Freda Bedi Cont'd (#3)

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Part 1 of 2

Chronicle of Twenty-four Buddhas [Excerpt]
by Mingun Sayadaw
Edited and Translated by Professor U Ko Lay and U Tin Lwin, Yangon, Myanmar
https://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/book ... of-buddhas

The Great Chronicle of Buddhas: The State Buddha Sasana Council's Version, by the Most Venerable Mingun Sayadaw; Bhaddanta Vicittasarabhivamsa; Tipitakadhara Dhammabhandagarika; Agga Mahapandita; Abhidhaja Maharatthaguru, Translated into English by U Ko Lay U Tin Lwin
-- Volume 1, Part 1
-- Volume 1, Part 2

1 Buddha Dipankara
2 Buddha Kondanna
3 Buddha Mangala
4 Buddha Sumana
5 Buddha Revata
6 Buddha Sobhita
7 Buddha Anomadassi
8 Buddha Paduma
9 Buddha Narada
10 Buddha Padumuttara
11 Buddha Sumedha
12 Buddha Sujata
13 Buddha Piyadassi
14 Buddha Atthadassi
15 Buddha Dhammadassi
16 Buddha Siddhattha
17 Buddha Tissa
18 Buddha Phussa
19 Buddha Vipassi
20 Buddha Sikhi
21 Buddha Vessabhu
22 Buddha Kakusandha
23 Buddha Konagamana
24 Buddha Kassapa

1. DIPANKARA BUDDHAVAMSA

(The author discusses briefly the Myanma word Buddhavan derived from the Pali Buddhavamsa. Then he goes on to say as follows:) The definition of Buddhavamsa is this: ito hettha kappasatasahassadhikesu catusu asankhyeyyesu uppannanam pancavisatiya Buddhanam uppannakappadi paricchedavasena pavenivittharakatha Buddhavamso nama.

From this definition the meaning of Buddhavamsa should be understood as "a description and exposition of the lineage of the twenty-five Buddhas, who had come into being over the past four asankheyya and one hundred thousand aeons, with their thirty-two particulars such as the crores concerned, their names, clans, families, is Buddhavamsa."

Though the chronicle of all these Buddhas with their particulars such as the aeons, etc. is called Buddhavamsa, when each individual or them is spoken of, the same term Buddhavamsa is applicable to the life-story of each Buddha. (For example) though the word Sangha is a term for the whole Order or Noble Ones, each and every one of them can also be called Sangha.

Therefore it should be understood that in this section called Dipankara Buddhavamsa, the life story (with the aeon to which he belonged, etc.) of Buddha Dipankara will be dealt with.

In the Buddhavamsa Text, the account of Buddha Dipankara does not contain in detail the events that took place at the time of his conception and birth. Only this much is mentioned about him in the Sumedhakatha, Story of Sumedha.

Evam me siddhipattassa vasibhuwssa sasane

Dipankaro nama jino uppajji lokanayako.

Uppajjante ca jayante bujjhante dhmmadesane

caturo nimitte naddasim jhanarati samappito.

[The Bodhisatta Sumedha the Hermit says:] "When I have thus become accomplished in asceticism [Jhanas and Abhinnas] there appeared Buddha Dipankara, Lord of the whole world.

"Being totally absorbed in the bliss of Jhana, I have not seen the wondrous phenomena that took place on the four occasions of his conception, birth, Enlightenment and delivery of the First Sermon."

Thus the Buddhavamsa Text refers only briefly to the appearance of Buddha Dipankara in the story of Sumeda. It is only in the Buddhavamsa Commentary that we find the full story of Buddha Dipankara with details of events in serial order starting from the episode of his rebirth in the abode of Tusita Gods.

Four asankhyeyya and one hundred thousand aeons before the present Bhadda Kappa1 there appeared in one Saramanda Kappa the three Buddhas -- Tanhankara, Medhankara and Saranankara -- one after another. After that came an Antara Kappa, an aeon of decrease with the human life-span of one hundred thousand years. Then in the city of Rammavati reigned King Sudeva. During his reign Buddhisatta Dipankara was enjoying life in the celestial abode of Tusita after his fulfilment of the Perfections. Deities from the ten-thousand world-system approached him with a request, in compliance with which the Bodhisatta took conception in the womb of Sumedha, Queen of Sudeva, on the full-moon day of Asalha [June-July] when the moon was in conjunction with the planet of Uttarasalha. Having been tended upon by a great retinue and after ten full months the Bodhisatta was born.

At the moments of his conception and birth there appeared thirty-two portentous phenomena, such as trembling of the thousand world systems, etc.

(These thirty-two phenomena usually take place on the four occasions of every Bodhisatta's conception, birth, Enlightenment, and teaching of the First Sermon. These phenomena [are] common to all.

Bodhisattas will be described when we come to the Chronicle of Buddha Gotama. In the Buddhavamsa Commentary, however, these thirty-two phenomena and their subsequent happenings are elaborately told in the chapter on Bodhisatta Dipankara's conception.)

Thereafter Prince Dipankara was brought up in luxury, and when he came of age, he ascended the throne.

As a king he lived in three golden palaces -- Hamsa Palace (Hamsa Pasada), Heron Palace (Konca Pasada) and Peacock Palace (Mayura Pasada) -- by rotation for ten thousand years. There were about three hundred thousand well ornamented female attendants. His Chief Consort was Paduma and his son Prince Usabhakkhandha.

Enjoying a divine-like kingly life in the three palaces, Prince Dipankara went out to the royal garden to enjoy himself; on the way [he] saw an old man, a sick man and a dead man who were Deva messengers. Overcome by religious emotion (samvega), he returned from the garden and entered the city. When he wanted to go out again to the garden for the fourth time, he summoned his elephant-keeper and said: "Today I will visit the royal garden for sightseeing. Get the elephants ready." "Very well, Your Majesty," said the royal elephant-keeper and had eighty-four thousand elephants prepared. Dressed in a costume offered by Deva Vissakamma and accompanied by eighty-four thousand elephants and a large army of troops, he entered the garden, riding the state elephant. Having descended from the elephant's back, he roamed sightseeing all over the garden, sat on a cool and pleasant stone slab, and aspired to go forth from the world. Then Maha Brahma, an Arahat of Suddhavasa abode, brought the eight requisites and appeared at a place where he could be seen. Seeing the eight requisites, the Bodhisatta asked what they were; when told that they were the paraphernalia of a monk, he took off his royal attire and handed it over to the royal treasurer, cut of his hair with his sword, and threw it up into the sky.

Then Sakka, king of [the] Devas, took the hair knot in a golden receptacle and enshrined it in a cetiya [memorial] called Makuta; it is three yojanas [yojana - approx. 14 km.: 3 x 14 km. = 42 km. = 26 miles = 137,712 feet] in size and built of emerald stones on Mount Meru.

The Bodhisatta then put on the robes offered by the Brahma and threw up into the sky his old raiment which was received and enshrined by the Brahma in a cetiya (called Dussa), twelve yojanas in size [12 x 14 km. = 168 km. = 104 miles = 549,000 feet], in the Suddhavasa Brahma abode.

A crore [10 Million] of people who had heard of the prince's donning of the robe followed his example and became monks themselves.

Together with these monks who had thus followed in his footsteps, Bodhisatta Dipankara practised austerity called dukkaracariya. On the full-moon day of Vesakha on which he was to become a Buddha, He entered a town for alms-food. It was the day that townsfolk happened to be making pure milk-food for propitiating gods; nevertheless, the food was offered to the Bodhisatta and his one crore [10 million] of followers.

Having taken the milk-food, the Bodhisatta spent the daytime in sala grove of the neighbourhood and in the evening, leaving behind all his followers, headed alone for the great Bodhi Tree.

Enlightenment and Teaching of the Dhammacakka Discourse

On the way the Bodhisatta accepted eight handfuls of grass from an heretic, Sunanda by name, and no sooner had he spread out the grass at the foot of the Bodhi tree than the "Aparajita Pallanka, Unconquered Seat," fifty-three cubits [18 in. x 53 = 79.5 feet] in size, appeared.

(With regard to the size of the seat which was fifty-three cubits, some say the size means the height and others say it means the breadth as found in the Sub-Commentaries of the Inwa Period. These commentarial statements in detail will be dealt with when we come to the story of Buddha Gotama.)

Sitting cross-legged on the "Unconquered Seat", under the Bodhi tree (pipphala,) the Bodhisatta put forth energy of four levels2 and overcame Mara and his army; he gained Pubbenivasa Nana (Wisdom that enables one to know the series of previous existences) in the first watch of the night; Dibbacakkhu Nana (Wisdom that helps one see even the most subtle form from a far distance like a divine eye) in the middle watch; and contemplated in the last watch the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada, "Dependent Origination", in the forward order, revolving of the wheel of samsara and in the backward order, stopping of it; thereafter he entered upon the Fourth Jhana through Anapana Meditation; emerging from it and reflecting on the five aggregates, he discerned the fifty characteristics concerning rise and fall of these aggregates and developed Vipassana Insight, up to the stage of Gotrabhu Nana3 . As soon as the sun rose, this Vipassana development led to the penetration of the Path and Fruition of Arahatship, of all the attributes of a Buddha and to the incomparable Buddhahood which is supreme in the three worlds.

After attaining Buddhahood the Buddha passed seven days at each of the seven sites around the Bodhi Tree enjoying the bliss of Fruition (Phala-samapatti). Having granted the Brahma's request for his teaching, the Buddha delivered the First Sermon, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, at Sunandarama and one hundred crores [10 Million x 100 = 1 Billion] of humans, Devas and Brahmas realized the Four Truths.

At the time of his Enlightenment and that of his teaching the Dhammacakkappavatta Sutta, thirty-two portentous phenomena occurred.

These phenomena (on the four occasions) when Bodhisatta Dipankara was conceived, born, attained Buddhahood, and taught the First Sermon occurred unknown or unseen by Sumedha the Hermit as he was absorbed in the bliss of Jhanas. (This has been stated above.)

The Buddha's journey

After teaching the First Sermon, Buddha Dipankara set out on a journey for the benefit of humans, Devas and Brahmas; while staying at Sudassana Monastery in Rammavati at the invitation of the citizens, the Buddha went out to accept the alms-food offered by them; while he was partaking of the food there took place a violent earthquake as a result of Sumedha's contemplation of the Perfections; the people present on that occasion were frightened and asked the Buddha about the cause of the earthquake; on hearing from the Buddha that there was nothing to fear as the cause was Sumedha's contemplation of the Paramis, they visited and acclaimed him, who thereafter entered the forest. All this has been told in the story of Sumedha. What remains to be told is the following:

When the citizens of Rammavati had finished their offering of alms-food to Buddha Dipankara and his four hundred thousand bhikkhus, they paid obeisance to the Buddha with flowers, scents, etc., and assembled to listen to his sermon.

Dipankara Buddha then addressed the assembly:

1. Danam nama sukhadinam nidanam paramam matam

dibbanam pana bhoganam patitthati pavuccati.

"Dana should be understood as the noble cause of human, divine and Nibbanic happiness; it is said to be the basis of divine enjoyments".

"Beginning with these words the pleasant talk on the practice of dana (Danakatha) [almsgiving] was given".

2. Silam nam etam idhaloka-paraloka sampattinam mulam.

Slia means the root of various forms of prosperity in this life and the next.

In this and many other ways the talk on morality (Silakatha) was given in detail.

3. Next, Buddha Dipankara gave a talk on divine abodes (Saggakatha) to explain as to which sila [morality] leads to which divine happiness. "This divine abode is desirable, pleasant and delightful, and indeed happy. This abode provides constant merriment and gaiety. Catumaharajika Devas enjoy celestial happiness for nine million years in terms of human reckoning". In this way the benefit of heavenly attainment was taught.

4. After persuading, convincing and inspiring the people with this teaching so that they might be inclined to perform Dana and Sila, the Buddha proceeded to teach that even such heavenly bliss was not permanent and that one should not crave it very passionately. In this way the Buddha pointed out the disadvantages, unworthiness and foulness of sensual pleasures, and also the advantages of emancipation from them; he ended his discourse with a talk on Deathless Nibbana.

With this discourse given to the people, the Buddha established some of them in the Three Refuges, some in the Five Precepts, some in the Sotapatti-phala (Fruition of the 'Stream-Winner'), in the Sakadagamiphala (Fruition of the 'once Returner' in the Anagami phala (Fruition of the non-Returner). Some in the Arahatta-phala (Fruition of Arahatship). Some in the threefold knowledge, in the Sixfold Higher Knowledge, or in the eight attainments4; the Buddha then left the city of Rammavati and entered Sudassana Monastery.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching

(Dhammabhisamaya)

Having spent forty-nine days in the neighbourhood of the Bodhi Tree after his Enlightenment, Buddha Dipankara delivered the First Sermon of Dhammacakka at Sunandarama at the request of Maha Brahma and administered the Dhamma, Elixir of Immortality to one hundred crores [10 Million x 100 = 1 Billion] of Devas and men.

(This was the first Dhammabhisamaya.)

Next, knowing that his son Prince Usabhakkhandha had become intellectually mature, Buddha Dipankara gave a sermon and administered the Dhamma, Elixir of Immortality, to ninety crores [10 Million x 90 = 900 Million] of Devas and men headed by the prince (just like our Buddha taught his son Rahula the Cula Rahulovada Sutta that led him to Fruition of Arahatship).

(This is the second Dhammabhisamaya.)

Finally, after defeating the heretics near the sirisa tree [Albizia lebbeck] at the city-gate of Rammavati and displaying the Twin Miracle of water and fire, the Buddha taught the Abhidhamma, sitting on the stone slab of Pandukambala at the foot of [a] parichattaka tree [Parijaat tree, sacred baobab] in Tavatimsa Abode, and administered the Dhamma, Elixir of Immortality, to ninety crores [10 Million x 90 = 900 Million] of Devas and men headed by the Deva who in his previous existence had been the Buddha's mother Sumedha Devi.

(This is the third Dhammabhisamya.)

Three occasions of the Disciples' meeting

(sannipata)

There were three occasions of meeting of Buddha Dipankara's Disciples, one of them being Sunandarama where Arahats numbering about one hundred thousand crores [10 Million x 100,000 = 1 Trillion] from all regions specially met for the first time.

(This was the first sannipata.)

Next, the Disciples' meeting took place on Mount Nirada. Once while wandering from place to place with four hundred thousand bhikkhus, Buddha Dipankara arrived at the delightful Mount Narada which was full of marvellous features.

The mountain was occupied by a divine yakkha [yaksha] named Naradeva and people brought annually even human beings as sacrificial offering in his honour.

Seeing that the people were endowed with the merits of their past deeds to rely upon, the Buddha ascended the mountain alone leaving behind his bhikkhus. Thereupon the yakkha became furious and caused the trembling of the mountain to scare the Buddha away. On seeing the Buddha serene and undisturbed although he had used all his might to frighten the Buddha, it occurred to him thus: "Ths great monk is indeed wonderful! Powerful indeed is he! The evil consequences of what I have done will come back to me. There is no refuge for me other than this great monk. Like a man who slips and falls onto the ground has to rely on the same ground to get up, I will now take refuge in this very monk."

With this thought he bowed before the Buddha touching with his head the Buddha's feet, the soles of which were adorned with one hundred and eight signs; he also begged the Buddha's pardon and took refuge in him. Then the Buddha gave him Danakatha, Silakatha, etc. in serial order at the end of which Naradeva and his retinue of ten thousand yakkhas were established in Sotapattiphala.

On the day Naradeva thus became a Sotapanna [stream-enterer], people from all over Jambudipa [Jambudvipa] brought a man from each village to make sacrificial offerings to the yakkha. They also brought with them large quantities of sesamum, rice, beans of various kinds, butter, ghee, honey, molasses, etc. Naradeva handed back all these food-stuffs to the people and entrusted the men, originally meant for sacrifice, to the Buddha.

Then the Buddha ordained these men by the "Ehi bhikkhu" formula and helped them all achieve Arahatship within seven days: on the full-moon day of Magha (January-February), staying in the middle of one hundred crores [10 Million x 100 = 1 Billion] of Arahats, the Buddha gave instructions of Patimokkha at the Disciples' meeting of four features.

An "Ehi bhikkhu' monk does not need to seek the bowl, robes, etc. to become a recluse; on being invited by the Buddha "Come, O monk", his appearance of a lay man vanishes, and he assumes the appearance of a monk of sixty years' standing in the Order.

The four features of a Disciples' meeting are:

(1) all participants are "Ehi bhikkhu monks

(2) all participants are winners of Chalabhinna (Sixfold Higher Knowledge);

(3) all participants come together without being summoned by the Buddha, and

(4) the congregation takes place on the full moon of the month, the fifteenth day Uposatha.

The above-mentioned story of the divine yakkha Naradeva comes from the Buddhavamsa Commentary.

