,184 km) of unmetalled roads, and 1,403 miles (2,258 km) of navigable canals.[144]
The first railway line in South India was laid between Madras and Arcot, which was opened for traffic on 1 July 1856.[182] The line was constructed by the Madras Railway Company formed in 1845.[182] The railway station at Royapuram, the first in South India, was built in 1853 and served as the headquarters of the Madras Railway Company.[182] The Great Southern Indian Railway Company was set up in the United Kingdom in 1853.[182] and had its headquarters at Trichinopoly where it constructed its first railway line between Trichinopoly and Negapatam in 1859.[182] The Madras Railway Company operated standard or broad-gauge railway lines while the Great South Indian Railway Company operated metre-gauge railway lines.[183] In 1874, The Great Southern Indian Railway Company merged with the Carnatic Railway Company (established in 1864) and was renamed the Southern Indian Railway Company.[184] The Southern Indian Railway Company merged with the Pondicherry Railway Company in 1891 while the Madras Railway Company merged with the Southern Mahratta Railway Company in 1908 to form the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company.[182] A new terminus was built at Egmore for the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company.[182] In 1927, the South Indian Railway Company shifted its headquarters from Madurai to Chennai Central. The company operated a suburban electric train service for Madras city from May 1931 onwards.[184] In April 1944, the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company was taken over by the Madras Government. In 1947, there were 4,961 miles (7,984 km) of railway in the Presidency, in addition to 136 miles (219 km) of district board lines.[144] Madras was well-connected with other Indian cities like Bombay and Calcutta and with Ceylon.[185] The 6,776-foot (2,065 m) Pamban railway bridge connecting Mandapam on the Indian mainland with Pamban island was opened for traffic in 1914.[186] The Nilgiri Mountain Railway was inaugurated between Mettupalayam and Ootacamund in 1899.
The Madras Tramways Corporation was promoted in Madras city in 1892 by Hutchinsons and Co. and began operating in 1895, before even London had its own tramway system.[179] It plied six routes in Madras linking distant parts of Madras city and covered a total of 17 miles (27 km).[179]
The chief navigable waterways in the presidency were the canals in the Godavari and the Kistna deltas.[181] The Buckingham canal was cut in 1806 at a cost of 90 lakhs of silver[187] to connect the city of Madras with the delta of the Kistna river at Peddaganjam. Ships of the British India Steam Navigation Company frequently docked at Madras and provided frequent services to Bombay, Calcutta, Colombo and Rangoon.[187]
In 1917, Simpson and Co. arranged for a test flight by the first aeroplane in Madras[188] while a flying club was established at the Mount Golf Club grounds near St Thomas Mount by a pilot named G. Vlasto in October 1929.[189] This site was later used as the Madras aerodrome.[189] One of the early members of the club, Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar went on to establish an aerodrome in his native Chettinad.[189] On 15 October 1932, Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent piloted J. R. D. Tata's plane carrying air-mail from Bombay to Madras via Bellary.[190] This was the beginning of Tata Sons' regular domestic passenger and airmail service from Karachi to Madras. The flight was later re-routed through Hyderabad and became bi-weekly.[190] On 26 November 1935, Tata Sons started an experimental weekly service from Bombay to Trivandrum via Goa and Cannanore. From 28 February 1938, onwards, Tata Sons' Aviation division, now renamed Tata Airlines, began a Karachi to Colombo airmail service via Madras and Trichinopoly.[190] On 2 March 1938, the Bombay-Trivandrum air service was extended to Trichinopoly.[190]
The first organised postal service was established between Madras and Calcutta by Governor Edward Harrison in 1712. After reform and regularisation, a new postal system was started by Sir Archibald Campbell and was introduced on 1 June 1786. The Presidency was divided into three postal divisions: Madras North up to Ganjam, Madras South-West to Anjengo (erstwhile Travancore) and Madras West, up to Vellore. In the same year, a link with Bombay was established then in 1837, the Madras, Bombay and Calcutta mail services were integrated to form the All-India Service. On 1 October 1854, the first stamps were issued by the Imperial Postal Service. The General Post Office (GPO), Madras, was established by Sir Archibald Campbell in 1786. In 1872–73, a bimonthly sea-mail service began between Madras and Rangoon. This was followed by the commencement of a fortnightly sea-mail service between Madras and ports on the eastern coast.
