by Wikipedia
Accessed: 9/11/21
In the country of the Praxii [Prachyas (i.e. Easterns) are called by Strabo, Arrian, and Pliny Prasii] who are an Indian people, Megasthenes says there are apes not inferior in size to the largest dogs...
The Indus skirts the frontiers of the Prasii, whose mountain tracts are said to be inhabited by the Pygmies...
Now the countries which lie to the east of the Indus I take to be India Proper, and the people who inhabit them to be Indians. [In limiting India to the eastern side of the Indus, Arrian expresses the view generally held in antiquity, which would appear to be also that of the Hindus themselves, since they are forbidden by one of their old traditions to cross that river.[Kala pani taboo] Much, however, may be said for the theory which would extend India to the foot of the great mountain ranges of Hindu Kush and Parapamisos.]...In the year 305 BC, Seleucus I Nicator went to India and apparently occupied territory as far as the Indus, and eventually waged war with the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.[??][citation needed]
Only a few sources mention his activities in India. Chandragupta[??] (known in Greek sources as Sandrokottos), founder of the Mauryan empire, had conquered the Indus valley and several other parts of the easternmost regions of Alexander's empire. Seleucus began a campaign against Chandragupta[??] and crossed the Indus. Most western historians note that it appears to have fared poorly as he did not achieve his goals[citation needed], even though what exactly happened is unknown. The two leaders ultimately reached an agreement, [Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire. P. 98.] and through a treaty[??] sealed in 305 BC, [John Keay (2001). India: A History. Grove Press. pp. 85–86.] Seleucus abandoned the territories he could never securely hold in exchange for stabilizing the East and obtaining elephants, with which he could turn his attention against his great western rival, Antigonus Monophthalmus. The 500 war elephants Seleucus obtained from Chandragupta[??] were to play a key role in the forthcoming battles, particularly at Ipsus against Antigonus and Demetrius. The Maurya king might have married the daughter of Seleucus. [Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (2003) [1952]. Ancient India. P. 105.]
According to Strabo, the ceded territories bordered the Indus:... "... these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus, upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. — Strabo 15.2.9."
From this, it seems that Seleucus surrendered the easternmost provinces of Arachosia, Gedrosia, Paropamisadae and perhaps also Aria.[!!!] On the other hand, he was accepted by other satraps of the eastern provinces. His Iranian wife, Apama, may have helped him implement his rule in Bactria and Sogdiana. This would tend to be corroborated archaeologically, as concrete indications of Mauryan influence, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka which are known to be located in, for example, Kandhahar in today's southern Afghanistan.
Some authors say that the argument relating to Seleucus handing over more of what is now southern Afghanistan is an exaggeration originating in a statement by Pliny the Elder referring not specifically to the lands received by Chandragupta[??], but rather to the various opinions of geographers regarding the definition of the word "India": "Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the Gedrose, the Arachotë, the Aria, and the Paropamisadë, the River Cophes thus forming the extreme boundary of India. According to other writers, however, all these territories, are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Aria. — Pliny, Natural History VI, 23"
Nevertheless, it is usually considered today that Arachosia and the other three regions did become dominions of the Mauryan Empire.[citation needed]
-- Seleucus I Nicator, by Wikipedia
On the west the boundaries of India are marked by the river Indus all the way to the great ocean into which it pours its waters, which it does by two mouths. These mouths are not close to each other, like the five mouths of the Ister (Danube), but diverge like those of the Nile, by which the Egyptian delta is formed. The Indus in like manner makes an Indian delta, which is not inferior in area to the Egyptian, and is called in the Indian tongue Pattala. [Pattala. — The name of the Delta was properly Patalene, and Patala was its capital. This was situated at the head of the Delta, where the western stream of the Indus bifurcated. Thatha has generally been regarded as its modern representative, but General Cunningham would "almost certainly" identify it with Nirankol or Haidarabad, of which Patalpur and Patasila ('flat rock') were old appellations. With regard to the name Patala he suggests that "it may have been derived from Patala, the trumpet flower" (Bignonia suaveolens), "in allusion to the trumpet shape of the province included between the eastern and western branches of the mouth of the Indus, as the two branches as they approach the sea curve outward like the mouth of a trumpet." Ritter, however, says: — "Patala is the designation bestowed by the Brahmans on all the provinces in the west towards sunset, in antithesis to Prasiaka (the eastern realm) in Ganges-land: for Patala is the mythological name in Sanskrit of the under-world, and consequently of the land of the west."
-- Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian; Being a Translation of the Fragments of the Indika of Megasthenes Collected by Dr. Schwanbeck, and of the First Part of the Indika of Arrian, by J.W. McCrindle
The legs of the god Vishnu as the purusha depict earth and the six realms of Patala. The feet rest on Shesha.
Nagas are believed to live in the lowest realm of Patala, called Naga-loka.
In Indian religions, Patala (Sanskrit: पाताल, IAST: pātāla, lit. that which is below the feet), denotes the subterranean realms of the universe – which are located under the earthly dimension.[1][2][3] Patala is often translated as underworld or netherworld. Patala is described as more beautiful than Svarga (subtle dimensions, loosely translated as heaven). Patala is described as filled with splendid jewels, beautiful groves and lakes and lovely demon maidens. Sweet fragrance is in the air and is fused with sweet music. The soil here is white, black, purple, sandy, yellow, stony and also of gold.
In Hindu cosmology, the universe is divided into the three worlds: Svarga, Prithvi or Martya (earth/mortal plane) and Patala (gross dimensions, the underworld).[4] Patala is composed of seven realms/dimensions or lokas,[5][6][7] the seventh and lowest of them is also called Patala or Naga-loka, the region of the Nagas. The Danavas (demon sons of Danu), Daityas (demon sons of Diti), Yakshas and the snake-people Nagas (Serpent-human formed sons of Kadru), live in the realms of Patala.[8]
In Vajrayana Buddhism, caves inhabited by asuras are entrances to Patala; these asuras, particularly female asuras, are often "tamed" (converted to Buddhism) as dharmapala or dakinis by famous Buddhist figures such as Padmasambhava.[9]
The Vishnu Purana tells of a visit by the divine wandering sage Narada to Patala. Narada describes Patala as more beautiful than Svarga. Patala is described as filled with splendid jewels, beautiful groves and lakes and lovely demon maidens. Sweet fragrance is in the air and is fused with sweet music. The soil here is white, black, purple, sandy, yellow, stony and also of gold.[8][10]
The Bhagavata Purana calls the seven lower regions bila-svargas ("subterranean heavens") and they are regarded as planets or planetary systems below the earth. These regions are described as being more opulent than the upper heavenly regions of the universe. The life here is of pleasure, wealth and luxury, with no distress. The demon architect Maya has constructed palaces, temples, houses, yards and hotels for foreigners, with jewels. The natural beauty of Patala is said to surpass that of Swarga. There is no sunlight in the lower realms, but the darkness is dissipated by the shining of the jewels that the residents of Patala wear. There is no old age, no sweat, no disease in Patala.[7]
The Vishnu Purana,[8] states the seven realms of Patala, which are located one above the other, are seventy-thousand yojanas (a unit of measurement) below the Earth's surface. Each of them extends ten thousand Yojanas. In Vishnu Purana, they are named as from the highest to the lowest as: Atala, Vitala, Nitala, Garbhastimat, Mahatala, Sutala and Patala. In the Bhagavata Purana and the Padma Purana, they are called Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala and Patala. The Shiva Purana, replaces Mahatala with Tala. The Vayu Purana calls them Rasatala, Sutala, Vitala, Gabhastala, Mahatala, Sritala and Patala.[8] The seven Patalas as well as the earth above them is supported on the head of the tamasic (dark) form of Vishnu, the thousand-headed nāga Shesha.[8][10] Sometimes, Shesha is described to reside in the lowest region of Patala instead of below it.[4] Below the regions of Patala lies Naraka, the Hindu Hell – the realm of death where sinners are punished.[8]
Different realms of Patala are ruled by different demons and Nagas; usually with the Nagas headed by Vasuki assigned to the lowest realm.[8] Vayu Purana records each realm of Patala has cities in it. The first region has the cities of the daitya Namuchi and Naga Kaliya; in the second Hayagriva and Naga Takshaka; in the third, those of Prahlada and Hemaka; in the fourth of Kalanemi and Vainateya; in the fifth of Hiranyaksha and Kirmira and in the sixth, of Puloman and Vasuki. Bali rules as the sovereign king of Patala.[8]