In the Buddhavamsa Text, however, just this simple narration is given: "Again, when Buddha Dipankara had gone into quietude on the top of Narada Mountain, there gathered one hundred crores [10 Million x 100 = 1 Billion] of Arahats who were free from defilements."

(This was the second sannipata.)

Once Buddha Dipankara observed vassa (rains retreat) on Mount Sudassana. When the vassa was over, people of Jambudipa came to the mountain to celebrate their annual mountain-top festival. They then happened to encounter the Buddha, listened to his sermon and, were so delighted with it that they became monks. When the Buddha taught them again on the Maha Pavarana Day (the full moon of Assayuja (September-October) the newcomers won Arahatship through the stages of Vipassana Insight and of the Path as a result of their contemplation of conditioned things in the three planes of existence. The Buddha held Pavarana ceremony5 [Pavarana (Sanskrit: Pravāraṇā) is a Buddhist holy day celebrated on Aashvin full moon of the lunar month. It marks the end of the 3 lunar months of Vassa, sometimes called "Buddhist Lent."] with ninety thousand crores [10 Million x 90,000 = 900 Billion] of Arahats.

(This was the third sannipata.)

The ordinary sermons given by Buddha Dipankara led to realization of the Four Truths (attainment of Liberation) by thousands of beings, by countless individuals.

At that time, the thoroughly purified Teaching of the Buddha spread far and wide; it was understood by innumerable beings -- humans, Devas and Brahmas; it was full and complete with exhortation on noble Sila and such virtues.

Buddha Dipankara, the Knower of the Three Realms, was always attended upon by four hundred thousand Arahat-Disciples, who are immensely powerful with the sixfold Abhinna.

During the Dispensation of Buddha Dipankara, those who died as learners (sekkhas) while trying for Arahatship in vain become the scorn of all.

The teaching of Buddha Dipankara spread throughout the whole world and remained glorious for ever with Arahats who had extirpated their foe, namely defilements, and who were not disturbed by various sense-objects, and thus free of impurities and asavas.

Particulars of Buddha Dipankara

Buddha Dipankara's birth place was the city of Rammavati.

His father was King Sudeva and his mother Queen Sumedha.

His two Chief Disciples were Sumangala Thera and Tissa Thera.

His attendant was Sagata Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Nanda Theri and Sunanda Theri

His Bodhi Tree was a pipphala tree.

His male supporters were Tapussa and Bhallika.

His female supporters were Sirima and Sona.

His height was eighty cubits. [18" x 80 = 120 feet] He was a splendour like a pillar of blazing light and a great sala tree in full bloom.

(The advantage of giving these particulars is this: Had they not been given, he might have been mistaken for a Deva, Mara, a demon, or a Brahma. One could think, it is not strange at all that the wonderful events should occur to such a divine being. This would have led to the wrong notion that it was not worthwhile to listen to his Teaching. Then there would have been no possibility of realization of the Truth (attainment of Liberation). On the other hand, the particulars would give rise to the right belief that "Powerful thus is indeed a human being." With this belief beings would listen to his Teaching and could understand the Truth (or could attain Liberation. Hence such details.)

Buddha Dipankara's rays spread by themselves (i.e. without his exercising of power) to all the directions reaching twelve yojanas. [12 x 14 km = 168 km = 104 miles] His life-span was one hundred thousand years.

(This much is given in the Pali Text.)

There are also some more particulars in the Commentaries which are not contained in the Text but which, the Commentaries state, must be told.

While leading a lay man's life, Buddha Dipankara had three palaces: Hamsa, Konca, and Mayura.

He had three hundred thousand female attendants.

His Chief Consort was Paduma Devi, his son Usabhakkhandha.

The duration of his reign was ten thousand years.

When he renounced the world he went forth on an elephant. When he became Buddha he lived at Nandarama (Nanda Park).

Living throughout such a long period, Buddha Dipankara saved large numbers of beings (from suffering).

Having made the three divisions of the True Dhamma such as Learning (Pariyatti), Practice (Patipatti) and Penetration (Pativedha) shine forth throughout the world, and having liberated beings, Buddha Dipankara and his Disciples realized flnal Peace the way a mass of fire went out after blazing with bright flames.

Contemplation on impermanence, etc.(samvega)

The glory of that Buddha Dipankara, his assemblage of four hundred thousand Arahats, etc. who were all his Disciples, the signs on both his feet -- all had ceased to exist. Impermanent are all conditioned things! They are indeed insubstantial!

Erection of a cetiya

In this way Buddha Dipankara who had penetrated all the Four Noble Truths without exception attained Pannibbana at Nandarama Park. In the same Park was erected a cetiya, thirty yojanas in height [14 km. x 30 = 420 km. = 260 miles = 1,372,800 feet] and dedicated to Buddha Dipankara. It was of powdered red orpiment mixed with oil and butter, and in it were enshrined the Buddha Dipankara's relics which were in an indestructible and undispersed mass, a natural phenomenon common to all long-lived Buddhas. People of Jambudipa came together and completed the cetiya with decorations of seven kinds of gems.

Here ends Dipankara Buddhavamsa.

1. Bhadda Kappa: see p 12, and for kappa in general, see pp 4 ff. Vol 1, Part 1, Anudipani.

2. Energy of four levels: the levels where one would be reduced to (i) skin, (ii) sinews, (iii) bones and (iv) where ones flesh and blood would dry up. See also Vol 1, Part 1, Anudrpani, pp 238-239.

3. Gotrabhu Nana: the wisdom that helps one cut off the heritages of kama- consciousness and evolve the lineage of the Rupa-class of exalted consciousness.

4. Eight attainments: eight samapatti-attainments of four Rupa Jhanas and Arupa Jhanas.

5. Formal ceremony concluding the rains-retreat in which each bhikkhu invites criticism from his brethren in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about his conduct.

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Part 2 of 2

22. KAKUSANDRA BUDDHAVAMSA

After Buddha Vessabhu's attainment of Parinibbana, when the aeon in which he appeared had come to an end, twenty-nine sunna kappas, aeons of no Buddhas, elapsed and there emerged the present Bhadda-kappa of five Buddhas. In this kappa had appeared four Buddhas -- Kakusandha, Konagamana, Kassapa and Gotama. The Buddha yet to come definitely is Metteyya.

The chronicle of Buddha Kakusandha, the first of these five Buddhas, is as follows. The Bhadda-kappa comprises sixty-four antara-kappas; (in the eighth antara-kappa according to the Maha Rajavamsa or in the first antara-kappa according to the Hmannan Rajavamsa,) when the human life-span decreased from asankhyeyya to forty thousand years, Kakusandha Bodhisatta, on complete fulfilment of the Perfections, was reborn in Tusita. Having complied with the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of a Brahmin woman, Visakha by name, wife of the Purohita Aggidatta who was advisor to King Khemankara of the city of Khemavati. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Khemavati Park.

Note:

As has been mentioned above the series of Buddhas from Dipankara down to Vessabhu belonged to royal families, but Kakusandha Buddha was born in a Brahmin family.

In the society which is composed of four classes of people: aristocrats, brahmins, traders and lowly ones, never is a Buddha conceived in his final existence in the womb of a woman of the latter two classes.

As for aristocrats and Brahmins, sometimes aristocrats enjoy superiority and at other times brahmins do. At a time when people show the highest honour to aristocrats, Bodhisattas are born in their class, for they are considered the best. At other times when people show the greatest honour to the Brahmins, Bodhisattas are born in their families, for they are then supposed to be the foremost.

In this way Buddhas hailed only from aristocratic and brahmanical families; since recognition of the former as the most superior is more frequent, Buddhas are generally aristocrats by birth; and because it is only sometimes that Brahmins gain superiority, Buddhas of Brahmanical birth are fewer. Thus the greater number of aristocratic Buddhas and the smaller number of Brahmin Buddhas should be understood.

Royal household life

When the youthful Bodhisatta Kakusandha came of age, he lived in three mansions, namely, Kama, Kamavanna and Kimasuddhi, being entertained and served by his brahmin wife, Rocini by name, who had thirty thousand brahmin maids, and enjoying a divine-like household life for four thousand years.

Renunciation

When he had seen the four omens and when Rocini had given birth to a son named Uttara, Brahmin Kakusandha renounced the world riding a chariot drawn by a thoroughbred and became a recluse. Following his example forty-thousand men became recluses themselves.

Attainment of Buddhahood

With those forty thousand recluses, Bodhisatta Kakusandha practised dukkaracariya for eight months. On the full moon of Vesakha, the day he would become a Buddha, he partook of the milk-rice offered by the daughter of a Brahmin, Vajirinda, of the market-town of Vajirinda and spent the daytime in the local acacia grove. In the evening he went alone to the Maha Bodhi and accepted on the way eight handfuls of grass from Subhadda, a watchman of barley fields. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the sirisa Maha Bodhi Tree (which was as big and fair as the aforesaid patali Maha Bodhi) measuring twenty-six cubits. Sitting cross-legged on the pallanka he concentrated his energy of four levels and attained Buddhahood the way mentioned previously.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching
(Dhammabhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Kakusandha stayed in the neighbourhood of the sirisa Maha Bodhi Tree forty-nine days. Having accepted with the request made by the Brahma for teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first and saw his companions in renunciation and went to their residence, Isipatana Deer Park, near the town of Makila; when in their midst he delivered the Dhammacakka sermon as previous Buddhas had done numerous Devas and Brahmas came to listen to it respectfully. At that time forty thousand crores [10 Million x 40,000 = 400 Billion] of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammabhisamaya.)

At a later time Buddha Kakusandha displayed the Twin Miracle near a sala tree close to the city-gate of Kannakujja and taught Dhamma; thirty-thousand crores [10 Million x 33,000 = 330 Billion] of Devas and humans penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the second Dhammabhisamaya.)

Still at a later time another Dhammabhisamaya took place in the following manner. At a Deva shrine not too far away from the town of Khemavati lived a divine ogre named Naradeva. At the time of propitiation he received in his visible frame honour done to him by people; he was, however, in the habit of catching human beings who through a difficult road approached a big pond in the middle of a huge forest to fetch various species of lotus. If there were no people there he went back to his great forest-abode and caught those who happened to be there and devoured them.

In fact, the road through the forest was notorious for its difficult terrain. At one time, at both ends of the forest, people were discussing among themselves how to get through the wilderness. At that time, after emerging from his Maha Karunasamapatti early in the morning, Buddha Kakusandha surveyed the world and saw the ogre Naradeva and those people in his vision of wisdom; so he went through space and, while the people were looking up, displayed various forms of miracle; then he descended into Naradeva's mansion and took a seat on the ogre's splendid couch.

Naradeva became delighted the moment he saw the Buddha coming on his aerial journey and emitting rays of six colours from his body, for he thought to himself: "The Buddha is coming here out of compassion for me." With his attendant ogres he went to the Himalayas and brought back aquatic and terrestrial flowers of various hues and scents with which he honoured the Buddha; singing in praise of him who was remaining on the couch, Naradeva stood with his clasped hands touching his forehead in salutation.

On seeing the Buddha's miracles, the people's minds became serene and they all came to the Buddha and encircling him paid obeisance to him. By explaining to the ogre how wholesome deeds are related to wholesome results, Buddha Kakusandha made the ogre inspired and by giving a talk on abodes of intense suffering, he made him frightened; thereafter the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths. At that time countless Devas and humans penetrated the Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the third Dhammabhisamaya.)

Single meeting of the Disciples (sannipata)

There was only one meeting of Buddha Kakusandha's Disciples. And it took place like this. In the Isipatana Deer Park near the city of Kannakujja on the full moon of Magha, amidst forty thousand Arahats who had been his companions in renunciation, Kakusandha Buddha recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

Future Buddha Gotama as King Khema received prophecy from Buddha Kakusandha

Meanwhile, our Future Buddha Gotama was King Khema; having made grand offering of bowls and robes to the Sangha headed by the Buddha, and also having offered them such medicinal materials as minerals for preparing eye-ointment etc., and herbs including liquorice among others, he became so immensely pleased with the Dhamma taught by the Buddha that he renounced the world and became a monk in the Buddha's presence. With reference to him, the Buddha prophesied: "This monk Khema will indeed become a Buddha named Gotama in this very Bhadda Kappa."

Having heard the Buddha's prophecy, the Bodhisatta Khema became overjoyed and determined to fulfil the ten Perfections even more energetically.

Particulars or Buddha Kakusandha

Buddha Kakusandha's birthplace was Khemavati City; his father was Brahmin Aggidatta, Purohita to King Khemankara, and his mother Visakha, a brahmin lady.

He lived a household life for four thousand years; his three palaces were Kama, Kamavanna and Kamasuddhi.

His wife was Rocini, a Brahmin lady, who had thirty thousand attendants; his son was Uttara.

The vehicle he used in renunciation after seeing the four omens was a chariot drawn by a thoroughbred; he practised dukkaracariya for eight months.

His two Chief Disciples were Vidhura Thera and Sanjiva Thera; his attendant was Buddhija Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Sama Theri and Campa Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a sirisa.

His noble supporters were the wealthy men Accuta and Sumana; his noble female supporters were Nanda Upasika and Sunanda Upasika.

Buddha Kakusandha's height was forty cubits [18" x 40 = 60 feet high]; the rays from his body spread around up to ten yojanas [14 km. x 10 = 140 km = 87 miles].

The human life-span in his time was forty thousand years; he lived for four-fifths of the life-span [40,000 x .8 = 32,000 years], rescuing such beings as humans, Devas and Brahmas from samsaric waters to place them on Nibbanic shores.

In the world of humans and Devas he opened the 'shop of Dhamma' for the virtuous, male and female alike, and bravely roared a lion's roar: "I am an Omniscient Buddha indeed; The defilements and mental intoxicants with their latent tendencies have all been rooted out from me." After that, with his disciples of the Sangha Buddha Kakusandha attained Parinibbana and became extinct.

Samvega

The Buddha who was endowed with a voice of eight qualities' voice, such as clearness, sweetness, legibilty, pleasantness, firmness, fullness, depth and echo, and his two Chief and other Disciples who were possessed of morality that was unbreached, untorn, unmottled, free at all times - they had all disappeared. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya

In this manner Buddha Kakusandha attained Parinibbana in Khema Park. In that very Park, as has been said before, a cetiya was erected over the relics of Buddha Kakusandha; it was exactly one yojana high [14 km. = 8.5 miles = 44,880 feet high].

Mount Everest is Earth's highest mountain above sea level, located in the Mahalangur Himal sub-range of the Himalayas. Its elevation (snow height) of 8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft) was most recently established in 2020 by the Nepali and Chinese authorities.

-- Mount Everest, by Wikipedia

Here ends Kakusandha Buddhavamsa.

23. KONAGAMANA BUDDHAVAMSA

After Buddha Kakusandha's attainment of Parinibbana, in the present Bhadda Kappa, the life-span of human beings gradually decreased from forty thousand years to ten years and increased up to asankhyeyya. When it reached thirty thousand years on its next decline, Bodhisatta Konagamana, on his complete fulfilment of the Perfections was reborn in Tusita. Having complied with the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha, he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of a Brahmin lady named Uttara, wife of Yannadatta Brahmin, in the city of Sobhavati. When ten months had elapsed he was born in Subhavati Park.

At the time of the boy's birth, there fell a heavy shower of gold over the whole of Jambudipa and taking the significance of this event, "coming down of gold from the sky", framed readers of omens and his relatives named him Kanakagamana (Kanaka means 'gold', agamana 'coming'; hence Kanakagamana "the boy for whom gold has come (down)." Owing to its antiquity, the original name Kanakagamana has taken the corrupt form of Konagamana. Or by means of derivation, the first syllable ka is changed into ko, na into na and the final ka elided.

Royal household life

When the boy Konagamana came of age, he lived in three palatial mansions of Tusita, Santusita and Santuttha, being entertained and served by his wife Rucigatta, a Brahmin lady, and her host of sixteen thousand Brahmin women and enjoying a divine-like household life for three thousand years.

Renunciation

When Konangamana Brahmin had seen the four omens while living a household life and when his wife Rucigatta had given birth to a son named Satthavaha, he renounced the world, riding an elephant. Thirty thousand men, following his example, also renounced the world.

Attainment of Buddhahood

With his thirty thousand recluses Konagamana practised dukkaracariya; on the full moon of Vesakha, the day on which be would become a Buddha, he partook of the milk-rice offered by Aggisona, daughter of Aggisona, and spent the daytime in the local grove of acacia. In the evening he went alone to the Mahabodhi and on the way accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by Jatatinduka, a watchman of barley fields. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the (udumbara) Maha Bodhi Tree there arose the Aparajjita Pallanka [Throne] measuring twenty cubits [18" x 20 = 30 feet]. Sitting cross-legged on the pallahka he concentrated his energy of four levels and, as has been said previously, attained Buddhahood.