Madras was linked to the rest of the world through telegraphs in 1853 and a civilian telegraph service was introduced on 1 February 1855. Soon afterwards, telegraph lines linked Madras and Ootacamund with other cities in India. A Telegraph department was set up in 1854, with a Deputy Superintendent stationed in Madras city. The Colombo-Talaimannar telegraph line established in 1858, was extended to Madras in 1882, thereby connecting the city with Ceylon.[191] Telephones were introduced in the presidency in 1881 and on 19 November 1881, the first telephone exchange with 17 connections was established at Errabalu Street in Madras.[192] A wireless telegraphy service was established between Madras and Port Blair in 1920 and in 1936, the Indo-Burma radio telephone service was established between Madras and Rangoon.
EducationThe first schools offering Western-style education in the presidency were established in Madras[193] during the 18th century. In 1822, a Board of Public Instruction was created based on the recommendations of Sir Thomas Munro, after which schools teaching students in vernacular language was established.[194] A central training school was set up in Madras as per Munro's scheme.[194] However, this system appeared to be a failure and the policy was altered in 1836 in order to promote European literature and science.[194] The Board of Public Instruction was superseded by a Committee for Native Education.[195] In January 1840, during the viceroyalty of Lord Ellenborough, a University Board was established with Alexander J. Arbuthnot as the Joint Director of Public Instruction.[196] The central school was converted to a high school in April 1841 with 67 students and in 1853 became the Presidency College with the addition of a college department.[195][196] On 5 September 1857, the University of Madras was established as an examining body using the University of London as a model with the first examinations held in February 1858.[196] C. W. Thamotharam Pillai and Caroll V. Visvanatha Pillai of Ceylon were the first to graduate from the University.[196] Sir S. Subramaniya Iyer was the first Indian Vice-Chancellor of the University.[196]
Similarly, Andhra University was established by the Andhra University Act of 1925[197] and in 1937, the University of Travancore was established in the princely state of Travancore.[198]
The Government Arts College, established in Kumbakonam in 1867, was one of the first educational institutions outside Madras.[199] The oldest engineering college in the presidency, College of Engineering, Guindy, was established as a Government Survey School in 1794 before being upgraded to an Engineering College in 1861.[200] Initially, only Civil Engineering was taught,[200] with the further disciplines of Mechanical Engineering added in 1894, Electrical Engineering in 1930 and Telecommunication and Highways in 1945.[201] The AC College, with its emphasis on textiles and leather technology, was founded by Alagappa Chettiar in 1944.[202] The Madras Institute of Technology, which introduced courses such as aeronautical and automobile engineering was established in 1949.[202] In 1827, the first medical school in the Presidency was established then followed by the Madras Medical College in 1835.[203] The Government Teacher's College was established at Saidapet in 1856.[204]
Among the private institutions, the Pachaiyappa's College, established in 1842, is the oldest Hindu educational institution in the presidency. The Annamalai University, established by Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar in Chidambaram in 1929, was the first university in the presidency to have hostel facilities[205] Christian missionaries were pioneers in promoting education in the region. The Madras Christian College, St. Aloysius College at Mangalore, Loyola College in Madras and the St. Peter's College at Tanjore were some of the educational institutions established by Christian missionaries.
The Madras Presidency had the highest literacy rate of all the provinces in British India.[206] In 1901, Madras had a male literacy rate of 11.9 percent and a female literacy rate of 0.9 percent.[207] In 1950, when the Madras Presidency became Madras State, the literacy rate was slightly higher than the national average of 18 percent.[208] In 1901, there were 26,771 public and private institutions with 923,760 scholars of whom 784,621 were male and 139,139 female.[209] By 1947, the number of educational institutions had increased to 37,811 and the number of scholars to 3,989,686.[81] Apart from colleges, in 1947 there were 31,975 public and elementary schools, 720 secondary schools for boys and 4,173 elementary and 181 secondary schools for girls.[81] Most of the early graduates were Brahmins.[35][52] The preponderance of Brahmins in the universities and in the civic administration was one of the main causes for the growth of the Anti-Brahmin movement in the presidency. Madras was also the first province in British India where caste-based communal reservations were introduced.