The Bhagavata Purana presents a detailed description of the seven lower realms.[10] A similar description of the seven Patalas also appears in the Devi-Bhagavata Purana.[11][11][10]
Atala
Atala is ruled by Bala – a son of Maya – who possesses mystical powers. By one yawn, Bala created three types of women – svairiṇīs ("self-willed"), who like to marry men from their own group; kāmiṇīs ("lustful"), who marry men from any group, and the punshchalīs ("those who wholly give themselves up"), who keep changing their partners. When a man enters Atala, these women enchant him and serve him an intoxicating cannabis drink that induces sexual energy in the man. Then, these women enjoy sexual play with the traveller, who feels to be stronger than ten thousand elephants and forgets impending death.[11][10]
Vitala
Vitala is ruled by the god Hara-Bhava, who dwells with attendant ganas including ghosts and goblins as the master of gold mines along with his consort Bhavani and river Hataki here. When fire – fanned by wind – drinks from this river, it spits the water out as a type of gold called Hataka. The residents of this realm are adorned with gold from this region.[11][10]
Sutala
Sutala constructed by Vishwakarma, is the kingdom of the pious demon king Bali. The dwarf Avatar of Vishnu, Vamana tricked Bali – who had conquered the three worlds – by begging for three paces of land and acquired the three worlds in his three paces. Vamana pushed Bali to Sutala, but when Bali surrendered to Vishnu and gave away all his belongings to him, Vishnu in return made Bali, richer than Indra, the god-king of heaven. Bali still prays to Vishnu in this realm. Highly impressed by the devotion of Bali, Vishnu gave him a boon that He Himself would perpetually stand as the watchman to Bali's palace.[11][10]
Talatala
Talātala is the realm of the demon-architect Maya, who is well-versed in sorcery. Shiva, as Tripurantaka, destroyed the three cities of Maya, but was later pleased with Maya and gave him this realm and promised to protect him.[11][10]
Mahatala
Mahātala is the abode of many-hooded Nagas (serpents) – the sons of Kadru, headed by the Krodhavasha (Irascible) band of Kuhaka, Takshaka, Kaliya and Sushena. They live here with their families in peace but always fear garuda.[11][10]
Rasatala
Rasātala at the sole of the feet of the universe form of Vishnu is the home of the demons – Danavas and Daityas, who are mighty but cruel. They are the eternal foes of Devas (the gods). They live in holes like serpents.[11][10]
Patala
Patala or Nagaloka, is the lowest realm and the region of the Nagas, ruled by Vasuki. Here live several Nagas with many hoods. Each of their hood is decorated by a jewel, the light of which illuminates this realm.[11][10]
In Buddhism
As in the Puranas of Hinduism, in early Vajrayana, Patala (Tibetan: ས་འོག་ "the Underground") is understood as underground paradises inhabited by nāgas and asuras above the Naraka realm.[12] While the story of the establishment of Patala as an asura realm is attributed to the defeat of the asuras on Mount Meru, in Buddhist scriptures this is due to their defeat by Śakra using a mantra of Mañjuśrī instead of by their defeat by Vishnu; this is the explanation given for the appearance of Śakra wielding the banner of Mañjuśrī in iconic imagery.[13]
Patala is associated with the Kriyātantras, which are associated with the kīla, the phenomenon of the tertön and terma and water magic[9] and with the attainment of vidyādhara (Chinese: 仙, 仚; pinyin: xiān) status.[14] These practices have been largely ignored after the early period of Tibetan Buddhism and Tangmi but originally were popular.[9]
The importance of Patala to esoteric Buddhism lay in its role as the source of alchemy and magical science or vidyā, immortality and enjoyment, particularly the opportunity for the (male) vidyādhara to have intercourse with female non-humans.[15] It was also viewed as a source of flowing waters.[16]
References
1. Search for "patala" in: "Sanskrit Dictionary Search". Retrieved 7 January 2018.gives results: "1. one of the 7 regions under the earth and the abode of the nAgas or serpents and demons"