Three occasions of the Buddha's teaching
(Dhammabhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Konagamana stayed in the neighborhood of the Maha Bodhi Tree for forty nine days. Having accepted the Brahma's request for his teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first, and saw the thirty thousand recluses who were his companions in renunciation and immediately went through space to their residence, Isipatana Deer Park, near the city of Sudassana. Staying in the middle of those recluses, when he delivered the Dhammacakka sermon which was taught traditionally by previous Buddhas, several Devas and Brahmas came to listen. At that time thirty thousand crores [10 Million x 30,000 = 300 Billion] of Devas and men attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammabhisamaya.)

At a later time when Buddha Konagamana displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire near the sala tree close to the city-gate of Sundara, and eradicated the wrong views and taught Dhamma, twenty thousand crores [10 Million x 20,000 = 200 Billion] of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammabhisamaya.)

After displaying the Twin Miracle when Buddha Konagamana went up to Tavatimsa and staying on the stone-slab placed at the foot of the paricchattaka tree and taught the seven books of Abhidhamma to Devas and Brahmas who had assembled there from the ten-thousand world-system. At that time ten thousand crores [10 Million x 10,000 = 100 Billion] of them attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the third Dhammabhisamaya.)

Single occasion of the Disciples' meeting (sannipata)

The only meeting of Buddha Konagamana's Disciples took place like this. When staying in a park named Surindadeva near the city of Sundaravati, the Buddha taught Dhamma to Princes Bhiyyosa and Uttara who were to become his Chief Disciples, together with thirty thousand strong retainers and called them, "Come, monks", they became Ehi bhikkhus and attained Arahatship. In the middle of those thirty thousand Arahats on the full moon of Magha Buddha Konagamana recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

(This was how the only sannipata took place.)

Future Buddha Gotama as King Pabbata received prophecy from Buddha Konagamana

Meanwhile our Future Buddha Gotama was King Pabbata in the city of Mithila; he was a powerful ruler associated with strong allies. Hearing that Buddha Konagamana had come to his city, he welcomed the Buddha with his retinue and army, invited him respectfully and performed a ceremony of grand alms-giving. He also requested the Buddha to observe vassa in his city and looked after the Buddha and his Sangha for the three months of the rainy season. Besides, he offered the Sangha headed by the Buddha, cotton cloth, silk cloth, woolen cloth, golden sandals and many other things made in Pattunna country and Cina country. The Buddha then prophesied of him: "In this very Bhadda Kappa this King Pabbata will indeed become a Buddha named Gotama."

Having heard the Buddha's prophecy the Bodhisatta King Pabbata was so pleased that he firmly resolved to fulfil the Ten Perfections even more energetically.

Since he was a man who had been seeking Omniscience, he made a great offering of gifts to Buddha Konagamana, renounced his magnificent kingship, and became a monk in the presence of the Buddha.

Particulars or Buddha Kakusandha

Buddha Konagamana's birthplace was Sobhavati City ruled over by King Sobha; his father was Brahmin Yannadatta and his mother Uttara, a Brahmin lady.

He reigned for three thousand years; he lived in three palatial mansions: Tusita, Santusita and Santuttha.

His wife was Rucigatta, a Brahmin lady having a retinue of sixteen thousand Brahmin women; his son was Satthavaha.

He renounced the world riding an elephant after seeing the four omens; he practised dukkaracariya for six months.

His two Chief Disciples were Bhiyyosa Thera and Uttara Thera; his attendant was Sotthija Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Samudda Theri and Uttara Theri; his Bodhi Tree was an udumbara.

His noble supporters were the wealthy men Ugga and Somadeva; his female supporters were Sivala Upasika and Sama Upasika.

Buddha Konagamana's height was thirty cubits [18" x 30 = 45 feet] ; he was adorned with the rays of six colours like the pure gold in the goldsmith's crucible.

The life-span during Buddha Konagamana's time was thirty thousand years. For four-fifths of the life-span he lived [30,000 x .8 = 24,000 years], rescuing beings -- humans, Devas and Brahmas -- from the waters of samsara to place them on the shores of Nibbana.

In order that beings could stay and worship on the cetiya platform of Insight Wisdom (Vipassana Nana Panna), Buddha Konagamana constructed the cetiya of thirty-seven constituents of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma), that was adorned with the banner of the Four Noble Truths, and made the 'bouquet of Dhamma', after which with his Sangha Disciples he attained Parinibbana and became extinct.

Samvega

Buddha Konagamana's Disciples who had accomplished in the exercise of supernatural powers and Buddha Konagamana who had expounded supramundane Dhamma -- all of them had vanished. Unsubstantial and futile are all conditioned things!

Cetiya

In this way Buddha Konagamana who had penetrated the Four Noble Truths and others Dhammas that should be known attained Parinibbana in the pleasance named Pabbata. As has been mentioned before, his relics dispersed in accordance with his resolve, reached everywhere in Jambudipa, and were paid homage by beings -- humans, Devas and Brahmas.

Here ends Konagamana Buddhavamsa.

24. KASSAPA BUDDHAVAMSA

After Buddha Konagamana's attainment of Parinibbana in this very Bhadda Kappa, the life-span of human beings gradually decreased from thirty thousand years down to ten years and increased up to asankhyeyya, when it reached twenty thousand years on its next decline Bodhisatta Kassapa was reborn in Tusita. Having complied with the request made by Devas and Brahmas for becoming a Buddha he descended to the human world and was conceived in the womb of Dhanavati, a Brahmin lady and wife of Brahmadatta Brahmin in the city of Baranasi ruled over by King Kiki. When ten months had elapsed the Bodhisatta was born in Isipatana Deer Park.

On his naming day learned readers of omens and his relatives named him Kassapa, for he was a descendant of the clan of that name.

Royal household life

When the boy Kassapa came of age he lived in three mansions, Hamsa, Yasa and Sirinanda, being entertained and served by his wife Sunanda, a Brahmin lady, who had forty eight thousand women as attendants and enjoying a divine-like household life for two thousand years.

When he had seen the four omens while living a household life and when his wife Sunanda had given birth to a son named Vinjitasena, he was stirred with religious emotion and he thought to himself; "I shall renounce the world even today."

No sooner had he thought than the Bodhisatta's mansion rotated like a potter's wheel and flew up to the sky and, like the moon coming out in the company of stars in autumn and producing a very delightful light, the mansion moved on with hundreds of people accompanying it as though adorning the vault of heavens, as though exhibiting its glory, as though attracting spectators and captivating their hearts and as though lending splendour to the tree-tops. Finally it came down to the ground with the nigrodha Bodhi Tree in its centre.

Then the Bodhisatta got down from the mansion; standing on the ground, he accepted the robes offered by the Brahma and put them on. The Bodhisatta's wife and female attendants also got down from the mansion and went to a distance of forty usabhas (half a gavuta [league = 1.5 miles]) where they erected temporary shelters like barracks of an army. Following the Bodhisatta's example, all the men who had come along with him renounced the world.

Attainment of Buddhahood

With the recluses who had followed his example, Bodhisatta Kassapa practised dukkaracariya; on the full moon of Vesakha, the day on which he would become a Buddha, he partook of the milk-rice offered by his wife Sunanda and spent the daytime in the local grove of acasia. In the evening he proceeded alone to the Maha Bodhi and on the way accepted eight handfuls of grass offered by Soma, a watchmen of barley fields. As soon as he spread the grass at the foot of the Maha Bodhi Tree, there arose the Aparajita Pallanka [Throne] measuring fifteen cubit feet [18" x 15 = 22.5 feet]. Sitting cross-legged on the pallanka, he concentrated his energy of four factors and as has been said before he attained Buddhahood.

Five occasions of the Buddha's teaching
(Dhammabhisamaya)

After his attainment of Buddhahood, Buddha Kassapa stayed in the vicinity of Maha Bodhi Tree for forty-nine days. Having complied with the Brahma's request for teaching he contemplated as to whom he should teach first and saw the crore [10 Million] of recluses, his companions in renunciation who were endowed with the merits of their past deeds leading to the Path and Fruition and immediately went through space to their residence, Isipatana Deer Park, near the city of Baranasi. Staying in the middle of the recluses when the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakka sermon following the tradition of previous Buddhas, several Devas and Brahmas came to listen respectfully. At that time two crores [10 Million x 2 = 20 Million] of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the first Dhammabhisamaya.)

At a later time when Buddha Kassapa taught Dhamma while touring from town to town, from village to village, and from market-town to market-town, ten thousand crores [10 Million x 10,000 = 100 Billion] of Devas and humans attained the Path and Fruition.

(This was the second Dhammabhisamaya.)

Still at a later time when Buddha Kassapa displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire and taught Dhamma near the asana tree close to the gate of Sundara city and five thousand crores [10 Million x 5,000 = 50 Billion] of Devas and humans penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the third Dhammabhisamaya.)

Having displayed the Twin Miracle of water and fire, when Buddha Kassapa, in the celestial assembly hall, named Sudhamma in Tavatimsa, taught Abhidhamma of seven books in order to benefit Devas and Brahmas who had assembled there respectfully to listen to the Dhamma which was especially intouch for the Deva, who had been his mother. At that time three thousand crores [10 Million x 3,000 = 30 Billion] of Devas and Brahmas penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the fourth Dhammabhisamaya.)

There was once an ogre who was powerful like the one named Naradeva of Buddha Kakusandha's lifetime. He was well known by the same name of Naradeva. Assuming the appearance of a king ruling in a city outside Jambudipa and also assuming the king's voice, behaviour and other characteristics, he killed the king and devoured him; then he ruled over the whole kingdom slaying man people for food. He also indulged into debauchery pleasures with women.

When intelligent queens, maids of honour and members of retinue discovered that "This man is not our master, not our king. He is indeed a yakkha," he felt awkward, killed and devoured them all and moved on to another city where he made himself king in the aforesaid manner.

Killing and devouring people in this way, Naradeva arrived at Sundara City. Having heard of his reign of terror, the citizens became scared of the danger of death and fled from their city. Seeing the tumultous situation of the people, Buddha Kassapa went and stood before the yakkha. When he saw the Buddha standing in front of him, he defied the Buddha by roaring thunderously; unable to frighten the Buddha he approached him for refuge. He also put forward some questions which the Buddha answered to his satisfaction. When the Buddha admonished him and gave a sermon, innumerable Devas and humans, who had assembled there respectfully to listen to it, penetrated the Four Noble Truths and gained Emancipation.

(This was the fifth Dhanimabhisamaya.)

The single occasion of the Disciples' meeting
(sannipata)

The meeting of Buddha Kassapa's Disciple-Arahats took place just once like this. In the city of Baranasi, when Tissa, son of the Purohita, saw the thirty-two marks of a superman on the body of Bodhisatta Kassapa, he remembered his father's word that "only those who would become Buddhas can have such marks"; as he had not one iota of doubt about it, he thought to himself: "This Kassapa will become a Buddha through supreme renunciation. I shall work hard to be free from suffering of samsara after becoming a monk in the presence of that Buddha Kassapa".

The 32 major characteristics are:

1. Level feet
2. Thousand-spoked wheel sign on feet
3. Long, slender fingers
4. Pliant hands and feet
5. Toes and fingers finely webbed
6. Full-sized heels
7. Arched insteps
8. Thighs like a royal stag
9. Hands reaching below the knees
10. Well-retracted male organ
11. Height and stretch of arms equal
12. Every hair-root dark colored
13. Body hair graceful and curly
14. Golden-hued body
15. Ten-foot aura around him
16. Soft, smooth skin
17. Soles, palms, shoulders, and crown of head well-rounded
18. Area below armpits well-filled
19. Lion-shaped body
20. Body erect and upright
21. Full, round shoulders
22. Forty teeth
23. Teeth white, even, and close
24. Four canine teeth pure white
25. Jaw like a lion
26. Saliva that improves the taste of all food
27. Tongue long and broad
28. Voice deep and resonant
29. Eyes deep blue
30. Eyelashes like a royal bull
31. White ūrṇā curl that emits light between eyebrows
32. Fleshy protuberance on the crown of the head

-- Physical characteristics of the Buddha, by Wikipedia

Accordingly he went to the Himalayas and became an ascetic even before Bodhisatta Kassapa renounced the world. The ascetics of his company were twenty thousand in number.

Later on when he heard that "Kassapa after renouncing the world, has now become a Buddha", he left the Himalayas with his company of twenty thousand ascetics, and requested for monkhood in the presence of the Buddha. Being pronounced then by the Buddha, "Come, monks", Tissa the ascetic with his twenty thousand companions became "Ehi bhikkhus" and attained Arahatship. In the assembly of these twenty thousand monks, on the full moon of Magha, Buddha Kassapa recited the Ovada Patimokkha.

(This was the only sannipata.)

Future Buddha Gotama as Jotipala the Youth received prophecy from Buddha Kassapa

Meanwhile our Future Buddha Gotama was famous as Jotipala the Youth; he recited the Veda texts continuously, learned various hymns by heart, reached perfection in the Vedas and was accomplished in treatises on prognostication that explain physical marks of a superman, etc., treatises on legends that narrate ancient tales and all arts and crafts that had been handed down by generation after generation of teachers. No less accomplished, but fully well-versed and skilful was he in terrestrial science and celestial science.

In Buddhism the idea of superman completely replaces the idea of the Deity; because Buddha is not God, he is only a superman.

-- A New Model of the Universe, by Pyotr Ouspenskii

Jotipala was an intimate friend of Ghatikara the Potter, who being a noble supporter of Buddha Kassapa was greatly devoted to the Three Gems, and famous as an Anagami devotee. Ghatikara the Potter took him to Buddha Kassapa.

After listening to the Buddha's Dhamma, Jotipala became a monk in the Buddha's presence. Highly energetic, clever in performing duties big and small, and not negligent in any matter associated with the three trainings of morality, concentration, and wisdom, he shouldered responsibilities in the Buddha's Dispensation.

Having learned the Teachings (Pariyatti) of the Buddha comprising nine divisions, he glorified the Buddha's Dispensation. Discerning Jotipala's aforesaid marvellous qualities, Buddha Kassapa prophesied of him: "This Jotipala bhikkhu will indeed become a Buddha named Gotama even in this Bhadda Kappa."

On hearing the Buddha's prophecy the noble bhikkhu Jotipala became overjoyed and resolved to fulfil the ten perfections even more energetically.

On account of his only wish which was attainment of Omniscience, our Bodhisatta who would become the inconceivable Lord of the three worlds, he kept himself far away from all demeritorious deeds that are to be avoided throughout samsara, repeated existences, and put efforts unflinchingly to perform meritorious deeds, which ordinary people can hardly do, in absolute fulfilment of the Ten Perfections.

Note:

From the above-quoted Buddhavamsa Text, it seems that Ghatikara the Potter brought his friend, Jotipila the Youth, to Kassapa Buddha without difficulty. In reality, however, he did not succeed easily in so doing. He had to persuade him again and again, and finally used force by dragging him along by his hair. This is mentioned in the Ghatikara Sutta, Raja Vagga of the Majjima Pannasa. The detailed story of Ghatikara and that of Jotipala should be known from that Sutta.

Particulars of Buddha Kassapa

Buddha Kassapa's birthplace was Baranasi City where King Kiki reigned; his father was Brahmin Brahmadatta and his mother Dhanavati, a Brabmin lady.

He lived household life for two thousand years; his three mansions were Hamsa, Yasa and Sirinanda.

His wife was Sunanda, a Brahmin lady who had forty-eight thousand Brahmin women as attendants; his son was Vijitasena.

The vehicle in which he renounced the world was a mansion; he practised dukkaracariya for seven days.

His two Chief Disciples were Tissa Thera and Bharadvaja Thera; his attendant was Sabbamitta Thera.

His two female Chief Disciples were Anula Theri and Uruvela Theri; his Bodhi Tree was a nigrodha.

His noble supporters were Sumangala and Ghatikara the Potter; his female supporters were Vijitasena Upasika and Bhadda Upasika.

Buddha Kassapa's height was twenty cubits [18" x 20 = 30 feet high]; he was glorious like forceful lightning and the full moon surrounded by planets and stars.

The life-span in his time was twenty thousand; he lived for four-fifths of the life-span [20,000 x .8 = 16,000 years] rescuing numerous beings from samasric waters to place them on the shores of Nibbana.

Buddha Kassapa created the big pond of Pariyatti Dhamma for several beings -- humans, Devas and Brahmas -- and gave the 'unguent of Catu Parisuddhi Sila' for them to beautify their minds, made them put on the garments of Hiriand Ottappa, distributed among them the flowers of thirty seven Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, and placed the spotless mirror of Sotapatti Magga Nana so that they could see clearly for themselves, distinguishing between faulty things and faultless things, between acts of merit and acts of unwholesomeness. He placed the mirror as though he were inviting those who were wandering in search of Nibbana near the aforesaid pond, "Behold (yourselves in) all kinds of adornment."