In 1923, the Madras University Act was passed after its introduction by Education Minister A. P. Patro.[197] Under the bill's provisions, the governing body of Madras University was completely reorganised on democratic lines. The bill asserted that the governing body would henceforth be headed by a Chancellor who would be assisted by a pro-Chancellor, usually the Minister of Education. Apart from the Chancellor and the pro-Chancellor who were elected, there was to be a Vice-Chancellor appointed by the Chancellor.[197]
Culture and societyHindus, Muslims and Christians generally followed a joint family system.[210][211] The society was largely patriarchal with the eldest male member the leader of the family.[211] Most of the presidency followed a patrilineal system of inheritance.[212] The only exceptions were the district of Malabar and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin which practised the marumakkathayam system.[213]
Women were expected to confine themselves to indoor activities and the maintenance of the household. Muslims and high-caste Hindu women observed purdah.[210] The daughter in the family rarely received an education and usually helped her mother with household chores.[214] Upon marrying, she moved to the house of her in-laws where she was expected to serve her husband and the elder members of his family.[215][216] There have been recorded instances of torture and ill treatment of daughters-in-law.[215][216] A Brahmin widow was expected to shave her head and was subjected to numerous indignities.[217][218]
Rural society comprised villages where people of different communities lived together. Brahmins lived in separate streets called agraharams. Untouchables lived outside village limits in small hamlets called cheris and were strictly forbidden from having houses in the village.[219] They were also forbidden from entering important Hindu temples or approaching high-caste Hindus.[220][221]
Serfdom was practised in almost all castes from Brahmins to non-Brahmins subjecting agricultural labourers to bondage for non-payment of debt.[222] The Law Commission report on slavery in 1841 contains the indicative figures on the number of slaves, computed based on the population of specific castes of Pallar and Paraiyar.[223] There were proposed regulations in 1811 and 1823 to prevent child labour.[224] In 1833, the British Crown and the House of Commons proposed immediate abolition of slavery in India, but East India Company decreed otherwise.[225] All legal recognition to permit the civil status of slavery were withdrawn with the Act V of 1843 and selling of slaves became a criminal offence in 1862 under the new Indian Penal Code.[226] In spite of these regulations, serfdom continued and the slave population formed 12.2% – 20% of the total population in 1930 across various districts of the Presidency.[227]
The Malabar Marriage Act of 1896 recognised sambandham contracts as legal marriages while the marmakkathayam system was abolished by the Marmakkathayam Law of 1933.[228] Numerous measures were taken to improve the lot of Dalit outcasts. The Thirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams Act (1933), included Dalits in the devasthanams administration. The presidency's Temple Entry Authorization Act (1939)[61] and its Temple Entry Proclamation (1936) of Travancore were aimed at elevating the status of Dalit and other low castes to a position equal to that of high-caste Hindus. In 1872, T. Muthuswamy Iyer established the Widow Remarriage Association in Madras and advocated the remarriage of Brahmin widows.[229] The devadasi system was regulated in 1927 and completely abolished on 26 November 1947.[230] The Widow Remarriage movement was spearheaded in the Godavari district by Kandukuri Veeresalingam.[231] Most of the pioneers of social reform were Indian nationalists.[232][233]
Traditional pastimes and forms of recreation in rural areas were cock-fighting, bull-fighting, village fairs and plays.[234] Men in urban areas indulged in social and communistic activities at recreational clubs, music concerts or sabhas, dramas and welfare organisations. Carnatic music and bharatanatyam were especially patronised by the upper and upper-middle class Madras society. Of the sports introduced by the British in the presidency, cricket, tennis, football, and hockey were the most popular. An annual cricket tournament, known as the Madras Presidency Matches, was held between Indians and Europeans during Pongal.[235]
The presidency's first newspaper, the Madras Courier, was started on 12 October 1785, by Richard Johnston, a printer employed by the British East India Company.[236] The first Indian-owned English-language newspaper was The Madras Crescent which was established by freedom-fighter Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty in October 1844.[237] Lakshminarasu Chetty is also credited with the foundation of the Madras Presidency Association which was a forerunner of the Indian National Congress. The number of newspapers and periodicals published in the presidency totalled 821 in 1948. The two most popular English-language newspapers were The Hindu established by G. Subramania Iyer in 1878, and The Mail,[192] established as the Madras Times by the Gantz family in 1868.[238]
Regular radio service in the presidency commenced in 1938 when All India Radio established a station in Madras.[239] Cinemas became popular in the 1930s and 1940s with the first film in a South Indian language, R. Nataraja Mudaliar's Tamil film Keechaka Vadham, released in 1916. The first sound films in Tamil and Telugu were made in 1931 while the first Kannada talkie Sati Sulochana was made in 1934 and the first Malayalam talkie Balan in 1938.[240] There were film studios at Coimbatore,[241] Salem,[242] Madras and Karaikudi.[243] Most early films were made in Coimbatore and Salem[241][242] but from the 1940s onwards, Madras began to emerge as the principal centre of film production.[241][243] Until the 1950s, most films in Telugu,[244] Kannada[245] and Malayalam[246] were made in Madras.