2. Wilson, Horace Hayman (1865). "Chapter V". The Vishnu Purana (Translation). II. London: Trubner & co. pp. 209–213.
3. Mani, Vettam (1975). Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 580–1. ISBN 0-8426-0822-2.
4. Parmeshwaranand 2001, p. 762-3.
5. Dimmitt, Cornelia; Buitenen, Johannes Adrianus Bernardus (1978). Classical Hindu mythology: a reader in the Sanskrit Purāṇas. Temple University Press. pp. 348–350. ISBN 9781439904640.
6. Dimmitt, Cornelia; Buitenen, Johannes Adrianus Bernardus (1978). Classical Hindu mythology: a reader in the Sanskrit Purāṇas. Temple University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9781439904640.
7. Prabhupada. "Bhagavata Purana 5.24". The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 January 2010. Retrieved 1 July2010.
8. Wilson 1865, p. 209–213. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWilson1865 (help)
9. Mayer 2007, p. 1.
10. Dimmitt 2012, p. 348-350.
11. Māṇi 1998, pp. 580–1.
12. Mayer 2007, p. 3.
13. Mayer 2007, p. 7.
14. Mayer 2007, p. 2.
15. Mayer 2007, p. 10.
16. Mayer 2007, p. 11-12.
Bibliography
• Dimmitt, Cornelia (2012). Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-4399-0464-0.
• Māṇi, Veṭṭaṃ (1998). Purāṇic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Purāṇic Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0597-2.
• Mayer, Robert (2007). "The Importance of the Underworlds: Asuras' Caves in Buddhism, and Some Other Themes in Early Buddhist Tantras Reminiscent of the Later Padmasambhava Legends". Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies. 3.
• Parmeshwaranand (2001). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-226-3.
• Wilson, Horace Hayman (1865). Works... Trübner. p. 209.
External links
• Media related to Pātāla at Wikimedia Commons
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The legend of the Kurma incarnation is associated with the story of the churning of ocean, which is manifestly an allegory in its present form. The legend may be summarised here.
In a war with the Danavas or demons, the gods being vanquished fled for refuge to Brahma, who advised the deities to repair for protection to the immortal and unconquerable Visnu. Visnu instructed the gods to churn the ocean of milk for ambrosia in collaboration with the Asuras. As advised, the Devas made an alliance with the Asuras and began to churn jointly the sea of milk by using the mountain Mandara as the churning stick and the great serpent Vasuki as the cord. The divinities took the tail of Vasuki and the demons took the head and neck of the serpent during the act of churning. As a consequence, the Asuras became scorched by the poisonous flames emitted from the mouth of Vasuki, and the Devas, on the other hand, were invigorated. In the midst of the ocean of milk, Visnu assumed the form of a tortoise and supported the mountain Mandara on his back. As the churning continued, fourteen precious articles appeared on the surface. But no sooner had Dhanvantari appeared with the bowl of nectar than the gods and the demons rushed towards him. The Asuras forcibly seized the cup of ambrosia. Then Visnu assumed the form of a beautiful damsel and deluded them. He recovered the bowl of ambrosia and delivered it to the gods. Rahu, a wicked demon, disguised himself as a god and got a share of the drink. But as soon as the drink entered his throat, the sun and the moon detected the fraud and disclosed it to Visnu, who cut the head of the demon. Brahma, however, transformed the demon into a planet. There ensued after this a severe fight between the Devas and the Asuras. The Devas, invigorated by the ambrosial draught, defeated their enemies, who were forced to plunge into the subterraneous sphere of Patala.