By providing those who listened to his admonishment with the raiments of the five precepts, ten precepts, and the four Catu parisuddhi Sila so that they could fight against their enemy of defilement; by making them fasten their coats of mail of the four mundane and five supramundane jhanas; by making them wear the leather robe of Sati and Sampajanna; by supplying them with the full military equipment of sublime energy of four levels by giving them the shield of four Satipatthanas so that they could defend themselves from various enemy-defilements; (by making his army of Disciples) wield the lances of very sharp Vipassana Nana, and gave them the sword of Magga Panna, the swords that had been sharpened on the whet stone of viriya; by handing to them the supramundane precepts so that they could eradicate their inclinations to associate with defilements; by giving them various dressing articles of three Vijjas and six Abhinnanas, having fashioned the crowning flower of supramundane Fruitions so that they could adorn and beautify themselves with; and by making a big cluster of the flowers of nine supramundane Dhammas, and together with it he gave them the white umbrella of Arahattaphala so that they could protect themselves against the sun of demerits, Buddha Kassapa created the great bloom of the eightfold Magga leading happily to the heaven of Nibbana. That Buddha Kassapa and his numerous Disciple-Arahats attained Parinibbana and came to the end of his final existence.

Samvega

That Buddha Kassapa, the embodiment of unmeasured qualities, whom others could hardly approach; the gem of Dhamma taught by that Buddha, the Dhamma that was in a position to extend its bold invitation saying, "Come, have a look, and try it as a practice."; the gem of Sangha, the Order of Disciples who were most excellent, for they had well practised that Gem of Dhamma -- all this had vanished. Unsubstantial and futile indeed are all conditioned things!

Cetiya

In this way Buddha Kassapa, Conqueror of the five Maras, Teacher of humans and Devas, attained Parinibbana in a great park called Setavya near Setavya City, in the country of Kasi. People of Jambudipa unanimously held a meeting and for worship erected a cetiya with bricks, each brick to lay externally cost a crore [10 Million] (of money) and each brick to lay internally five millions; (as has been said above) the cetiya was one yojana high [14 km. = 8.6 miles = 45,408 feet high].

Our Bodhisatta had thus received the prophecy predicting his Buddhahood from the former twenty-four Buddhas beginning with Dipankara and ending with Kassapa and this has been composed briefly in the 'Dhammarasi Pyo' (vv. 7, 8 and 9). (The author then gives pertinent extracts from the 'pyo' which we leave untranslated.)

[admin]

Archibald Campbell L. Carlleyle [Archibald Carleyle]
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/17/21

-- Craniometry, by Wikipedia

[O]ne of Prinsep's helpers in Calcutta was a young engineer officer named Alexander Cunningham, who in the 1850s began a systematic search to rediscover the ancient Buddhist sacred sites, beginning with Sarnath, the scene of Buddha Sakyamuni's first sermon, known subsequently among Buddhists as the First Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma.

Cunningham's work was greatly assisted by the appearance of French translations from the Chinese of accounts of journeys into India made many centuries earlier by Chinese Buddhist monks. The first of these to become accessible in the West was written by the greatly revered scholar monk and collector of Buddhist texts who first became known in the West as Yiouen Tsang, Yuan Chwang or other variations of that name -- now standardised as Xuanzang. The Orientalist Stanislas Julien's French translation of Xuanzang's journey appeared in 1853 as Voyages du pelerin Hiouen-tsang. The book set out in great detail how the Chinese monk had reached India in 631 CE after a long and perilous journey across central Asia. He had then spent some fifteen years on the sub-continent, travelling from one Buddhist location to another before settling at the great Buddhist monastic university of Nalanda, where he spent two years studying the sutras. Xuanzang had kept a detailed record of where he went and what he saw and, crucially, how he got there, which on his return to China he set down in his Journey to the West in the Great Tang Dynasty.

With Julien's French translation in his hands Alexander Cunningham was able to locate and excavate a great many ancient cities and locations associated with the Buddha, most notably at Rajgir, the ancient Rajagriha of Gautama Sakyamuni's royal patrons King Bimbisara and his cruel son Ajatashatru. Here the first Buddhist monastery had been built and the First Buddhist Council held after the Buddha's Maharaparinirvana. After his retirement from the Indian Army in 1861 as a Major-General, Cunningham returned to India to become Director-General of the newly established Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). In 1863 the directions supplied by Xuanzang led Cunningham to Sahet-Mahet, north-west of the town of Balrampur, in the Gonda District of Oude and just over sixty miles due west of Birdpore. Contained within a massive brick wall three miles in circumference were the ruins of what was clearly an ancient city now covered in dense forest. After cutting a series of tracks through the jungle Cunningham excavated some of the larger mounds, which revealed themselves to be the remains of stupas built of fired brick, together with attendant monasteries. A magnificent standing Buddha was also uncovered, with a damaged inscription at the base which included the word 'Sravasti.' More stupas and viharas were unearthed just south of the city walls, which Cunningham concluded had to be the Jetavana Garden, the monastic centre that had served the Buddha and his disciples for so many years as their summer rains retreat.

Indian archaeology then suffered a second setback in 1865 when the ASI was disbanded for financial reasons, but five years later Cunningham returned to India as Sir Alexander Cunningham, KCIE, to resume his work as the revived ASI's director. In 1873 he made a second visit to the Sahet-Mahet site which only strengthened his opinion that this important site had to be Sravasti and its associated monastery of Jetavana, as seen and described by Xuanzang more than fourteen centuries earlier.

Cunningham's main efforts thereafter were concentrated elsewhere, initially in the Sanchi area near Bhopal in central India and latterly at Bodhgaya, the seat of Sakyamuni's enlightenment, where he has to take some responsibility for the botched reconstruction of the Mahabodi temple we see today. The work of tracking down the remaining lost sites of Buddhism was now delegated to Cunningham's assistants, one of whom was the eccentric Archibald Carleyle, who soon after his arrival in India chose to add another 'I' to his name and spell it 'Carlleyle.' His main claim to fame today is his pioneering work on India's prehistory, but in the cold weather months of 1874-75 and 1875-76 Carlleyle travelling through northern Bihar and what had now become the united provinces of the North-Western Provinces and Oude (NWP&O). His first tour took him to the lake of Buila Tal, fifteen miles north-west of Gorakhpur, first noted by Buchanan in 1814. Here his exploration of the site was greatly impeded by the hostility of the local people who were determined to destroy whatever he uncovered. 'This,' he reported, 'is the invariable policy of the brutish, ignorant, and evil-disposed natives of this part of the country, who have, moreover, already destroyed some ancient monuments since I have been here, simply because they knew I wanted to preserve them.'

Despite the local hostility Archie Carlleyle was able to convince himself that what he saw beside the lake at Buila Tal matched the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang's descriptions of Kapilavastu, the city in which the young prince Siddhartha had grown up. General Cunningham then visited the site himself. 'The result of my examination,' he concluded, 'was the most perfect conviction of the accuracy of Mr. Carlleyle's identification of Bhuila Tal with the site of Kapilavastu, the famous birthplace of Sakya Muni.'

A year later Carlleyle did even better when he located the ruins of Kushinagara, the scene of Sakyamuni's Maharaparinirvana and cremation, which he placed near Kasia, thirty-three miles due east of Gorakhpur in a 'great long mound of ruins called the Matha Kunwar ka kot' -- in other words, the fort or abode of Matakumar, the chieftain or prince described to Buchanan in 1814 as 'a person of the military order.' Here Carlleyle had the enormous satisfaction of finding precisely what he was looking for: 'The famous colossal statue of the [Mahapari-] Nirvana of Buddha' -- famous, because this was what the Chinese traveller Xuanzang had seen and described in the course of his visit to Kushinagara some twelve centuries earlier. 'After digging to a depth of about 10 feet,' wrote Carlleyle in his report to Cunningham, 'I came upon what appeared to be the upper part of the legs of a colossal recumbent statue of stone ... I then hurried on the excavations, until I had uncovered the entire length of a colossal recumbent statue of Buddha, lying in a chamber.'


Archibald Carlleyle's rebuilt Buddha Maharaparinirvana statue at Kasia, the ancient Kushinagara, drawn by his draftsman Ram Narayan Bhaggat. (IOL, BL)

Much of the statue was damaged but further excavation uncovered most of the missing parts, which Carlleyle restored with the aid of Portland cement. In his enthusiasm for reconstruction, he went on to paint the statue as he thought it ought to be: 'I coloured the face, neck and hands, and feet a yellowish flesh colour, and I coloured the drapery white; and I also gave a black tint to the hair. Thus I really made the statue as good and as perfect as ever it was -- or perhaps even better than it ever was.' Carlleyle then rebuilt the temple that had held the statue, adding a vaulted roof to his own design, after which he affixed a large notice above the Maharapari nirvana statue, proclaiming himself its finder and restorer. He concluded his report to Cunningham by explaining that all this had been done at his own expense and that he was now out of pocket to the tune of 1,200 rupees. 'And finally to all I would say,' he ended, 'Let those who cavil come and see the complete work with their own eyes, and then I shall be satisfied!'

But this was not the full extent of Carlleyle's triumphs. From Kushinagara he led his survey party eastwards across the Gandak River into northern Bihar and to the district town of Bettiah, not far from which stood the two inscribed Asokan pillars first observed and reported upon by Brian Hodgson some forty years earlier: one at Lauriya Araraj, twenty miles south east of Bettiah; the other at Lauriya Nandangarh, fifteen miles north-west of Bettiah. Here Carlleyle encountered a party of Tharu tribesmen who told him that in their home country to the north there was 'a stone sticking in the ground which they called Bhim's Lat, and which they said resembled the top or capital of the pillar at Laoriya.' Guided by the Tharus, Carlleyle hurried northwards some twenty miles, 'although I had heard that the locality was most unhealthy, and a most dangerous place for my native servants.' Half a mile outside the little village of Rampurva he came upon 'the upper portion, to about 3 feet in length, of the capital of a pillar ... sticking out of the ground in a slanting position, and pointing towards the north.' With the Tharus' help he managed to expose the upper part of the pillar to a length of about forty feet. The ground was too waterlogged and the stone column itself too heavy to be moved so he had to content himself with an imperfect impression of the Asokan edict it carried, achieved by his men 'standing up to their waists in water.'

The Rampurva edict turned out to be identical in lettering and content with the inscription carried on the Lauriya Nandangarh pillar, which led Carlleyle to propose that Emperor Asoka had erected these pillars to mark his royal pilgrimage:

Four different pillars of Asoka are now known to be situated along the line of the old north road which led from Magadha to Nipal, or from the Ganges opposite Pataliputra or Patna, through Besarh or Vaisali, in a northern or rather north-north-westerly direction, keeping at a moderate distance to the east of the Gandak, to the Tarai and hills of Nipal ... The fourth pillar is the fallen and buried pillar discovered by me close to Rampurva. 21-1/2, to the north-north-half-north-east from the pillar at Laoryia Naondangarh ... Now it is evident that the inscriptions on these pillars were intended to be read by passing travellers and pilgrims passing along the old north road from the Ganges opposite Pataliputra to Nipal. I should therefore expect to find either another pillar. or else a rock-cut inscription, still further north somewhere in the Nipal Tarai.

The Rampurva Asokan pillar, first uncovered close to the Nepali border by Archie Carlleyle in 1876, but not fully excavated until 1904, when its missing lion capital (upper left) was located -- and when this photograph was taken by John Marshall. (IOL, BL)

With the publication of the ASI's annual report for 1876 it seemed that all the major Buddhist sites had been satisfactorily located. Much of Carlleyle's field-work thereafter was taken up with palaeontology in the wild hill country known as Bundelkhand but already his behaviour had become increasingly irrational and in May 1885 Sir Alexander Cunningham ordered his compulsory retirement at the age of fifty-four.

-- The Buddha and Dr. Fuhrer: An Archaeological Scandal, by Charles Allen

[x]
Archibald Campbell Carlyle (1831–1897)[1] was an English archaeologist active in India.

The Archaeological Survey of India was revived as a distinct department of the government and Sir Alexander Cunningham was appointed as Director General, taking office in February 1871. Cunningham was given two assistants: J. D. Beglar and Carlleyle. They were later joined by H. B. W. Garrik. Carlleyle handled the Agra region for the Report of 1871–72, while Beglar was responsible for Delhi.

In 1867–68, Carlleyle discovered paintings on the walls and ceilings of rock shelters in Sohagighat, in the Mirzapur district. He was the first to claim a Stone Age antiquity for these. He also made many other important contributions to archaeology in India.[2][3] He is credited with finding of 20 copper and 4 silver punch-marked coins at Bahraich, near the ancient city of Benaras (modern Varanasi).[4]

References

1. Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology of South Asia. University of Michigan Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-472-11013-1.
2. Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology of South Asia. University of Michigan Press. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-472-11013-1.
3. Bhattacharyya, Narendra Nath (1993). Buddhism in the history of Indian ideas. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. p. 27. ISBN 81-7304-017-6.
4. Imperial Gazetteer of India (1909) Published by Oxford University. V. 2, P. 152

External links

• Works by or about A. C. L. Carlleyle at Internet Archive

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The Rock Art of India [Excerpt]
by Dr. Meenakshi Dubey Pathak
Bradshaw Foundation
Accessed: 3/18/21

The earliest discovery of prehistoric rock art was made in India, twelve years before the discovery of Alta Mira in Spain. Archibald Carlleyle discovered rock paintings at Sohagihat in the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh in 1867 and 1868. Unfortunately he did not publish. J Cockburn rightly commented that Carlleyle’s knowledge died with him (Smith, 1906: 187). Fortunately, Carlleyle had placed some of his notes with a friend, Reverend Regionald Gatty, and V A Smith published these later, which is the only record of his discovery of Rock paintings. In his note he wrote “Lying along with the small implements in undisturbed soil of the cave floors, pieces of a heavy red mineral-coloured matter called geru were frequently found, rubbed down on one or more facets, as if for making paint. Geru is evidently a partially decomposed hematite (Iron peroxide). “On the uneven sides or walls and roofs of many caves or rock shelters, there are rock paintings apparently of various ages. Though all evidently of great age, done in red colour called geru. Some of these rude paintings appeared to illustrate in a very stiff and archaic manner scenes in the life of the ancient stone chippers. Others represent animals or hunts of animals by men with bows and arrows, spears and hatchets. With regard to the probable age of these stone implements I may mention that I never found a single ground or polished implements not a single ground ring stone or hammer stone in the soil of the floors of any of the many caves or rock shelters I examined.” (Smith 1906: 187).

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Prehistoric India at Manchester Museum I: Archibald Campbell Carlyle
by Bryan Sitch, Deputy of Head of Collections
Manchester Museum
June 23, 2017


Cover design of British Museum occasional paper about the Carlyle collection (1994)

Manchester Museum is working on an HLF Courtyard extension project that opens in 2020, and collections curators are looking through their collections for anything that comes from the Indian subcontinent in preparation for the new South Asia Gallery. The new gallery will comprise eight ‘chapters’ ranging chronologically from prehistoric times to Partition, the diaspora and the founding of South Asian communities in the UK, especially Manchester. All of the disciplines represented in the Museum collections are contributing to this exciting project and doubtless other curators will report in due course about what they have in their collections. In the archaeology collection it’s been an exciting journey of discovery and revelation as I began to realise how significant some of the collectors and donors represented in Manchester Museum’s collection were in the history of Indian archaeology.


Palaeolithic stone tool from the Vindhya Hills, India with a A.C.Carlyle label (Manchester Museum)


Detail of a Carlyle label (Manchester Museum)

Perhaps the most important of the collectors who gave us material from the Indian sub continent was Archibald Campbell Carlyle (1831-1897). Carlyle (or Carlleyle) was First Assistant to the Archaeological Survey of India from 1871 until his retirement in 1885. Carlyle went to India to seek his fortune, initially as a tutor. At this time employment in the colonies offered security and career prospects. Carlyle worked in the Indian Museum in Calcutta, the Riddell Museum in Agra and then joined the Archaeological Survey of India. He was appointed by Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893), Director General of the Survey. The Archaeological Survey was part of the British imperial and colonial project in India, to survey, record, and catalogue the antiquities of the country in order to understand, administer and control them more effectively. As Dilip Chakrabarti puts it: Cunningham ‘…was trying to justify the systematic archaeological exploration of India on the grounds that politically it would help the British to rule India.’ (see Prof.Chakrabarti’s ‘The development of archaeology in the Indian subcontinent’, in World Archaeology 13.3, Feb.1982).


Upinder Singh’s book The Discovery of Ancient India Early Archaeologists and the Beginnings of Archaeology (Permanent Black, 2004) and a British Museum occasional paper on The Carlyle Collection of Stone Age Artefacts from Central India by Jill Cook and Hazel Martingell (1994) provide a lot of information about Carlyle from which the following summary is extracted.