A Westernized middle-class urban Tamil Brahmin couple. c.a .1945Tamil film actor M. K. Thyagaraja BhagavatharA Namboodiri Brahman's house, c.a. 1909Hindu devotees in procession around the temple at Tirupparankunram, c.a. 1909Telugu bride and groom belonging to the Kapu caste, c.a. 1909A Mangalorean Catholic gentleman belonging to the Bamonn caste, c. a. 1938Refreshment stall at a railway station in the Madras Presidency, c. a. 1895See also• History of Tamil Nadu
• Administrative divisions of Madras Presidency
• Madras States Agency
• List of colonial Governors and Presidents of Madras
• Advocate-General of Madras
• Sheriff of Madras
References
Citations1. Iyengar 1929, p. 535
2. "They administered our region HERITAGE". The Hindu. 4 June 2007. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
3. Thurston 1913, pp. 138–142.
4. Hunter, 1908, p. 6
5. Wheeler 1996, p. 5
6. Wheeler 1996, p. 6
7. Wheeler 1996, p. 7
8. Wheeler 1996, p. 19
9. Wheeler 1996, p. 26
10. Roy 2012, p. 74
11. Chaudhuri 2006, p. 206
12. Thorpe 2011, p. 94
13. Newell 1919, p. 18
14. Wheeler 1996, p. 281
15. Wheeler 1996, p. 282
16. India Office List 1905, p. 121
17. Sohail, Sara (10 May 2019). "The Etymology of Madras". Madras Courier. Madras Courier.
18. Hunter 1908, p. 251
19. Kulke 2004, p. 245
20. Hunter 1908, p. 252
21. Codrington 1926, Chapter X:Transition to British administration
22. Hunter 1908, p. 254
23. T.Dutt 2015, p. 45.
24. Hunter 1908, p. 255
25. Read 1997, pp. 34–37
26. Dodd 1859, p. 288
27. Kamath 1980, p. 250
28. Kamath 1980, pp. 250–253
29. Hibbert 2000, p. 221
30. Sadasivan 1974, p. 22
31. Sadasivan 1974, p. 40
32. Sadasivan 1974, p. 54
33. Sadasivan 1974, p. 55
34. Muthiah 2004, p. 418
35. Frykenberg, Robert Eric (1968). Elite Formation in Nineteenth Century South India, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Tamil Culture and History. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaysia Press.
36. S.A. 1969, p. 14
37. Tercentenary Madras Staff 1939, p. 223
38. "Report of the High Court of Madras" (PDF). High Court, Madras. 2007. p. 17. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
39. Pramanand 1985
40. Dutt 1999, p. 10
41. S., Muthiah (13 September 2003). "Willing to strike and not reluctant to wound". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
42. Sadasivan 1974, p. 18
43. Sadasivan 1974, p. 28
44. Mazumdar 1917, p. 58
45. Mazumdar 1917, p. 59
46. Besant 1915, p. 35
47. Besant 1915, p. 36
48. "Congress Sessions". Indian National Congress. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 17 November2012.
49. "Biography of the founders of the Theosophical Society". Theosophical Society, Adyar. Archived from the original on 3 June 2008. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
50. "BBC Historic Figures – Annie Besant". BBC. Archivedfrom the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
51. "A clarion call against the Raj". The Hindu. 13 September 2003. Archived from the original on 12 January 2009. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
52. Slater 1918, p. 168
53. Ralhan 2002, p. 179
54. Ralhan 2002, p. 180
55. Ralhan 2002, p. 182
56. Ralhan 2002, p. 190
57. Ralhan 2002, p. 196
58. Ralhan 2002, p. 197
59. Ralhan 2002, p. 199
60. W.B. 2005, pp. 3–8
61. Thurston 1909, p. 116
62. Bhakshi 1991, p. 149
63. Kumar, P. C. Vinoj (10 September 2003). "Anti-Hindi sentiments still alive in TN". Sify News.
64. Ramaswamy, Sumathi (1997). "Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970, Chapter 4". University of California.
65. Ramaswamy 1997, Chapter 4
66. P. 2001, pp. 42–44
67. W.B. 2005, p. 109
68. "INDIA (FAILURE OF CONSTITUTIONAL MACHINERY) (Hansard, 16 April 1946)". api.parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 9 February 2013. Retrieved 25 December2019.