-- Chapter 3: The Avataras: Legends and Allegories, Excerpt from Theory of Avatara and Divinity of Chaitanya, by Janmajit Roy
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It was nearly midsummer when the king reached Patala, near the Indian Ocean. On the tidings of an insurrection in Arachosia, he had dispatched Craterus with a considerable portion of the army to march through the Bolan Pass into southern Afghanistan and put down the revolt. Alexander himself designed to march through Baluchistan, and Craterus was ordered to meet him in Kirman, near the entrance of the Persian Gulf. Another division of the host was to go by sea to the mouth of the Tigris. The king fixed upon Patala to be for the Indian empire what the most famous of his Alexandrias was for Egypt. He charged Hephaestion with the task of fortifying the citadel and building an ample harbour.
-- Chapter XVIII: The Conquest of the Far East, Excerpt from "History of Greece for Beginners", by J. B. Bury, M.A.
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Regio Patalis is Latin for “the region of Patala”, that is the region around the ancient city of Patala at the mouth of the Indus River in Sindh, Pakistan. The historians of Alexander the Great state that the Indus parted into two branches at the city of Patala before reaching the sea, and the island thus formed was called Patalene, the district of Patala. Alexander constructed a harbour at Patala.
While the Patala was well known to mariners and traders of the Ancient Mediterranean, by the European Middle Ages, mapmakers no longer knew its location. Regio Patalis appeared on late 15th and early 16th century maps and globes in a variety of increasingly erroneous locations, further and further east and south of India. It even appeared on some maps as a promontory of Terra Australis...
Ahmad Hasan Dani, director of the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, Islamabad, concluded: “There has been a vain attempt to identify the city of Patala. If ‘Patala’ is not taken as a proper name but only refers to a city, it can be corrected to ‘Pattana’, that is, [Sanskrit for] a city or port city par excellence, a term applied in a later period to Thatta [onetime capital of Sindh], which is ideally situated in the way the Greek historians describe”.
-- Regio Patalis, by Wikipedia
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Legend ascribes the origin of Patna to the mythological King Putraka who created Patna by magic for his queen Patali, literally "trumpet flower", which gives it its ancient name Pataligrama. It is said that in honour of the queen's first-born, the city was named Pataliputra. Gram is Sanskrit for village and Putra means son.
Time travel in light & sound show: Patna Museum plans programme on the lines of Red Fort in Delhi
by Piyush Kumar Tripathi
The Telegraph
Calcutta, India
January 21, 2013
The chequered history of the city from Emperor Asoka to contemporary times would come alive in colourful lights and sound at Patna Museum soon.
The show — tentatively called “History of Patna” — would be written and designed on the lines of the famous light and sound programme at Red Fort in Delhi. Patna Museum authorities have already written to their counterparts at the fort in Delhi, seeking assistance.
On Sunday, JPN Singh, the additional director of the museum, told The Telegraph: “We want the museum to be not only a place to enrich one’s knowledge of history and archaeology but also a site of entertainment. So, we have come up with a plan to organise a light and sound show at Patna Museum. It would be set up like the programme at Red Fort in Delhi. We have recently written a letter to the Delhi fort custodians seeking assistance.”
Archaeological Survey of India is at present responsible for the maintenance of the fort constructed by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan between 1638 and 1648. The famed light and sound show at the historic site began in 1996. It recreates the history of the fort, built for the defence of Shah Jahan’s capital Shahjahanabad and the residence of the Mughal dynasty.
The programme also narrates the history of Delhi from the time of the Pandavas of Mahabharata who, according to legend, established their capital at Indraprastha. It portrays the adventures of the last Rajput ruler of Delhi, Prithviraj Chauhan; expeditions of Afghan chieftain from Bihar Sher Shah Suri who defeated Humayun and chased him out of India; the disastrous romantic liaisons of Razia Sultana, purportedly the first woman empress in the Islamic world; and the Independence of India.
Asked about the show at Patna Museum, Singh said: “The theme of the show would be the history of the city — from erstwhile Patliputra to the present day Patna. People have lived at this site for three millennia.”