Occasional paper about the Carlyle collection at the British Museum

At a time when Cunningham and the other assistants were understandably preoccupied by ancient Indian sculpture, temples and coins, Carlyle was one of the few people making an effort to recover and record prehistoric stone tools. Jill Cook and Hazel Martingell’s occasional paper paints a vivid picture of Carlyle as a field archaeologist sleeping rough in ruined temples and upsetting the polite conventions of Raj society, on one occasion threatening an enquirer sent by the Raja of Nagod with a gun. Carlyle seems to have been rather prickly about his status, which may explain the alternative spelling of his name as Carlleyle, to suggest he was from an aristocratic family. His ‘psyche-evaluation’ described him as ‘not ordinarily insane, but liable to outbursts of eccentric action and evil temper’ (Cook and Martingell:13).

The work took Carlyle into the landscape for long periods at a time, travelling on horseback, accompanied by servants on foot and camels to carry the baggage and surveying equipment. He was in eastern Rajastan in 1871-3, the Vindhya Hills and then northwards into the plains with seasons in Gorkhpur, Saran and Ghazipur during the 1870s. He excavated a site at Joharganj in 1879. In the early 1880s he worked in the Vindhya Hills again when complaints were made about him. As Cook and Martingell put it: ‘In 1882, a European with one servant, living rough, without bed and bedding and without a change of clothes or proper food for six weeks had to be mad.’ There is more than a hint of the Indiana Jones about him.


Charles Seidler’s letter in Manchester Museum

When Cunningham proposed that the Archaeological Survey be disbanded, Carlyle lost his job and came back to Britain in 1885. He was 54. Living in straitened circumstances in London, Carlyle disposed of his archaeological collection by sale or by donation to a number of museums and individuals. A dealer in antiquities, Charles Seidler, wrote letters to collectors including Sir John Evans, and Canon Greenwell, antiquarian societies, and the Manchester Museum. David Gelsthorpe, Curator of Palaeontology, found some archive correspondence from Seidler relating to the sale of prehistoric stone artefacts from Carlyle’s collection (see image above). The slips of paper that accompany the letter give details of the objects and where they found. Presumably, the various objects were wrapped in these slips of paper. This information was used to compile the entries in the Manchester Museum accession register (the ‘O’ register) and from these we learn that some of the flints came from a very important site called Morhana Pahar in Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh. Bridget Allchin identified this as one of a group of sites in the Vindhya Hills escarpment overlooking the Ganga Valley about five miles north of Hanmana village near Bhainsaur. Carlyle excavated the site but didn’t publish it in full (B.Allchin and R.Allchin -1982 –The Rise of Civilisation in India and Pakistan, p.82). He may have kept the information to himself, thinking he would go back some day to investigate it in detail but his ‘retirement’ prevented further work.


Chariot rider ambushed by bowmen at Morhana Pahar. It appears that Carlleyle painted over the original red pigment with white paint in order to capture the details photographically. Photo: courtesy of Prof Ajay Pratap, Head of Dept of History, Banaras Hindu University

The cave or rock shelter site at Morhana Pahar yielded thousands of worked flints and there were cave paintings or mural art. Some of the images must have been painted later in prehistory because they show men driving chariots being ambushed by men on foot using bows. Carlyle’s notes described them as showing ‘in a very stiff and archaic manner scenes in the life of the ancient stone chippers, others represent animals or hunts of animals by men with bows and arrows, spears and hatchets…’ They seem to depict people living a hunter-gather lifestyle confronting chariot-drivers of the Indian Iron Age, so there must have been considerable overlap of what might be considered chronologically distinct material cultures. Chenchu hunter-gatherers in India were photographed during the 1930s, showing how resilient this way of life is (see Allchin and Allchin p.85). Carlyle seems to have been the first to propose that the cave art was undertaken by people in prehistory. When he was working it was commonly supposed that cave paintings couldn’t have survived for such a long time, and it was only the discovery of Altamira later in the 19th century that opened people’s eyes to the existence of prehistoric cave art. It is a shame that so far we have not been able to find a photograph of Archibald Campbell Carlyle. Over to you gentle reader….


Carlyle Collection microliths from Morhana Pahar in the Vindhya Hills, in northern central India

The flints from Morhana Pahar are known as microliths and include lunates or crescent shaped artefacts, rhomboids, trapezes, trapezoids triangles, bladelets, drill points and so on. Some of them were mounted in wooden shafts to create barbed weapons. Some were found still ‘glued’ in position in their wooden armatures using bitumen at the prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan. The tools are very small and some archaeologists assumed that the people who made them must have been themselves of small stature or pygmies, hence the name for the tools: pygmy flints. They are very similar to the stone tools found on the Pennines around Manchester and during the early 2oth century an associate of William Boyd Dawkins at Manchester Museum, Revd Gatty, argued that northern Britain had been settled by so-called pygmy people from northern India! The flints date from the Mesolithic period, c.9,000-4,000 BC.

Other material includes more microliths from Gharwa Pahari, Baghe Khor and Likhneya Pahar, Palaeolithic implements and Neolithic axeheads from Marfa in Bundelkhand, and other stone artefacts, including a Madras type hatchet from the Gaur River.

As a footnote to this discussion I might also add that the list of museums holding Carlyle material in Cook and Martingell’s occasional paper in 1994 does not include Manchester Museum. So far 82 artefacts that Carlyle collected have been catalogued, one of the largest of the collections after the British Museum and National Museums of Scotland (Edinburgh).

I leave the last words to Carlyle:

‘The question now, therefore, is not -‘where are stone implements to be found?’ but rather – where are they not to be found?’ For so far as my own experience goes, they appear findable almost everywhere in India.’

Dilip Chakrabarti (1999) India an Archaeological History Palaeolithic Beginnings Early Historic Foundations (O.U.P.), p.95

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Letter to Mr. Rivett-Carnac [Colonel John Henry Rivett-Carnac 1838-1923]
by Archibald Campbell Carlleyle
Camp, near Chapra
April 23, 1879

J. H. Rivett Carnac, C.I.E., Colonel of the Indian Volunteers and A.D.C. to the Queen

British employee of the Indian Colonial Service. Researched rock art in India and donated a large collection of stone tools from north-west India in 1883. From 1858-94 he worked in the Bengal Civil Service, as a secretary to R.C. Temple (q.v.). Married to Annie Marian Durant (Mrs Rivett-Carnac q.v.) in 1868.

Bibliography

https://whowaswho-indology.info/5226/rivett-carnac-h/

RIVETT-CARNAC, John Henry (Harry). London 16.9.1838 — Vevey, Switzerland 11.5.1923. British Colonial Officer and Scholar of Indian Prehistory. Colonel. Son of Admiral John Edward R.-C. and Maria Jane Davis, in a family with long tradition of Indian service. In 1858–94 worked in Bengal Civil Service (i.a. as secretary to R. C. Temple), also raised and commanded the Ghazipur volunteer regiment. C.I.E. 1878. Retired and settled in Switzerland. Married 1868 with Annie Marian Durant, no children. Publications: Report on the Cotton Department: For the Year 1868-1869. 1869; . – articles on prehistoric antiquities in JASB and PrASB. – Many Memories of Life in India, at Home and Abroad. 1910. Sources: Buckland, Dictionary; H.M. Durand, JRAS 1923, 491f. (eloquent, but almost no information); https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Rivett-Carnac-25 (quoting The Spectator) with photo

-- Persons of Indian Studies, by Prof. Dr. Klaus Karttunen.

-- Colonel J H Rivett-Carnac, by The British Museum

John Henry Rivett-Carnac C.I.E. (1838 - 1923)
Colonel John Henry (Harry) "Lord Harry" Rivett-Carnac C.I.E.
Born: 16 Sep 1838 in Marylebone, London, England
Son of John Edward Rivett-Carnac and Maria Jane (Davis) Rivett-Carnac
Brother of James Davis Rivett-Carnac, Henrietta Rivett-Carnac, Anna Maria Rivett-Carnac, Elisa Mary (Rivett-Carnac) Tilghman-Huskisson, Edward Stirling Rivett-Carnac and Arthur Boileau Rivett-Carnac
Husband of Annie Marian (Durant) Rivett-Carnac — married 1868 [location unknown]
Died: 15 May 1923 in Vevey Switzerland

Biography

John Henry “Harry” was born in 1838, the second son of Admiral John and Maria Jane's four son's and seven children. In 1868 he married Annie Marian Durant but they did not have any children. He spent most of his very full and successful life in India, where he was Secretary to Sir Richard Temple, Private Secretary to Viceroy Lord Lytton, as well as holding many other distinguished posts in India. In 1894 he was appointed A.D.C. to Queen Victoria and later King Edward Vll. He retired to Switzerland, where he died in Vevey in 1923. He was a prolific writer with 52 works in 100 publications in 2 languages and with 307 library holdings. His work ranged through Bibliography, Folklore, History, Criticism and Interpretation. His best known work was "Many Memories of Life in India, at Home, and Abroad" (Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1910.

The following article appeared in The Spectator in May 1923. "The death of Colonel John Henry Rivett-Carnac at Vevey (on the north bank of Lake Lausanne Switzerland) on Friday, May 11th, is a matter of especial regret to readers of the Spectator, who will remember the many letters from him that we have published. In accordance with the family tradition of the Rivetts he spent most of his life in India, where he had a very distinguished career, in both civil and military capacities. In addition to his public life in the Indian Civil Service, he had many private hobbies of a more purely intellectual nature, in any of which he would have obtained eminence had it held his somewhat over-versatile attention for longer than a few years at a time. One of the practical results of his interest in archaeology is the possession of several valuable coins by the British Museum, a gift from him. The latter part of his life, practically since his retirement, he spent in Switzerland, where he did valuable work during the War for British prisoners. His death has deprived us of one of those all too rare combinations of personal charm and practical ability." He also wrote the book - still available on Amazon - "Many Memories of life in India, at home and abroad." In 1878 he was made a Companion of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire (C.I.E.) and was Aide de Camp to both her Majesty Queen Victoria and His Majesty King Edward VII. The Times of May 14 1923 had this obituary. We regret to announce that Colonel John Henry Rivett-Carnac C.I.E V.D., distinguished member of a family famous for its service in India died on Friday at Vevey, Switzerland, aged 84. ....... He was the second son of Admiral John Rivett-Carnac, by his wife Maria, daughter of Captain Samuel Davis, who in 1799, the narrow winding staircase to the roof of Nandesur House, Benares, kept at bay, until relieving troops arrived, Wazir Ally, the deposed Nawab of Oudh, after he had massacred Mr Cherry the Resident, and most of the European inhabitants. On his fathers side Rivett-Carnac belonged to the old Suffolk family of Ryvet, or Rivett. Both his paternal grandfather , who assumed the additional surname of Carnac, and his uncle were Governors of Bombay. .. He was thus born into the innermost circle of old Haileybury Civilians, belonging to one and being closely related to another of the four families mentioned by Kipling in “The Day’s Work”, the Plowdens, the Trevors, the Beadons and the Rivett-Carnac’s.......... He was appointed to the Bengal Service..... Early training would have taught him the method and discipline he somewhat lacked to supplement his great abilities as an administrator ....... but he had influential connections ......... Appointed to the Cotton Commission ... he did very good service, writing a valuable report on cotton cultivation and trade ....." During the great famine in Behar when appointed to "purchase grain for the famine-stricken. Rivett-Carnac’s methods were lavish” and it was remarked by Lord Mayo that “if told to do a thing he could be trusted to get it done, but seldom reckoned on the expense either to himself or anyone else.”....... “He was appointed to the Benares Opium Agency - a post generally reserved for senior men. He soon revolutionised and improved the machinery.....” an impulsive man, he was apt to tire of an enterprise, and spells of strenuous official work would sometimes be succeeded by a period of lethargy. ...... he prized no distinction so much as that of Aide-de-Camp to queen Victoria and afterwards King Edward - an honour never before attained by an Indian civilian. ..... A born raconteur, as his delightful volume of “Many Memories of life in India” abundantly shows, he had an extraordinarily wide circle of friends in all classes of society. ....He married at the end of 1868, and is survived by his wife Marion, daughter of General Sir Henry Durand .... He lived some time in Suffolk, where he was Lord of the Manor Stanstead Hall, but later purchased and for years exercised generous hospitality at the Chateau de Rougement, Vaud, once a celebrated Cluny Benedictine priory, and later the Castle of the Berne Governors. But it was too great an altitude for his health and his last years were spent at the Hotel des Trois Couronnes, at vevey, where he died. My grandfather ‘Pop' was always rather scathing of “Lord Harry” despite his many achievements - and my father ‘Jack’ had this to say about him in his “Story”. “My Great Uncle Harry must have been quite an able individual and even for Victorian times was a most unmitigated snob. He was, according to some tales, always excusing himself as he had to go to see 'some Duke or Lord so and so'. One story told against 'Lord Harry’ as he was fondly known, was that around the 1890’s a certain confidence trickster was had up in London for fraud. It appeared that this gentleman, who called himself Rivett-Carnac had, among other things, chosen from a well know jeweller, various diamond rings and bracelets, which he had asked to be sent up to his hotel so that his wife could chose one for a birthday present. The jeweller most impressed, duly obliged, only to find that the rings, bracelets AND Mr Rivett-Carnac had disappeared without trace. Apparently the newspapers took up the the story with headlines “A Rivett-Carnac goes wrong. Member of a well-known Anglo-Indian family steals jewels etc.” Naturally Lord Harry was furious and wrote to the papers denying that the accused was a Rivett-Carnac, and eventually attended the court at which the accused was found guilty. This proved too much for ‘Lord Harry’ who stood up in court, and after emphatically denying that the man was a Rivett-Carnac ended by challenging him to say what right he had to use this distinguished name. Quite unperturbed, the accused rose and said, “My Lord, I am the illegitimate son of Sir Harry!

Great Uncle Harry did however make up a really good - if not thoroughly accurate record of the Family Tree, the authenticity of which he managed to get both Burkes and Debretts to accept.” My grandfather goes on to say that "It seems sad to have to accept Douglas’s more mundane, but certainly more accurate family Hat, than Great Uncle Harry’s sparkling Crown, even though most of the jewels have proved to be common glass.” Here, I would like to add that Douglas (who had our branch of the family decended from Blacksmiths rather than the Aristocracy of Lord Harry’s account) later added an apology in a Supplementary Note, which says in brief ”Proof that it listed the Derby family among relatives of the Brandeston Revetts has recently come to light” therefore “Elizabeth Rivett had every reason to believe herself entitled to adopt the Suffolk Rivett/Revett on behalf of her son Thomas” his negation of which had led him to the Blacksmith theory! After further research it can be reliably established that our branch of the family did indeed descend from the noble Derby Branch of the Rivett’s rather than the Blacksmith branch. The following is a summary of his life John F. Riddick, Who Was Who in British India (Westport, Connecticut, London: Greenwood Press, 1998), p. 308; RIVETT-CARNAC, John Henry Indian Civil Service; b 16 Sept. 1838 in London; s of Adm. John Rivett-Carnac and Maria Davis; m 1868, Marian Durand. Educ: Germany; Haileybury. 1859 joined ICS and assigned to Bengal; 1862 was Sec. to Sir Richard Temple [q.v.], Chief Comr. of Central Provinces; 1866-68 made Cotton Comr.. CP; 1872 assigned as Comr. of Cotton and Commerce. Govt, of India: made Special Comr. during Bengal Famine of 1874; 1875 was Opium Agent at Benares; 1877 selected Privt. Sec. to Viceroy Lord Lytton [q.v.J; 1885 named ADC to C-in-C. India, Sir Donald Stewart [q.v.); 1885 and 1887 led an Indian Rifle Team at Wimbledon: 1885 raised and commanded Ghazipur Lt. Horse and Rifles; 1894 named ADC to the Queen. Publications: Many Memories of Life in India, at Home and Abroad. 1910; and several Journal articles addressing mainly archaeological subjects. Honors: CEE. VD. FSA. d 11 May 1923.

Sources

[http://thepeerage.com/p55952.htm#i559520 The Peerage.com (M, #559520) Article in The Spectator Obituary in The Times of May 14 1923. Information contained in his personal "Notes on the family of Rivett-Carnac" for private circulation in 1909. John F. Riddick, Who Was Who in British India (Westport, Connecticut, London: Greenwood Press, 1998), p. 308 World Cat Identities

-- John Henry Rivett-Carnac C.I.E. (1838 - 1923), by WikiTree

Camp, near Chapra
April 23rd 1879

My dear Mr. Rivett-Carnac,

In continuation of my last letter, dated the 20th April (& finished on the 22nd), I now proceed to notice some of the other subjects, which some of the books and papers, &c., which you sent me, bear reference to.

With regard to the Queries of Professor Schaffhausen, Nos I., II., and III, as anent Crania: There have been elongated skulls found in India, and also small crania. There are no doubt good specimens of such, for reference, in the Indian Museum, at Calcutta; and the Museum would no doubt be the best place to apply to for information on this subject.