69. Walch 1976, pp. 157–160
70. "The State Legislature – Origin and Evolution". Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly. Archived from the original on 13 April 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
71. The Illustrated Weekly of India. Published for the proprietors, Bennett, Coleman & Company, Limited, at the Times of India Press. 1975. Archived from the original on 19 September 2017.
72. Kumar 1965, p. 120-121
73. MaClean 1877, p. 327
74. Hunter, Volume 16, p. 256
75. Steinberg 1950, p. 137
76. Thurston 1913, p. 120
77. Thurston 1913, p. 121
78. Mollin 2006, p. 17
79. MaClean 1877, p. 6
80. Hunter 1908, p. 260
81. Steinberg 1950, p. 174
82. Steinberg 1950, p. 141
83. MaClean 1877, p. 337
84. T. 1765, p. 110
85. Thurston 1913, p. 137
86. Pirie 1883, p. 110
87. Smith 1976, p. 42
88. Ralhan 2002, p. 73
89. Thurston 1913, p. 181
90. Thurston 1913, p. 182
91. Sadasivan 1974, p. 17
92. MaClean 1877, p. 21
93. MaClean 1877, p. 22
94. Chisholm 1911, p. 291.
95. MaClean 1877, p. 20
96. Thurston 1913, p. 1
97. Thurston 1913, p. 183
98. MaClean 1877, p. 63
99. MaClean 1877, p. 65
100. Hunter 1908, p. 232
101. Wheeler 1996, p. 198
102. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 4
103. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 7
104. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 20
105. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 21
106. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 14
107. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 15
108. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 57
109. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 123
110. Major MacMunn 1911, p. 126
111. The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860-1940, Page:16
112. MaClean 1877, p. 82
113. MaClean 1877, p. 85
114. MaClean 1877, p. 83
115. MaClean 1877, p. 86
116. MaClean 1877, p. 88
117. MaClean 1877, p. 89
118. MaClean 1877, p. 90
119. MaClean 1877, p. 91
120. MaClean 1877, p. 92
121. MaClean 1877, p. 93
122. MaClean 1877, p. 94
123. Ahmed 2011 pp. 392–4
124. Rai 2011, p. 91
125. Chisholm 1911, p. 290.
126. Steinberg 1950, p. 154
127. Steinberg 1950, p. 155
128. Thangaraj 2003, p. 287
129. Patnaik 1997, p. 330
130. Thurston 1913, p. 193
131. Hunter 1908, p. 276
132. Thurston 1913, p. 194
133. Thurston 1913, p. 195
134. Thurston 1913, p. 196
135. Thurston 1913, p. 197
136. Thurston 1913, p. 199
137. Thurston 1913, p. 200
138. Hunter 1908, p. 274
139. Hunter 1908, p. 278
140. Gough 2008, p. 130
141. Thurston 1913, p. 203
142. Thurston 1913, p. 205
143. Thurston 1913, p. 206
144. Steinberg 1950, p. 175
145. Hunter 1908, p. 297
146. Hunter 1908, p. 354
147. Thurston 1913, p. 43
148. Thurston 1913, p. 36
149. Hunter 1908, p. 298
150. Thurston 1913, p. 208
151. Thurston 1913, p. 210
152. Thurston 1913, p. 211
153. Thurston 1913, p. 212
154. Thurston 1913, p. 213
155. Thurston 1913, p. 214
156. Thurston 1913, p. 216
157. Thurston 1913, p. 219
158. Thurston 1913, p. 220
159. Thurston 1913, p. 223
160. Thurston 1913, p. 222
161. Muthiah 2004, p. 264
162. "History of Madras Stock Exchange". Madras Stock Exchange Limited. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
163. Muthiah 2004, p. 261
164. Muthiah 2004, p. 262
165. Muthiah 2004, p. 263
166. Muthiah 2004, p. 410
167. Muthiah 2004, p. 338
168. Muthiah 2004, p. 339
169. Sinha 2005, p. 44
170. Kumar 2003, p. 70
171. Kumar 2003, p. 71
172. Muthiah, S. (6 October 2006). "The birth of a bank". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
173. Tercentenary Madras Staff 1939, p. 261
174. Eur 2002, p. 498
175. W.S. 1973, p. 43
176. B. 1998, p. 37
177. "Building a bank, the MCt. way". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 12 April 2004. Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
178. Thurston 1913, p. 185
179. Muthiah 2004, p. 323
180. Mill 1996, p. 134
181. Hunter 1908, p. 303
182. Muthiah 2004, p. 321
183. Hunter 1908, p. 301
184. Muthiah 2004, p. 322
185. Christophers 1927, p. 14
186. Srinivasan, T. A. (8 July 2005). "Swept off its feet, literally". The Hindu: Entertainment Chennai. Archived from the original on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 17 November2012.