The first written account of Patna — then known as Patliputra, the capital of Mauryan Empire — can be found in the writings of Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador to India. Rulers, invaders, visitors and residents have recorded the city’s history in great detail through the ages (see chart).
Singh said: “The script for the show would be written by archaeologists and historians.”
History lessons through light design would not be the only source of entertainment at the museum. The authorities are also planning to install an audio tour system at the facility on the lines of National Museum, New Delhi, and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai.
Visitors would be given a wireless device at the entrance to the museum. When they would approach an artefact, they would be provided information about it through the gizmo,” Singh said.
“Australian company Narrowcasters has evinced interest in the project and has recently submitted its quotation,” said the additional director of the museum.
The estimated cost of the project would be around Rs 8 lakh.
GLIMPSES OF HISTORY
Myth of origin
According to legend, mythological king Putraka created Patna for his queen Patali. When Patali gave birth to a son, the city was renamed Pataliputra, as putra means “son” in Sanskrit.
First record
Megasthenes, Greek ambassador to India, was the first to write about the ancient city. Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien also visited Pataliputra in search of ancient Buddhist texts.
Age of empire
King Asoka ruled nearly all of modern-day India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Sri Lanka from Pataliputra.
Change in name
Mughal emperor Aurangazeb changed the name of the city to Azimabad in 1704 on the request of his favourite grandson Mohammed Azim.
Modern times
Some of the most prominent leaders of modern India, like Rajendra Prasad and Jaiprakash Narayan, have worked in Patna.
Such, then, are the traditions regarding Dionusos and his descendants current among the Indians who inhabit the hill-country. They further assert that Herakles also was born among them. They assign to him, like the Greeks, the club and the lion's skin. He far surpassed other men in personal strength, and prowess, and cleared sea and land of evil beasts. Marrying many wives he begot many sons, but one daughter only. The sons having reached man's estate, he divided all India into equal portions for his children, whom he made kings in different parts of his dominions. He provided similarly for his only daughter, whom he reared up and made a queen. He was the founder, also, of no small number of cities, the most renowned and greatest of which he called Palibothra. He built therein many sumptuous palaces, and settled within its walls a numerous population....
According to Megasthenes the mean breadth (of the Ganges) is 100 stadia, and its least depth 20 fathoms. At the meeting of this river and another is situated Palibothra, a city eighty stadia in length and fifteen in breadth. It is of the shape of a parallelogram, and is girded with a wooden wall, pierced with loopholes for the discharge of arrows. It has a ditch in front for defence and for receiving the sewage of the city. The people in whose country this city is situated is the most distinguished in all India, and is called the Prasii. The king, in addition to his family name, must adopt the surname of Palibothros, as Sandrakottos, for instance, did, to whom Megasthenes was sent on an embassy.
-- Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian; Being a Translation of the Fragments of the Indika of Megasthenes Collected by Dr. Schwanbeck, and of the First Part of the Indika of Arrian, by J.W. McCrindle, M.A.
Legend also says that the Emerald Buddha was created in Patna (then Pataliputra) by Nagasena in 43 BCE.
-- Patna, by Wikipedia
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Then came the ruler of Patala and the delta country and offered his submission. He was sent back to his capital with orders to prepare for the reception of the expedition. Diodorus states that in this region there were two hereditary kings and a council of elders; if that was so, one of them set out to meet Alexander and gain time, while the other was preparing for a flight; for Alexander found Patala totally deserted when he came to the city. From here, Craterus was sent away with a large section of the army with all the elephants by the route leading through the Mula pass, Arachosia (Kandahar) and Drangiana (Seistan). With the rest of the army Alexander continued his course downstream and reached Patala in the middle of July 325 B. C.; when he found the city deserted, he sent his emissaries to overtake the fugitives and persuade them to return in safety to their lands and cultivate them as formerly, and so most of the people did return to their homes.