I should say that small skulls, were of more common occurrence than elongated skulls in India. But I have never yet heard of any artificial means being used in India, either to depress, or to elongate, or otherwise to modify, the cranium!

Your quotation from the information of an officer who had been in the Punjab, is the first rumour that I ever heard of, of such a practice being followed in India. But I should think it was very doubtful! Perhaps among such a totally savage people as the Andamanese, and just barely possibly among the farthest distant and least known of the barbarous north-eastern mountaineers, on the boundary between India and China, such a practice might prevail. But, if so, we have never heard of it, -- we have no reason to suppose it, -- and we have no information to go upon. And it would be strange if we were found to be ignorant of characteristic usages among the tribes of India, while we profess to be sufficiently well informed of those of the aborigines of America! We feel pretty certain about the existence of American Indian "Flatheads"; but we are ignorant of the existence of any East-Indian tribe who could merit the application of a similar term!

I had written thus far, when I happened to be reminded of a peculiar custom which is practiced by nearly all of the natives of India, generally; though, I believe, not exclusively by any one tribe in particular (as far as I know). I refer to the common practice, prevalent among native Indian mothers and nurses, of modifying the shape of the head of native infants, by pressure, for the sake of beauty! From the very hour in which a native infant is born, up to the eighth, tenth or twelfth day after birth, the native nurses keep the infant's head tightly bandaged round, horizontally, (that is, from the back, or occiput, to the forehead, round by the sides). And the natives say that this is intended to make the head round-shaped; or to prevent it from being long-shaped! After the bandages have been taken off; the head of the child is then, next oiled, three times every day, and pressed between the hands of the nurse; the pressure being applied, alternately, first with the right hand on the forehead and the left hand behind, on the occiput, -- and then with the left hand on the forehead and the right hand behind the head.




Symbol of a circle with a cross drawn through the middle, and a dot placed in the middle of each quadrant. Drawn in red ink.

This last operation continues to be performed for several months!

These various operations are not always fully and strictly carried out to the letter, in every household alike; for some natives are less particular or less observant of them, or pay less attention to them, than others, who adhere to the custom more rigidly. But the "custom", however, does not seem to be confined to any one particular caste, or class, or tribe, at all; but it appears, rather to be general!

On the whole, the entire process just described, including both the bandaging and the manipulation of the head, appears to me to be simply a very mild mode of slightly modifying the shape of the cranium, in order to suit some ideal type, of form or beauty!

The suspicion next arises, that owing to this (however slight) artificial modification of form, in human crania, in India, the consequence or result thereof may be, that most of the crania of natives of India are of an artificial or unnatural shape; or that very few crania of a natural shape can be found in India! And that consequently no criterion, whatever, can be formed, from crania, of the original, natural, or normal form or contour of the heads or skulls of the people of India, who might therefore be called "diametrio-entechno-cephalic", or "entechno-diametriocephalic" (artificially-modified-headed).

Vipassi and Patali Tree, Bharhut Stupa at the Indian Museum, Kolkata Photograph from the Indian Museum in West Bengal taken by Anandajoti.

But then, in that case, also our theoretical Indian craniological scheme or system, must be all at fault, and so vitiated as to be nearly utterly useless; because any proposed diagnosis must rest either upon doubtful characteristics, which may be of more or less artificial or semi-artificial origin, or at least, variable characteristics which can not be relied on!

Very curiously and sometimes even abnormally shaped human skulls, may occasionally be picked up along the banks of the river Ganges, that great watery cemetery of the Hindus! --

I will now give you a description of two ancient skulls which I found in Rajputana.

On the south-western borders of the Bhartpur state, on a high rocky hill, near a place called Jontpur in a sort of aboriginal grave or tomb in a crevice of the rock, I found a remarkably shaped, elongated, dolichocephalic, skull, which had apparently belonged to a young person, a boy, or a girl! --

Again, in an excavation which I made in the side of a mound, at "Nagar", near Uniyara, in Rajputana, I found a very thick, strong skull, of an adult of a very remarkable shape. This skull was of great antiquity, buried beneath the ruins of a very ancient city. This skull was not remarkable for its length, at all; but it was remarkable for the shape of its very receeding frontal bone, and for the fact that the central suture was almost entirely obliterated, by solidification!

The shape of the frontal bone was abnormal. The bones of the eyebrows projected very much and formed a raised overhanging ridge. From the brows, the frontal bone at once sloped backwards, or receeded at once, with a very great slope, so that really there was no forehead left at all! There were somewhat acute projections towards the after part of the sides of the skull, above the ear orifices, or just about where the phrenologists pretend that the organ of "caution" is situated. There was also a rather acute projection posteriorly, on the occiput. The lower jaw was gone; but the bone of the upper jaw projected very much outwards, so that the profile must have been very prognathous!



With regard to Query No "V.", about the "Thor's hammer", the Scandinavian mystical symbol called the "Thor's Hammer", vizt, thus,



is, in its form, apparently identical with the Indian Swastika



(See sketch of the "Thor's hammer" and other mystic symbols, in Baring Gould's "Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas"!)

The mystical symbol of the "Thor's hammer" really bore reference to three things (or three natural phenomena), or had a triple signification; vizt:

1. The Sun's power and course;
2. The revolution of the four seasons; and of time
3. The four quarters of the compass.
1.a. Rising, striking, setting, absence.
2.a. Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter.
2.b. Morning, mid-day, evening, night.
3.a. East, South, West, North

Thus:





Top -- Rising. Spring, Morning, East. Birth & Youth. Beginning.
Right -- Striking. Summer. Mid-day. South. Manhood, Present.
Bottom -- Setting. Autumn. Evening. West. Old Age. End.
Left -- Absence. Winter. Night. North. Death. Past. Future. Chaos.
 
I myself have never seen "hammers" or "axes" worshipped in India!

Round a Linga, or Mahadeo, when it happened to be situated in the open air, I have very frequently seen many naturally smoothed or rounded, stones, and oval stones, and pebbles, collected, in a crowd; and I have sometimes seen so many, that the big "Mahadeo" appeared to be standing in the midst of a forest of little ones of all shapes and sizes! But I have never yet seen any genuine "celt", or axe, in that position!

A kind of "green stone' is used as a medicine, in India. I saw it, or rather had authentic knowledge of its being so used, in Agra (as a tonic?)!

There are, however, three kinds of stones used in India, as medicine; namely:

1. A green stone, called "Dahâna Feringh", which is scraped, and the powder thus obtained, is mixed with water, and drunk, for diseases of the kidneys! This stone is probably true "Nephrite".

II. A green stone, with occasionally red and yellow marks in it (a kind of Blood-stone?), which the natives call "Pitoniya". This stone is merely dipped or washed in water; and then the water in which the stone has been dipped, is drunk as a remedy for heat or eruption of the skin; and for pimples, "prickly heat", & irritation of the skin.





Query? "Eagle-stone"? Or fossil spines of Fossil Echini?

III. A kind of stone, or pebble, called "Hazrat Zahûr" It is said to be a stone of an oval form, and of a drab or clay colour. It is ground down and the powder of it is mixed with water, and drunk as a remedy for heat, inflammation, stricture or stoppage, in certain organs; especially for "strangury".--

I am not sure about your the correctness of your definition of "green-stone". Common "green-stone," the common "Green-stone" of geologists, is simply a kind of Trap rock; and it is not "Nephrite" !

So also "Serpentine" is quite a different mineral from the "Greenstone Trap" rock of geologists.

"Jade" I understand to be much harder stone than "Serpentine". The usual colour of "Jade", is a pretty uniform dark green. Jade "celts" have been found. -- I believe one of the names by which "Jade" is known in India, is "Zabarjad"; but this name is also applied to other minerals and precious stones such as "Beryl", and Green "Jasper", yea, -- (and also greenish "Chalcedony"!?) --

What is the meaning or signification, and what is the etymology of the word "Jade"? Does it mean a hard stone, which "jades" the person who tries to work it? Or is not the name perhaps rather derived from the Arabic word "jad", meaning good fortune, felicity, prosperity, -- and thus meaning "the lucky stone"; -- or from the Arabic word "jud", meaning munificence or beneficence, -- and thus meaning -- "the beneficial stone"? And hence, it's Perso-arabic name of "Zabar-jad", or "Zabar-jud"? (For the name is spelt both ways.) Literally meaning, -- the stone of "powerful beneficial efficacy"! --

I have now to make a few remarks about your silver coin of the Saurashtran type, and supposed by Rajendra Lall Mitra to be of "Toramana".

On account of the face, or profile, of the king's head, being turned to the left, as in another coin of Toramana, cited by Thomas (see Prinsep's Essays, Vol. 1 page 340), it would seem likely that your coin would be of Toramana, also! But as the legend, or inscription appears in the figure of the coin, as engraved in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, for December 1878, I can not read the name as "Toramana" and I regret to say that at present, I totally disagree with Rajendra Lall's reading.



In the engraving, the letters appear to be as follows:



This, in modern Deva-Nagari, would be as follows:





Or,



This I would translate as follows:

(By) "The auspicious Bhama, sprung from Janardan (Vishnu?), by intent victorious over Eran, in righteous battle." --

The term, "mato-vyita" if liberally translated, might mean, -- "who, by his own will", or "according to his premeditated intention, was victorious." --

But "victorious" over what, or where?

The answer is "Eranâ", -- "at", or "over", Eran"! --

And how? The answer is -- "by a just, or righteous war:" "Ranâ bhalah."



The name of this victorious King, I read as



-- "Bhama", on the coin, (in modern Nagari, from "Bham",



(which means - passion; anger, wrath, fury?, rage?, temper?, fierceness, frightfulness, terribleness,? terrificness?)



Hence "Bhamin", angry passionate:

Rajendra Lall Mitra read the same word as "Naya", which I read as "Bhama". But, in the old numismatic alphabetic character of the period, the word "Naya" would have been written as



which is not on the coin at all! --



On the contrary, the word on the coin, is plainly



(Bhâ mâ) and which I can not read any other way, except as "Bhâmâ"! The next letter,



"Jâ" (or "Jo,"), Rajendra Lall reads as "Se";



but which, if it were so, would be written as



("Se")! The actual letter on the coin, however, is really the letter "J"; with an up-stroke attached to it, for a vowel "a"!

At any rate, there is one thing quite certain, and that is -- that the name of "Toramâna" does not appear upon the coin, at all; and that therefore it is not a coin of "Toramâna"!


 
The letters on the coin, which Rajendra Lall took to form the name of "Toramâna," are the following:



which I read as, (taErana) or (Gupta na).



But it is quite impossible to manufacture the name of "Toramâna" out of these letters, even with the greatest stretch of imagination! For, in the later, or Gupta letters, of the Saurâshtrân alphabet, the name of "Toramâna" would be as follows:



or,



(Toramâna which it is not, on the coin!

(Other coins, of the Indo Scythictype, have



or,





Other coins, of the Indo-Sassanian type, have simply the first part of the name, as: --



(Tora) and



Sri To ra.



But on Thomas' coin, of the Saurashtran type, the name is given in full as:



(Srî Toramâ na.)

You will now, therefore, perceive that there is no such name on your coin!

As I before intimated, in my previous tentative reading of the inscription on your coin, I am inclined to read the name of the King as "Bhâma".



But I myself have good reason to prefer to read the name as "Bhâmâ".



("Bhâmâ".)

In some of the similar Gupta coins, of the Saurashtran type, the letter "Bh" is formed like



and



as in the titles of Kumâra Gupta on his silver coins; where Prinsep read "Bhânuvîra", and Wilson read Bhattâraka", and Thomas reads "Bhagavata"; while I read -- "Bhânudhara", on one coin and "Bhatârana", on another! (Thus do doctors differ!)

Now, if the name of the king, on your coin be "Bhâmâ"; then the next question is -- whether there was any king of that name among the later Guptas?

I think it will be found that there was! And I would place a "Bhâma Gupta", after "Buddha Gupta", and before "Vishu Gupta", say about A.D. 260 to 270, and nearly contemporary with Toramâna! (whose date is probably about A.D. 261? or 262? or 264?)

This puts me in mind that, in the month of January 1877, I received a letter from General Cunningham, in which he informed me that "two silver coins of Bhânu Gupta" had "come to light"; and that he had "an inscription of him, dated in S. 191". (of the Gupta era; = A.D. 270) I.e. S. 79 - 191 = 270

Now General Cunningham's writing of the name of the king is not distinct and I can not make out whether it is "Bhâme" (for "Bhâma") or "Bhânu"; but the date of the reign of this king, is "A.D. 270", or about contemporary with Toramâna.

I therefore think it is possible that your coin may belong to the very same king who is mentioned by General Cunningham! --

It must, however, be borne in mind that my version of the reading of the "legend" on your coin, and my interpretation of it, are merely tentative or provisional; and that my reading is founded solely and entirely upon the form, or shape, of the letters, as they appear in the figure or engraving of the coin, in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, for December 1878. My opinion is formed simply on the mechanical conformation of the letters in the legend, as shown in that drawing of the coin. But it is, of course, just possible that the drawing, or the engraving may not be true to the original or may be faulty in some of its details, (that is, if the drawing was done by a native!); and that thus, consequently, it may have given me a false or erroneous impression of the forms of the letters on the coin! But, if that be the case, it will be utterly useless and exceedingly unsafe for me to presume to express any opinion about your coin, without having ever seen, handled, or examined the piece itself! -- But if the coin be in your own possession now, perhaps I may have the privilege of examining it, when I reach Ghazipur! --

I have read through Mr Cust's book, with much interest; and I will give you my humble opinion o of its merits, with a few remarks on particular points, in my next letter.

But it is really frightfully hot now, in tents, and I suffer very much from the heat, and find it very difficult to get through much writing, or any such work. The heat addles ones brains! And "cool judgment" can hardly be expected from brains which have been stewed and roasted and grilled and scorched into a state of exhausted listlessness.

Your paper on "Cup Marks" &c. is most interesting, and excites curiosity while it certainly raises some new trains of thought in ones mind. But more of this anon!

I am very much obliged to both Mrs Rivett-Carnac and your good self, for all your kind wishes. I think I shall probably do my best to reach Ghazipur!

With best and kindest regards to Mrs. Rivett-Carnac,

Believe me,
Yours
Very sincerely
Archi C. Carlleyle

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All The Buddha We Could Handle
by Charles and Tara Carreon
3/17/21



We are all familiar with the concept of the Procrustean Bed, that cross between hospitality and torture, wherein an individual is provided a bed smaller than necessary to accommodate his length, and is made to fit the furniture by amputation. As a child whose parents traveled often, I preferred to stay in high quality hotels for this reason. Alas, western society has not been so friendly to the faiths of foreign nations, that have been adapted to our local customs through drastic surgery of which we often remain blissfully unaware.

A case in point is the evolution of the "Cosmological Buddha," whose manifold personages cover the cave walls of a thousand devotional enclaves throughout Asia, into the "Historical Buddha," a humble fellow from just down the way who pulled his socks up, knows his prajna from his jnana, has no fear of death due to his serene view of life, and doesn't buy into this ego stuff, but is otherwise just like you and me. Now this sort of easygoing bloke is exactly the kind of guru I want, but I wager that a humble peasant praying for rain as opposed to famine, looking up at the enormous expanse of earth and sky up at the Himalayas to the north, would have no interest in following another fella. He wants an enormous Being, bigger than the sky, stronger than the wind, able to cool the heat of the sun, able to stop hail, bring rain, nurture life. Managing his mental dusty bunnies? Not actually on his list of things to do today. He's got clods to break, seeds to sow, seedlings to attend to, animals to feed, and no time for silly nonsense that the rich might be interested in.

But we have none of those problems. We are plagued by mental dust bunnies, loneliness, a society inclined to homicidal solutions, the fear of homelessness and abandonment. And the soil can't help us, the wind and the rain and stars are just window dressing for our misery. Maybe when climate change has reduced our pride a little, we'll need real gods again. Meanwhile, we can get by with pop Buddhism, which you might just call a "head trip."

Notes:

1. Jetavana, by Wikipedia

Mulagandhakuti. The remains of Buddha's hut in Jetavana Monastery.

2. The Buddha and Dr. Fuhrer: An Archaeological Scandal, by Charles Allen
On 2 February 1898 — that is to say, when Fuhrer was still deeply entrenched in his main dig at Sagarwa — the Government of Burma wrote to the Government of the NWP&O concerning complaints it had received from a monk named U Ma. These involved a certain Dr. A. A. Fuhrer, Archaeological Surveyor to the Government of the NWP&O. Shin U Ma had first taken the complaints to a local government official in Burma, Brian Houghton, and had then backed them up with tangible evidence in the form of letters received from Dr. Fuhrer. Houghton had duly passed U Ma's complaints and copies of his letters on to government headquarters in Rangoon, as a consequence of which they arrived on the desk of the Chief Secretary to the Government of the NWP&O, who passed them on to the Secretary of the Department of Revenue and Agriculture, Archaeology and Epigraphy. From there they made their way to the desk of the Commissioner of Lucknow.