187. Hunter 1908, p. 304
188. "Historical Events at a Glance". District Collectorate, Chennai. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
189. Muthiah 2004, p. 127
190. "History 1932–1940". Air India. Archived from the original on 19 November 2008. Retrieved 17 November2012.
191. Wright 1999, p. 207
192. Muthiah 2004, p. 54
193. Hunter 1908, p. 383
194. Hunter 1908, p. 338
195. Hunter 1908, p. 339
196. Jebaraj, Priscilla (5 September 2008). "Ongoing saga of higher learning". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
197. Ralhan 2002, p. 74
198. "University of Kerala Home page". University of Kerala. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
199. Craik 2007, p. 260
200. Muthiah 2004, p. 239
201. Muthiah 2004, p. 240
202. Muthiah 2004, p. 241
203. Christophers 1927, p. 41
204. Hunter 1908, p. 343
205. "About University". Annamalai University. Archived from the original on 25 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November2012.
206. Seal 1971, p. 103
207. Hunter 1908, p. 345
208. K. Mehrotra 2006, p. 23
209. Hunter 1908, p. 361
210. Finnemore 1917, p. 62
211. Srinivas 1982, p. 69
212. Agarwal 1994, p. 472
213. Böck 2000, p. 177
214. Finnemore 1917, p. 22
215. Finnemore 1917, p. 63
216. Finnemore 1917, p. 64
217. Finnemore 1917, p. 65
218. Finnemore 1917, p. 66
219. Thurston 1909, p. 87
220. Thurston 1909, p. 78
221. Thurston 1909, p. 79
222. British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society 1841, p. 5
223. British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society 1841, p. 4
224. British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society 1841, p. 27
225. Price 1837, p. 154
226. Chatterjee 2006, p. 231
227. Kumar 1965 pp. 52–53
228. P.V. 1981, p. 21
229. Anantha Raman 2005, p. 87
230. S., Muthiah (17 December 2007). "When the devadasi tradition ended". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November2012.
231. Roy 2002, p. 213.
232. Desai 2005, p. 224.
233. Deol 2000, p. 26.
234. Finnemore 1917, pp. 35–41
235. Muthiah 2004, p. 173
236. Muthiah 2004, p. 50
237. Muthiah 2004, p. 53
238. Muthiah 2004, p. 51
239. Muthiah 2004, p. 164
240. Guy, Randor (26 November 2004). "A milestone movie". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
241. M., Allirajan (17 November 2003). "Reel-time nostalgia". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November2012.
242. Guy, Randor (8 August 2008). "Stickler for discipline". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
243. S., Muthiah (30 January 2006). "The innovative film-maker". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
244. Thoraval 2000, p. 345
245. Ishizuka 2008, p. 174
246. Kasbekar 2006, p. 233
Sources
Government publications• British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society (1841). Slavery and the slave trade in British India: with notices of the existence of these evils in the islands of Ceylon, Malacca, and Penang, drawn from official documents. T. Ward, and to be had at the office of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery society.
• C. D., MaClean (1877). Standing Information regarding the Official Administration of Madras Presidency. Government of Madras.
• Great Britain India Office (1905). The India List and India Office List. London: Harrison and Sons.
• Hunter, Sir William Wilson (1908). The Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908. Clarendon Press.
• Illustrated Guide to the South Indian Railway (Incorporated in England): Including the Tanjore District Board, Pondicherry, Peralam-Karaikkal, Travancore State, Cochin State, Coimbatore District Board, Tinnevelly-Tiruchendur, and the Nilgiri Railways. Madras: South Indian Railway Company. 1926.
• Madras District Gazetteers
• Raghavaiyangar, Srinivasa (1893). Memorandum of progress of the Madras Presidency during the last forty years of British Administration. Government of Madras. madras presidency.
• Slater, Gilbert (1918). Economic Studies Vol I:Some South Indian villages.
• Tercentenary Madras Staff (1939). Madras Tercentenary Celebration Committee Commemoration Volume. Oxford Press.
• Dr Tara Dutt (2015). Odisha District Gazetteers: Nabarangapur (PDF). Government of Odisha. ISBN 978-81-86772-17-1.
• Thurston, Edgar (1913). Provincial Geographies of India:The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and Associated States. Cambridge University.