At Patala the Indus divided into two large rivers. Alexander foresaw a big future for the city and Hephaestion was directed to build a citadel and a harbour there. Alexander set out with some ships to explore the western arm of the river; the task was rendered difficult by lack of knowledgeable pilots, the whole country having been deserted by its inhabitants, and by the damages to his fleet due to a storm and the bore, the tidal wave that rushes with great violence up the mouths of some Indian rivers. Some native pilots were at last discovered and the vessels were steered to the open sea. Alexander offered sacrifices in two islands in the river to some gods as prescribed by the Egyptian oracle of Ammon, and in the open sea he sacrificed bulls to the sea god Poseidon and after pouring a libation he flung the golden goblet into the sea, praying for the safety of Nearchus and his fleet in the ensuing voyage. When he returned to Patala, he found that Peithon, who had been left behind to settle colonists in the newly fortified cities and suppress the last embers of rebellion, had arrived after completing the task.
Alexander now explored the eastern branch of the river, found that it gave easier access to the sea, and came by a large sized lake, on the shore of which he caused a harbour to be built, as a starting point for Nearchus; he ordered wells to be dug along the coast and provisions to be collected. The exact location of this lake is not easy to decide; it may have been the Rann of Cutch or the Samarah lake to the west of Umarkot. Alexander returned to Patala and completed his plans for leaving India. The Cretan Nearchus, who had successfully navigated the rivers during a long voyage of little less than a year, was to bring the fleet from the mouth of the Indus along the coast into the Persian Gulf and rejoin him at the mouth of the Euphrates, while he himself would march with the army by land across Gedrosia keeping as close to the fleet as practicable; he is said to have chosen this difficult route because no one had traversed it except the legendary Semiramis and Cyrus, who escaped with just a few followers and he wanted to surpass them.
-- Chapter II: Alexander's Campaigns in India, Excerpt from "Age of the Nandas and Mauryas", by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri
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Shaktism (Shakta philosophy)
[«previous (B) next»] — Bharata in Shaktism glossary
Source: Google Books: Manthanabhairavatantram
Bhārata (भारत) refers to the land of India, according to Tantric texts such as the Kubjikāmata-tantra, the earliest popular and most authoritative Tantra of the Kubjikā cult.—Accordingly, “[...] The Virgin (goddess) (kumārikā) established her fame in the land of Bhārata (in this way) and so the meritorious and holy Region of the Virgin (kaumārikākhaṇḍa) came into being”.
Note: The Svacchandabhairavatantra also refers to the Land of Bhārata i.e. India as that of the Virgin, although it is not associated with her Yoni. According to the cosmology of the Svacchandabhairavatantra (cf. Tantrāloka chapter eight) there are eight continents. Each of them lies beyond one of eight mountain chains that surround mount Meru in the centre. Bhārata is to the south of the Himalayan chain, which is itself south of Meru and is shaped like a bow. It differs from the other continents because the beings who inhabit most of it can only experience pleasure and pain (bhoga) and not produce Karma. Bhārata is divided into nine islands, separated from one another by seas. The island closest to the Himalayas is called Kumārikā. This is India. Of all the parts of the continent of Bhārata, this is where Karma is created and destroyed....
Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy)
[«previous (B) next»] — Bharata in Shaivism glossary
Source: Wisdom Library: Śaivism
Bhārata (भारत) refers to one of the seven regions (navakhaṇḍa) situated within Jambūdvīpa, according to Parākhyatantra 5.61. It is also known as Bhāratakhaṇḍa. Jambūdvīpa is one of the seven continents situated within the world of the earth (pṛthivī). These continents are located above the seven pātālas and may contain even more sub-continents within them, are round in shape, and are encircled within seven concentric oceans.