As soon as he returned to his offices at the Lucknow Museum in early March Fuhrer was confronted with the communication from Burma and asked to explain himself. According to the file, his letters to the Burmese monk went back as far as September 1896, when he had written to U Ma about some Buddhist relics he had sent him, allegedly obtained from Sravasti. The contents of this first letter indicate that the two had met while the Burmese was on a pilgrimage to the holy sites in India and had struck up a friendship not unlike that described by Rudyard Kipling in his novel Kim (then in the process of being written in England), which begins with a wandering Tibetan lama being greatly moved by the knowledge of Buddhism shown by the Curator of the Lahore Museum (Rudyard's father J. L. Kipling).

Dr. Fuhrer and U Ma had then come to some arrangement for the one to send the other further relics. On 19 November 1896 Fuhrer wrote again to U Ma to say that:

The relics of Tathagata [Sakyamuni Buddha] sent off yesterday were found in the stupa erected by the Sakyas at Kapilavatthu over the corporeal relics (saririka-dhatus) of the Lord. These relics were found by me during an excavation of 1886, and are placed in the same relic caskets of soapstone in which they were found. The four votive tablets of Buddha surrounded the relic casket. The ancient inscription found on the spot with the relics will follow, as I wish to prepare a transcript and translation of the same for you.

This letter of 19 November 1896 was written more than a year after Fuhrer's first trip into Nepal made in March 1895 (during which he made his discovery of the Asokan inscription on the stump at Nigliva Sagar), but just before he set out on his second foray into Nepal (where he would meet up with General Khadga Shumsher Rana at Paderiya on 1 December 1896). Yet already, it seems, he had found Kapilavastu. In the year referred to in his letter — 1886 — he was still a relative newcomer to the NWP&O Archaeological Department and had yet to conduct his first excavation.

Fuhrer's next letter to U Ma was dated 6 March 1897, three months after his much trumpeted Lumbini and Kapilavastu discoveries. In it he referred to more Buddha relics in his keeping which he would hold on to until U Ma returned to India. Seven weeks later, on 23 June, there was a first reference to a 'tooth relic of Lord Buddha', and five weeks on, on 28 August, a further reference to 'a real and authentic tooth relic of the Buddha Bhagavat [Teacher, thus Sakyamuni]' that he was about to post to U Ma.

The letters now began to come thick and fast. On 21 September Dr. Fuhrer despatched 'a molar tooth of Lord Buddha Gaudama Sakyamuni ... found by me in a stupa erected at Kapilavatthu, where King Suddhodana lived. That it is genuine there can be no doubt.' The tooth was followed on 30 September by an Asokan inscription Fuhrer claimed to have found at Sravasti. Then on 13 December Fuhrer wrote to say that he was now encamped at Kapilavastu, in the Nepal Tarai, where he had uncovered 'three relic caskets with dhatus [body relics] of the Lord Buddha Sakyamuni, adding that he would send these relics to U Ma at the end of March. What is most odd here is that on 13 December 1897 Fuhrer had not yet entered the Nepal Tarai, having been given strict instructions that he was not to do so until 20 December.

This bizarre hoaxing — for no element of financial fraud seems to have been involved — could not go on. The arrival in Burma of the Buddha's molar tooth seems to have been too much for the hitherto credulous Burmese monk, who soon afterwards wrote what sounds like a very angry letter protesting at the remarkable size of the tooth in question. This letter was evidently forwarded from Lucknow to Basti and then probably carried by mail runner to Fuhrer's 'Camp Kapilavastu' at Sagarwa. It was replied to on 16 February 1898, when the Archaeological Surveyor was still encamped at Sagarwa. Writing at some length, Fuhrer went to great pains to mollify the Burmese, declaring that he could quite understand why 'the Buddhadanta [Buddha relic] that I sent you a short while ago is looked upon with suspicion by non-Buddhists, as it is quite different from any ordinary human tooth' — as indeed it was, since it was most probably a horse's tooth — 'But you will know that Bhagavat Buddha was no ordinary being, as he was 18 cubits in height [18" x 18 = 27 feet] as your sacred writings state. His teeth would therefore not have been shaped like others: In a further bid to shore up the credibility of the tooth, Fuhrer went on to say that he would send U Ma —

an ancient inscription that was found by me along with the tooth. It says, 'This sacred tooth relic of Lord Buddha is the gift of Upagupta.' As you know, Upagupta was the teacher of Asoka, the great Buddhist emperor of India. In Asoka's time, about 250 BC, this identical tooth was believed to be a relic of the Buddha Sakyamuni. My own opinion is that the tooth in question is a genuine relic of Buddha.

This supposed Asokan inscription was afterwards found to be written in perfectly accurate Brahmi Prakrit, its most obvious models being the many similar relic inscriptions found at Sanchi and other Buddhist sites, with which Fuhrer was very familiar through his work on Epigraphia Indica.

3. One Buddha, 15 Buddhas, 1,000 Buddhas, by Richard Salomon
Now I'll come to the main point, context and significance of the Library of Congress scroll. What's it about? Well, I call the "Many Buddhas Sutra." I would describe it as a combined comparative biographical summary of the lives of 15 Buddhas beginning with Dipankara, who lived many billions of years ago, and ending with Sakyamuni or Siddharta or "our Buddha" as he's sometimes called. And then going on one more to Maitreya or Ajita who is the next Buddha. So those 14 Buddhas in the past and one Buddha in the future. So these are the 15 Buddhas involved. Start with Dipankara. Number 14 is Sakyamuni who actually is Sakyamuni the second, surprisingly. And then on to Maitreya in the future...

There's another related text which contains these lists of buddhas and their times and their characteristics. It's called the Bhadrakalpikasutra. Some of you might be familiar with it. And Bhadrakalpika means it talks about the bhadrakalpa, kalpa means eon. And it's a list of buddhas but not from the past but looking ahead in the future. So it actually starts with the first Buddha in the bhadrakalpa that is Kakusandha and goes through Sakyamuni, our Buddha, and Maitreya and then 996 more buddhas are still to come within this Bhadra era. ... So at this point, you might be wondering the text that I'm primarily concerned with contains 15 buddhas. I mentioned another one that enumerates 1001 buddhas and there are many other numbers. There's a famous early sutra, the [inaudible] sutra, which has seven buddhas which seems to be the original number. There's another polytext called Buddhavamsa which lists 25 buddhas. And significantly in that case, it lists 25 buddhas but it begins with Dipankara and that's particularly an important moment within the history of the buddhas plural, Dipankara has a special importance which I will explain in a few minutes. Just I'll mention one other number, the Mahavastu which is a Sanskrit biography of the Buddha, also has a list of buddhas. It has a long list, 331,140,263 buddhas from the remote inconceivable past down to the present time of Sakyamuni...

So how many buddhas are there? I finally come back to the question. Infinite number. Why infinite? Because time is infinite in the Buddhas conception both in the past and the future. There is no beginning. There is no end. And throughout history, buddhas are either present or most of the time in the process of forming at some time. And that's why the Mahavastu can say in all seriousness that there are 331 million et cetera buddhas. There're actually much more than that. There are an infinite number. But these different texts or these different presentations, usually by the Buddha himself, simply address the issue or explain the issue in a limited scope because you can't, well the Buddha can talk about, understand eternity but we can't. So it takes -- These different texts are really slices of history, slices of Buddha history, which is infinite from beginning to end. Some of them talk about the recent past. Some of them talk about a little farther in the past. Some go into the future. Some are concerned mainly with the future. But they're all just pieces of the big picture. I call them slices of history...

In the list of 15, there's Sakyamuni the first and of course it doesn't say the first. I just put together those numbers. He was number eight. I don't know. I'm not sure. And then Sakyamuni the second. But there's another point about that which I didn't mention. I talked about that list in the Mahavastu of 331,140,263 buddhas. What I didn't say is that out of the 300 million, out of the 331, 300 million were named Sakyamuni. And according to that text, there was a stretch of 30 million buddhas in a row that were all had the same name. And I have thought about and failed to understand what that, why that is and what that means. But there is -- You know, buddhas are and by impression, they're more or less the same and their images, I don't think I have one here, but you see in Gandhari and other sculptures, you see sets of buddhas like the seven buddhas or sometimes eight buddhas and they're all almost exactly the same. So there seems to be a range of possibilities that buddhas are always similar and they can be very similar and sometimes they are absolutely identical.

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Vipassī Buddha
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/18/21

Vipaśyin Buddha
Sanskrit: विपश्यिन् Vipaśyin Buddha
Pāli: Vipassī Buddha
Burmese: ဝိပဿီဘုရား
Chinese: 毗婆尸佛 (Pinyin: Pípóshī Fó)
Japanese: 毘婆尸仏びばしぶつ (romaji: Bibashi Butsu)
Korean: 비파시불 (RR: Bipasi Bul)
Sinhala: විපස්සී බුදුන් වහන්සේ
Thai: พระวิปัสสีพุทธเจ้า Phra Wipatsi Phutthachao
Tibetan: རྣམ་གཟིགས་ Wylie: rnam gzigs
Information
Venerated by: Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana
Attributes: Pure Buddha
Preceded by: Puṣya Buddha
Succeeded by: Śikhin Buddha

In Buddhist tradition, Vipassī (Pāli) is the twenty-second of twenty-eight Buddhas described in Chapter 27 of the Buddhavamsa.[1] The Buddhavamsa is a Buddhist text which describes the life of Gautama Buddha and the twenty-seven Buddhas who preceded him. It is the fourteenth book of the Khuddaka Nikāya, which in turn is part of the Sutta Piṭaka. The Sutta Piṭaka is one of three pitakas (main sections) which together constitute the Tripiṭaka, or Pāli Canon of Theravada Buddhism.[2]

The third to the last Buddha of the Alamkarakalpa, Vipassī was preceded by Phussa Buddha and succeeded by Sikhī Buddha.[3]

Etymology

The Pali word Vipassī has the Sanskrit form Vipaśyin. Vi (good) and passī (saw) together mean "having seen clearly". The word belongs to the same family as the term vipassanā (contemplation). This Buddha was so named because he had big eyes, clear vision both day and night, and his insight into perpetual complicated circumstances and very deep theories.

Biography

According to the Buddhavamsa, as well as traditional Buddhist legend and mythology, Vipassī lived 91 kalpas [393 billion years]— many millions of years — before the present time.[4][5] In Vipassī's time, the longevity of humans was 84,000 years.

Vipassī was born in Bandhumatī in Khema Park, in present-day India.[6] His family was of the Kshatriya varna, which constituted the ruling and military elite of the Vedic period. His father was Bandhumā the warrior-chief, and his mother was Bandhumatī. His wife was Sutanu, and he had a son named Samavattakkhandha.[6]

Vipassī lived as a householder for 8,000 years in the palaces of Nanda, Sunanda and Sirimā. Upon renouncing his worldly life, he rode out of the palace in a chariot.[6] Vipassī practiced asceticism for eight months before attaining enlightenment under an Ajapāla nigrodha tree.[5] Just prior to achieving buddhahood, he accepted a bowl of milk rice offered by Sudassana-setthi's daughter, and grass for his seat by a guard named Sujâta.

Sources differ as to how long Vipassī lived. He was reported to have died in Sumitta Park, at the age of either 80,000[6] or 100,000 years.[5] His relics were kept in a stupa which was seven yojanas in height, which is roughly equal to 56 miles (90 km).[6]

Physical characteristics

Vipassī was 80 cubits tall, which is roughly equal to 121 feet (37 m), and his body radiated light for a distance of seven yojanas.[6]

Teachings

Vipassī preached his first sermon in the Khamamigadâya to 6,800,000 disciples, his second sermon to 100,000 disciples, and his third sermon to 80,000 disciples.[5]

His two foremost male disciples were Khanda and Tissa and his two foremost female disciples were Candâ and Candamittâ. Asoka was his personal assistant. His good donors were Punabbasummitta and Naga in the lay men, Sirimâ and Uttarâ in the lay women. Mendaki (then called Avaroja) built the Gandhakuti (scented pavilion) for him. He did the uposatha once every seven years, and the sangha observed the discipline perfectly.

See also

• Buddhist cosmology
• Glossary of Buddhism
• Longevity myths

Notes

1. Morris, R, ed. (1882). "XXVII: List of the Buddhas". The Buddhavamsa. London: Pali Text Society. pp. 66–7.
2. Lancaster, LR (2005). "Buddhist books and texts: canon and canonization". Encyclopedia of religion (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 1252. ISBN 978 00-286-5733-2.
3. Buddhist Text Translation Society (2007). "The Sixth Patriarchs Dharma Jewel Platform Sutra". The Collected Lectures of Tripitaka Master Hsuan Hua. Ukiah, California: Dharma Realm Buddhist Association. Retrieved 2013-03-25.
4. Beal, S (1875). "Chapter III: Exciting to religious sentiment". The romantic legend of Sâkya Buddha: from the Chinese-Sanscrit. London: Trubner & Company, Ludgate Hill. pp. 10–17.
5. Davids, TWR; Davids, R (1878). "The successive bodhisats in the times of the previous Buddhas". Buddhist birth-stories; Jataka tales. The commentarial introduction entitled Nidana-Katha; the story of the lineage. London: George Routledge & Sons. pp. 115–44.
6. Horner, IB (1975). "The nineteenth chronicle: that of the Lord Vipassin". The Minor Anthologies Of The Pali Canon: Part III: Chronicle Of Buddhas (Buddhavamsa) and Basket Of Conduct (Cariyapitaka). Oxford: Pali Text Society. pp. 74–7. ISBN 086013072X.

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Part 1 of 2

Indian Rock Art - Prehistoric Paintings of the Pachmarhi Hills
by Dr. Meenakshi Dubey Pathak
Accessed: 3/18/21

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This is an account written and translated by Dr. Meenakshi Dubey Pathak, freelance artist and researcher in India, presented here as part of the Bradshaw Foundation India Rock Art Archive. Dr. Meenakshi Dubey Pathak is a member of the Rock Art Society of India (RASI), the Indian Society of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies and the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA), Australia. Dr. Dubey Pathak's extensive research not only brings to light the prehistoric rock art of India but it also highlights the drastic need for its preservation: "This wonderful and precious cultural heritage of ours is facing the danger of extinction by the unaware and uncivilized human beings and their vandalism. The agencies at work must put in a concerted effort to educate the people including the local tribes about the importance of these painted rock shelters and take steps to preserve them before its too late."

INTRODUCTION TO INDIA ROCK ART


Dr. Meenakshi Dubey Pathak - Gaddie. Rock Art Site in the Vindhachal Ranges

The earliest discovery of prehistoric rock art was made in India, twelve years before the discovery of Alta Mira in Spain. Archibald Carlleyle discovered rock paintings at Sohagihat in the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh in 1867 and 1868. Unfortunately he did not publish. J Cockburn rightly commented that Carlleyle’s knowledge died with him (Smith, 1906: 187). Fortunately, Carlleyle had placed some of his notes with a friend, Reverend Regionald Gatty, and V A Smith published these later, which is the only record of his discovery of Rock paintings. In his note he wrote “Lying along with the small implements in undisturbed soil of the cave floors, pieces of a heavy red mineral-coloured matter called geru were frequently found, rubbed down on one or more facets, as if for making paint. Geru is evidently a partially decomposed hematite (Iron peroxide). “On the uneven sides or walls and roofs of many caves or rock shelters, there are rock paintings apparently of various ages. Though all evidently of great age, done in red colour called geru. Some of these rude paintings appeared to illustrate in a very stiff and archaic manner scenes in the life of the ancient stone chippers. Others represent animals or hunts of animals by men with bows and arrows, spears and hatchets. With regard to the probable age of these stone implements I may mention that I never found a single ground or polished implements not a single ground ring stone or hammer stone in the soil of the floors of any of the many caves or rock shelters I examined.” (Smith 1906: 187).


Painted Cave


Row of Cows

In 1881 Cockburn had found fossilised rhinoceros bones in the valley of the Ken River in the Mirzapur region as well as a painting of a rhinoceros hunted by three men in a shelter near Roap Village. In 1881 J Cockburn published an account of all his discoveries (J Cockburn 1891: 91). F Fawcett in the cave of Edakal in Kozhikode district of Kerala made the earliest discoveries of rock engravings (Fawcett F 1901: 402-21). A few years later A Silberrad published a pictorial description of the rock paintings in Banda district (Silberred 1970: 567-70). C W Anderson discovered a painted shelter of Singhanpur in the Raigarh district in Madhaya Pradesh (Anderson CW 1981: 298-306). More rock paintings were found later by F R Allchin 1963: 161) (Sundara A 1974: 21-32) and (K Paddayya 1968: 294-98) from the same area as well as the Gulberga district of Karnataka. Manoranjan Ghosh brought the Adamgarh group of painted rock shelters near Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh to light in 1932. The first example of rock engravings was discovered in 1933 by K P Jayaswal in a rock shelter at Vikramkhol in the Sambalpur District of Orrisa. (Jayaswal KP 1933: 58-60).