• Thurston, Edgar; K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and Tribes of Southern India Vol. I to VII. Government of Madras. ISBN 0-520-04315-4.
• Wheeler, James Talboys (1862). Hand-book to the cotton cultivation in the Madras presidency. J. Higginbotham and Pharaoh and Co.
• Wheeler, James Talboys (1996). Madras in the Olden Time: Being a History of the Presidency from the First Foundation of Fort St. George to the Occupation of Madras by the French (1639–1748). Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120605535.
Other publications• A., Vadivelu (1903). The Aristocracy of South India. Vest & Co.
• Aiyangar, Sakkottai Krishnaswami (1921). South India and her Muhammadan Invaders. Oxford University.
• Besant, Annie (1915). How India Wrought for freedom. Adyar, Madras: Theosophical Publishing House.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Madras" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 288–291.
• Christophers, S. R. (1927). The Indian Empire Souvenir. Executive Committee of the Congress.
• Codrington, Humphry William (1926). A Short history of Lanka. Macmillan & Co.
• Dodd, George (1859). The history of the Indian revolt and of the expeditions to Persia, China, and Japan, 1856 – 7 – 8: With maps, plans, and wood engrav. [Umschlagt.:] Chambers"s history of the revolt in India. W. U. R. Chambers.
• F. E., Penny; Lady Lawley (1914). Southern India. A. C. Black.
• Finnemore, John (1917). Peeps at many lands: Home Life in India. London: A. & C. Black, Ltd.
• G. F., Major MacMunn; Major A. C. Lovett (1911). The Armies of India. Adam and Charles Black.
• Iyengar, P. T. Srinivasa (1929). History of the Tamils from the Earliest Times to the Present Day.
• Mazumdar, Amvika Charan (1917). Indian National Evolution. Madras: G. A. Natesan & Co.
• Newell, Herbert Andrews (1919). Madras, the Birth Place of British India: An Illustrated Guide with Map. The Madras Times Printing and Publishing.
• Pirie, A. H. (1883). Indian Students Geography. Methodist Episcopal Church Press.
• Playne, Somerset; J. W. Bond; Arnold Wright (1914). Southern India: Its History, People, Commerce, and Industrial Resources.
• Price, Thomas (1837). Slavery in America: With Notices of the Present State of Slavery and the Slave Trade Throughout the World. Oxford University.
• S. H., Steinberg (1950). The Statesman's Yearbook 1950. London: Macmillan and Co.
• Some Madras Leaders. Babu Bhishambher Nath Bhargava. 1922.
• T., Osborne; C. Hitch; A. Millar; John Rivington; S. Crowder; B. Law & Co; T. Longman; C. Ware (1765). The Modern part of a universal history from the Earliest Account of Time, Vol XLIII. London: Oxford University.
• Aggarwal, Bina (1994). A field of one's own: gender and land rights in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42926-9.
• Ahmed, Farooqui Salma; Ahmed Farooqui, Salma (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131732021.
• Anantha Raman, Sita; Vasantha Surya; A. Mātavaiyā (2005). A. Madhaviah: A Biography and a Novel. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-567021-3.
• B., Anitha (1998). Quality of Work Life in Commercial Banks. Discovery Publishing House. ISBN 81-7141-431-1.
• Böck, Monika; Rao, Aparna (2000). Culture, creation, and procreation: concepts of kinship in South Asian practice. Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-911-8.
• Chatterjee, Indrani; Eaton, Richard Maxwell (2006). Slavery & South Asian History. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34810-2.
• Chaudhuri, K.N. (2006). The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660–1760. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521031592.
• D. Craik, Alex (2007). Mr Hopkins' Men: Cambridge Reform and British Mathematics in the 19th Century. Springer. ISBN 978-1-84628-790-9. SBN 1846287901.
• D., Sadasivan (1974). The Growth of public opinion in the Madras Presidency (1858–1909). University of Madras.
• Deol, Harnik (2000). Religion and nationalism in India: the case of the Punjab. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-20108-7.
• Desai, A. R. (2005). Social background of Indian nationalism. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 81-7154-667-6.
• Dutt, Romesh Chunder (1999). Open Letters to Lord Curzon on Famines and Land Assessments in India. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1-4021-5115-2.
• Eur (2002). Regional Surveys of the world: Far East and Australasia 2003. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781857431339.
• Gough, Kathleen (2008). Rural Society in Southeast India. Cambridge University. ISBN 978-0-521-04019-8.
• Hibbert, Christopher (2000). Queen Victoria: A Personal History. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-638843-4.