-- Bharata, Bhārata, Bharatā, Bharaṭa, by Wisdom Library
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The relation between Hanuman and Goddess Kali finds mention in the Krittivasi Ramayana. Their meeting takes place in the Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana in the legend of Mahiravana. Mahiravana was a trusted friend/brother of Ravana. After his son, Meghanatha was killed, Ravana sought Mahiravana, the King of Patalaloka's help to kill Rama and Lakshmana. One night, Mahiravana, using his maya, took Vibhishana's form and entered Rama's camp. There he cast the nidra mantra on the Vanar Sena, kidnapped Rama and Lakshmana and took them to Patala Loka. He was an adherent devotee of Devi and Ravana convinced him to sacrifice the valiant fighters of Ayodhya to the goddess, to which Mahiravana agreed. Hanuman, upon understanding the way to Patala from Vibhishana made haste to rescue his lords. On his journey, he met Makardhwaja who claimed of being Hanuman's son, being born from his sweat which was consumed by a Makara (crocodile). Hanuman defeated and tied him and went inside the palace. There he met Chandrasena who told about the sacrifice and the way to kill Ahiravana. Hanuman then shrunk his size to that of a bee and went towards the huge idol of Maha-Kali. He asked her to let him save Rama, and the fierce mother goddess agreed as Hanuman took her place while she slipped below. When Mahiravana asked the prince-sages to bow, they refused as they were of royal lineage and didn't know how to bow. So as Mahiravana was about to show them how to bow, Hanuman took his Pancha-mukha form (with the head of Garuda, Narasimha, Varaha, Hayagreeva and himself: each head signifying a particular trait. Hanuman courage and strength, Narasimha fearlessness, Garuda magical skills and the power to cure snake bites, Varaha health and exorcism and Hayagriva victory over enemies), blew the 5 oil lamps in 5 directions and severed the head of Mahiravana, thus killing him. He later took Shri Rama and Lakshmana on his shoulders and as he flew outside Shri Rama saw Makardhwaja tied with his tail. He immediately ordered Hanuman to crown him the King of Patala. The story of Ahiravan finds its place in the Ramayanas of the East. It can be found in the Bengali version of the Ramayana, written by Krittibash. The passage which talks about this incident is known as ‘Mahirabonerpala’. It is also believed that after being pleased with Hanuman, Goddess Kali blessed him to be her dwara-paal or gate-keeper and hence one finds Bhairava and Hanuman on either sides of the temple entrance of the Goddess' shrine....
Though Hanuman is described to be celibate in the Ramayana and most of the Puranas, according to some regional sources, Hanuman married Suvarchala, the daughter of Surya (Sun-God).
However, once Hanuman was flying above the seas to go to Lanka, a drop of his sweat fell in the mouth of a crocodile, which eventually turned into a baby. The monkey baby was delivered by the crocodile, who was soon retrieved by Ahiravana, and raised by him, named Makardhwaja, and made the guard of the gates of Patala, the former's kingdom. One day, Hanuman, when going to save Rama and Lakshmana from Ahiravana, faced Makardhwaja and defeated him combat. Later, after knowing the reality and after saving both, he made his son, the king of Patala.
-- Hanuman [Hanumat] [Anuman] [Hanumantha] [Hanumathudu], by Wikipedia
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Below the Hells are the seven nether worlds, Sutala, Vitala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala, Atala, and Patala, where, according to the Puranas, dwell the Naga serpent divinities, brilliant with jewels, and where, too, the lovely daughters of the Daityas and Danavas wander, fascinating even the most austere. Yet below Patala is the form of Vishnu proceeding from the dark quality (tamogunah), known as the Sesha serpent or Ananta, bearing the entire world as a diadem, attended by his Shakti Varuni, his own embodied radiance....
[M]ay the beneficent Beings residing in Patala, on the earth, and in the air, pleased at this hour of thy Purnabhisheka, sprinkle thee with water (160-175)....
"Karavira, Jati, Champaka, Lotus, and Patali, are the five flowers."
-- Mahanirvana Tantra: Tantra of the Great Liberation, Translated by Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe)
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-- Report on the Excavations At Pataliputra (Patna): The Palibothra of the Greeks, by L.A. Waddell, M.B., LL.D., Lieut.-Colonel
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Palibothra = Patala = Pattana = Patali = Pataligrama = Pataliputra = Patna = flower = underworld = East-of-the-Indus = West-of-the-Indus = sunrise = sunset [???]