• Ishizuka, Karen L.; Zimmermann, Patricia Rodden (2008). Mining the home movie: excavations in histories and memories. California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23087-3.
• Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN 80905179. OCLC 7796041.
• Kasbekar, Asha (2006). Pop culture India: media, arts, and lifestyle. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-636-1.
• Kothari, Rajni (2004). Caste in Indian Politics. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 81-250-0637-0.
• Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-32919-1.
• Kumar, Dharma (1965). Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labor in the Madras Presidency During the Nineteenth Century. CUP Archive.
• Kumar, Naresh (2003). "Historical Background of Banking System". Motivation And Morale in Banking Administration: A Study Of Four Branches Of United Commercial Bank. Mittal Publications. ISBN 81-7099-897-2.
• M., Thangaraj (2003). Tamil Nadu: An Unfinished Task. SAGE. ISBN 0-7619-9780-6.
• Mehrotra, Santosh K. (2006). The Economics of Elementary Education in India: The Challenge of Public Finance, Private Provision, and Household Costs. SAGE. ISBN 0-7619-3419-7.
• Mill, John Stuart; John M. Robson; Martin Moir; Zawahir Moir (1996). Miscellaneous Writings. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04878-8.
• Mollin, Sandra (2006). Euro-English: assessing variety status. Gunter Narr Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8233-6250-0. Retrieved 17 November2012.
• O.P., Ralhan (2002). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties. Anmol Publications Private Limited. ISBN 81-7488-865-9.
• P. V., Balakrishnan (1981). Matrilineal system in Malabar. Satyavani Prakashan.
• P., Kandaswamy (2001). The political career of K Kamaraj. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 81-7022-801-8.
• Paramanand (1985). Mahāmanā Madan Mohan Malaviya: An Historical Biography. Malaviya Adhyayan Sansthan, Banaras Hindu University.
• Patnaik, Nihar Ranjan (1997). Economic History of Orissa. Indus Publishing. ISBN 978-81-7387-075-0. SBN 8173870756.
• Rai, Raghunath (2011). History. FK Publications. ISBN 9788187139690.
• Ramaswamy, Sumathi (1997). Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970. University of California. ISBN 9780520918795.
• Read, Anthony (1997). The Proudest Day – India's Long Ride to Independence. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-393-31898-2.
• Roy, Kalpana (2002). Encyclopaedia of violence against women and dowry death in India. Anmol Publications Private Limited. ISBN 81-261-0343-4.
• Roy, Tirthankar (2012). East India Company the Worlds Most Powerful Company. Penguin Books India. ISBN 9780670085071.
• S. A., Govindarajan (1969). G. Subramania Iyer. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
• S. R., Bakshi (1991). C. Rajagopalachari: Role in Freedom Movement. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 81-7041-433-4.
• S., Muthiah (2004). Madras Rediscovered. East West Books (Madras) Pvt Ltd. ISBN 81-88661-24-4.
• Seal, Anil (1971). The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century. CUP Archive. ISBN 0-521-09652-9.
• Sinha, Aseema (2005). The Regional Roots of Developmental Politics in India: A Divided Leviathan. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21681-8.
• Smith, Bardwell L. (1976). Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia. Brill. ISBN 9789004045101.
• Srinivas, Mysore Narasimhachar (1982). India: social structure. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9781412826198.
• Thoraval, Yves (2000). Cinemas of India. Macmillan India. ISBN 0-333-93410-5.
• Thorpe, Edgar; Showick Thorpe; Thorpe Edgar (2011). The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011. Dorling Kindersly (India) Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-317-5830-4.
• von Fürer-Haimendorf, Christoph (1982). Tribes of India – The Struggle for Survival. University of California.
• W. B., Vasantha Kandasamy; F. Smarandache; K. Kandasamy; Florentin Smarandache (2005). Fuzzy and Neutrosophic Analysis of Periyar's Views on Untouchability. Infinite Study. ISBN 9781931233002.
• W. S., Weerasooriya (1973). The Nattukottai Chettiar Merchant Bankers in Ceylon. Tisara Prakasakayo.
• Walch, James (1976). Faction and front: Party systems in South India. Young Asia Publications.
• David, Omissi (1998). The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860-1940 Studies in Military and Strategic History. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1998. p. 16. ISBN 0333729765.
• Wright, Arnold (1999). Twentieth Century Impressions of Ceylon: Its History, People, Commerce, Industries, and Resources. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120613355.
External links• Coins of the Madras Presidency