Dr V S Wakankar

As Dr Jean Clottes said, the ‘Father of Indian Rock Art’ and my (Guru) teacher Dr V S Wakankar had discovered several hundred painted shelters mainly in Central India, and attempted a broad survey of the rock paintings of the whole country and prepared a chronology of the paintings based on the content style and superimposition (Wakankar 1973: 251-353). The most important of his discoveries is Bhimbettka near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, which has one of the largest concentrations of rock paintings in India. Bright Allchin has published a study of prehistoric art in 1958. R K Verma in 1964, J Gupta 1967, S K Pandey 1961 and J Jacobson 1970 have also contributed to the discovery of Indian rock art. DH Gordon studied the rock paintings of Pachmarhi in the Mahadeo Hills in 1932. He wrote several papers in Indian and foreign journals and has summarised his views on Indian rock art in his book. (Gordon 1958: 98-17).


Dancers


Head Hunters

In recent years Yashodhar Mathpal and Erwin Neumayer have discovered a new group of ten painted shelters on Patni Ki Rahari hill near Bari on Bhopal Bareli road (Mathpal 1976 23: 28). In April 1981 to 1990, with the help of local tribes, I discovered fifteen painted rock shelters in the Pachmarhi Hills. In India over a thousand rock shelters containing paintings are situated in more than 150 sites. In India almost every state has rock art sites of painted shelters and engraved boulders.


Satpura Ranges India


Dr Meenakshi Pathak


Hunting Scene

Central India is the richest zone of prehistoric rock art in India. The highest concentration of rock art sites is situated in the Satpura, Vindhya and Kaimur Hills. These hills are formed of sandstones, which weather relatively faster to form rock shelters and caves. They are located in the dense forest and were ecologically ideal for occupation by primitives. They were used for habitation in the Stone Age and even in the later periods. Inside the caves on the walls and ceilings artists painted their favourite animals or human forms, symbols, daily life hunting and fighting.

INDIAN ROCK ART: PACHMARHI EXPLORED

The Pachmarhi Hills are situated in the geographical center of the Indian sub continent in the State of Madhya Pradesh. The hills lie in the Satpura Range, formed of the Gondwanaland sandstone belonging to the Gondwanaland series of the Talcher Group formations. The sandstone sequence is of the upper Gondwanaland formation. The sandstone is relatively friable and, on weathering, forms the sandy solid found at the foot of the hills. These hills form one of the most beautiful parts of the Satpura Range. The shelters are found all over the hills and the surrounding forests, in the foothills and riverbanks. Many shelters are covered with paintings made over centuries by early inhabitants depicting a wide range of subjects expressed by them in a variety of styles and left as great heritage for us to understand them and appreciate their unique contribution.


The Pachmarhi Hills


The Pachmarhi Hills

Captain J Forsyth made the discovery of this place, as a sanitarium. Forsyth was sent there in 1862 under the instructions of Sir Richard Temple, Commissioner of that day to explore this portion of the Satpura Forest. Here he built a forest lodge and named it “Bison Lodge”. His famous book “The Highlands of Central India” depicts the exquisite beauties of the Satpura range. The point from where Captain J. Forsyth forest glimpsed the extra ordinary sight of Pachmarhi is still one of the finest points named as “Forsyth point”. When he came to Pachmarhi, the area was occupied by the Korku jagirdar of Pachmarhi, but there were traces of a much older civilization in the shape of sites of ruined huts near “Handi kho” site. The total area of the plateau is about 60 sq kms including the forest area and 12.90 sq kms occupied by the Pachmarhi cantonment.

Part of Forsyth’s report states “Every where the massive group of trees and park like scenery strikes the eye and the greenery of glades and wild flowers, unseen at lower elevation, maintains the illusion that the scene is a bit out of our temperate zone. Thereafter, a multitude of beauty spots were discovered, and the place developed. Much remains the same even today. Pachmarhi still retains its tranquility, its many silences, its gentle green and its soothing forest. It is one place where solitude is miraculously achieved in moments, and the sighs of swaying trees are the only sounds you will hear. Pachmarhi is a lovely hill-girded plateau on the green Satpura range, called by the tourists as the Queen of Satpura." (M.P. Tourists 1962: 4).

By popular belief the name “Pachmarhi” is a derivation of “Pach-marhi” or a complex of five caves of the Pandava brothers, who are supposed to have spent a considerable portion of their lifetime of exile incognito in this area. Genuine place is attainable any where in “Pachmarhi”. Pachmarhi, the legend tells, was once a huge lake guarded by a monstrous serpent. This serpent began terrorizing the pilgrims visiting the sacred shrines of the Mahadeo hills. Lord Shiva, angered by this, hurled his trident at the snake, imprisoning him in the rift of a solid rock, which assumed the shape of a pot or handi. The flames of wrath dried up the lake and empty space assumed the shape of a saucer. Botanists have therefore reported the existence of plants only found by the sides of large expanses of water, these rare penmen of flora seem to bear out the myth! (M P Tourist 74:2).

The hills are thickly vegetated with rich floristic and faunal biota but quite widespread and difficult to access. The natural species represented in the rock art were of great economical importance, having food value for the shelter-dwellers and often form subjects of their painting. Rock paintings found within shelters here are the major sources of our understanding of how their creators related to their physical, biological and cultural environments. These people, as do their descendants at the present time, held beliefs and practices which expressed a direct or indirect relationship between their environment and themselves. Within this body of expression, the evolution of the art form, with the development of mankind over centuries, plays an important and multifaceted role.

GR Hunter brought the painted rock shelters of Pachmarhi Hills to the notice of D.H. Gordon (1958). Hunter had excavated some sites here in 1932 and again in 1934-35. The 1935 excavation revealed that the cultural sequence within this region commenced during the Mesolithic period, confirming that the Pachmarhi Hills were not occupied during the Palaeolithic. Thus, the rock paintings of this region belong to the Mesolithic and later periods. The Mesolithic paintings clearly depict a society of hunters and gatherers. Mainly they portray man and his relationship with animals. The subject matter of this period is quite varied, although game animals are most frequently represented. Bulls, bison, elephants, wild boars, deer, tigers, buffaloes, dogs, monkeys and crocodiles appear alongside smaller species such as rats, lizards, turtles and fishes. Some of the birds are identified as peacocks, jungle fowl and ostrich. Arthropods, such as scorpions and wild bees, were also depicted. The hunters are portrayed using spears, axes, sticks and bows and arrows.


Hunting Wild Buffalo


Stag Hunting

Female figures are occasionally shown. Sexual life does have a place in Mesolithic art but is not very prominent, and male and female union is rarely shown. It seems that dances were important for ceremonial or entertainment purposes during this period. For these dances headdresses and animal masks representing donkeys, crocodiles, bulls or monkeys were worn. The compositional elements of these Mesolithic paintings are highly developed. They represent an element of the creative spirit of the early people. That their aesthetic sense had developed to a high degree can be seen in geometric designs and in paintings of the X-ray style. Pregnant animals such as cow and deer depict the fetus in the womb. Most interesting depiction is a urinating cow. It suggests the awareness of medicinal value of cow urine to the primitives. As we all know according to Indian Ayurved cow urine is a very good treatment for cancer patients and for other ailments. Head Hunters are another interesting depiction . A variety of animals can be seen from elephants to ants.


Pregnant Animal with fetus in the Womb


Urinating Cow


X-Ray Style Rock Art Painting


X-Ray Style Rock Art Painting

In the Pachmarhi Hills most of the paintings are from the Chalcolithic to the Historical period. Conflict is one of the main themes depicted during this time. War scenes are common but reasons for conflict are not indicated. Horsemen armed with swords and shields overlie the earlier paintings portraying the life of hunters and gatherers. They bear elaborate war equipment consisting of spears, axes, swords, shields, daggers and bows and arrows. Other individuals carry drums and trumpets, and foot soldiers as well as men riding caparisoned horses and elephants are depicted. Goats, dogs, oxen, donkeys and performing monkeys accompany the troops. The descendants of the original hunters and gatherers and artists of this region are the tribal Korku and Gond who still uphold some of the traditions of their ancestors. In the rock paintings their ancestors are depicted dancing in pairs or in rows and playing musical instruments. They hunted animals and collected honey from the hives of wild bees. Their mode of dress was quite simple. The women carried food and water and looked after the children. The forebearers of the present day tribal people had a variety of ways to express the magic of their beliefs, rituals and taboos. The tribes living in these hills have wooden memorial boards on which the carved horse and its rider is similar to those painted by their predecessors in the past on the walls of their rock shelters . They also decorate the walls of their houses and this activity seems to have its roots in the cave dwelling traditions of their ancestors. Men and horses of geometric construction are randomly spaced across the walls. Such paintings are done during the rainy season and on festive occasions, and bear a close resemblance to those found in the painted shelters.


Soldiers


Bees Nest

Presently, the wall paintings in their houses, as in the great majority of rock paintings, are executed in red and yellow pigments prepared from hematite or other iron oxides. The white pigment was made from limestone or kaolin, while mixtures of pigment that produce pinks are also found used in paintings. The rock paintings were executed in a number of stylistic conventions. Some are only sketches or constructs of lines, while others are silhouettes filled with colours and embellished with decorative designs.

ANTIQUITY OF PACHMARHI INDIA


Dr Meenakshi Pathak with her team in the Pachmarhi Hills

Considerable information is now available about the antiquity of Pachmarhi from Archaeological sources. The excavation by archaeologists in different shelters has provided sufficient archaeological data of the people who occupied these shelters. Excavations were conducted in rock shelters since 1932 by GR Hunter. He introduced the cave art of Pachmarhi in his lecture before the congress of the pre-proto historic science in 1932, which brought the painted rock shelters of Pachmarhi Hills to the notice of Lt Col DH Gordon. Hunter excavated here in 1932 and 1934-35 (Hunter-1955).


Cupules on Sand Stone

Clear evidence of Mesolithic culture has come from the Dorothy Deep shelter. The 1932 excavation was confined to the Nallah area, and a trial pit close to the rock wall up to 2’ and the 1934 excavation by a trial trench right across the breadth of the cave up to 5’ depth with undisturbed stratification. The earliest deposit was of the Mesolithic (Tardenoisian) period. The multiplicity of shapes and sizes, characteristic of most stone age cultures, suggests occupation prior to the Neolithic and the metal ages. Subsequently, the shelter was occupied by a culture using pottery. The excavator thought that though there was no sterile deposit between the two cultures, and quartz flakes were found in the upper layers where pottery abounds. It was doubtful if there was any overlap.

Three skeletons were found in association with the typical Tardenoisian flakes and implements but without any beads or other objects. Only two small pieces of cranium were found to be intact. Thus the following sequence has been worked out:

(a) The lower levels yielded microliths of flint. The absence of metal and polished stone indicated that these people lived before metal age. The tools used were mostly crescents and scalene Triangles as well as drills and scrapers.

(b) With no sterile deposit, the Dorothy Deep shelter was inhabited by the pottery using people.

(c) Of the three skeletons recovered from the Mesolithic deposit, two belonged to children of 6-7 and 11 years of age, while the third was an adult. Evidence of a hard diet and the sign of flattening and bowing of the thighbone were discernible. The teeth of the eleven-year-old child showed great deal of wear. The adult was muscular, with small teeth and jaws. There is no evidence to show that racially he differed from the modern people of this region (Collection with British Museum, London).

The excavation of 1935 followed the above sequence and attempted to establish the inference that the Palaeolithic man never inhabited the Mahadeo Hills. Divisible into three sub phases - upper, middle and lower. There was a definite cultural development during the Mesolithic age, in the technique of flaking, leading to the evolution of patterns more suited to the purpose. These tools are similar to those recovered from the Tardenoisian and Caspian sites in Europe and Africa (M.D. Khare 1984; 130). In 1950 A. Ghosh excavated Baniya Berry shelter where a trench of 22”X39” was dug and four layers were found. The lowest consisted of weathered sandstones and yielded no finds. Layer 3 - yellow brown soil mixed with stone chips, geometric microliths, pre pottery period. Layer 2 - of similar soil, also yielded geometric microliths. Layer 1 - top layer dark brown earth, no tools. This suggests the shelter was inhabited only during the Mesolithic period.

Then S K Pandey excavated two rock shelters in 1968. The first shelter was Jambu Dweep in which digging was barely 6 inches deep. It yielded small numbers both of microliths and pottery shreds. Another shelter, Baniya Berry, the excavation was in two distinct layers. The lower layer had loose sandy soil, with one large chalcedony piece, 2 Jasper flakes, 2 triangles and 28 chips. The upper layer of brown earth produced fluted cores and 4 parallel one-sided flakes. There was no pottery in this shelter.


Complex Hunting/Battle Scene


Panel with Figures & Monkeys


Depiction of Horses


Triangular Figures


Dancing Figures


Dancing Figures

During my field research work in the year 1990-91, I collected some Mesolithic pottery shreds, a few tiny pieces of bone and a pendent of the tooth of an herbivorous animal (monkey) from the loose surface of the shelters. Total finding of microliths: Trapeze - 1, blades - 34, side scraper - 8, and burins - 2.

Mesolithic technology, introduced from outside, supplemented the older technology with the passage of time. It consists of Mesolithic tools made of slender micro blade, which were first detached from cylindrical cores by a pressure technique and then blunted on one or more margins. These tools, made of fine-grained rocks, lime, chert and chalcedony, comprise blunted back blades, obliquely truncated bladed, points, crescents triangles and trapezes. By hafting them into bone or wooden handles, these tiny tools were utilized to make knives, arrowheads, spear heads and sickles. Colour nodules are also found in the loose surface. Yellow colour nodules have been found in Bori shelter.

The gradual developments of changes can be seen in this area regarding the use of fire and construction of floors of stone slabs. In the later phases the appearance of copper tools and pottery suggests contact between the Mesolithic people of shelters and Chalcolithic people of the plains. In the upper most layers, early historic pottery shows the persistence of Mesolithic way of life up to the historic times.

ABORIGINALS


Dr Meenakshi Dubey-Pathak and the Research Team

The population of Pachmarhi is principally tribal. The main tribes are Korku and Gond. The four-sub caste of Korku is Muwasi, Bawaria, Ruma and Bondoya. The word Korku means simple men or ‘tribesmen’. (Koru meaning 'man' and ku its plural). According to Korku, traditions of their origin, on the request of Ravana, Lord Mahadeo created two images of a man and woman from the clay of an anthill. He then infused life into these figures and they were called ‘Mula’ and ‘Mulai’, with a common surnames Pathre. These two were the ancestors of the Korku tribe. Korku are a Munda or Colarian tribe as their language belongs to the Mundari of Austro-Asiatic family. The Gond tribes speak Gondi language. The Gonds also call themselves ‘Ravanvasi’, meaning descendants of Ravana king of Lanka. Their legends suggest that they have migrated to the area from Andhra in the medieval period, and they speak a Dravidian language called Gondi. The Korkus consider themselves superior to Gonds. They would not take food from Gonds, but would not refused water and chilam (cigar).


Tribal Village

The average Korkus are well built & muscular. They have a round face, a nose rather wide, prominent cheekbone, a scanty mustache and his head shaved after the Hindu fashion. They are slightly taller than Gond (Russel and Hiralal 1969 : 552). They make houses of wattle and daub and with roofs made of handmade, baked clay tiles. The locals generally sleep on the ground and a few low stools carved from teak wood serve them as pillows. There is generally a verandah in the front of the house, a cattle shed attached to the side. The villages are kept remarkably clean.The interior of the house in Korku village is kept clean. The walls are decorated with various designs drawn on festive occasion, and the villagers take delight in pasting coloured pictures on the interior walls of their hut for decoration. Every villager has a few pigs and fowls about and both of which are eaten after being sacrificed. They are by no means particular about what they eat, fowls, fish, crabs and tortoise all consumed. Bondoya korku eat buffaloes too. The millets (kodu - kutki) are grown principally in the hilly tracks of trivial inhabitant, which form the staple food. Tobacco smoking and country liquor made by the local mahua flower is very common among these aboriginals. They often supplement their food with a number of edible fruits, tubers and honey collected from the forest. The tribal economy depends on agriculture.

Like most hill tribes the korku are remarkably honest and truthful. Korku consider themselves to be Hindus, and are held to have a better claim to a place in the social structure of Hinduism than most of the other forest tribes. They worship the Sun, Moon and also Mahadeo. The main festivals among Korku tribe are Shivaratri and Nagapanchami. Pachmarhi is the important pilgrim center for Shivaratri and Nagapanchami fares. The priests of Korku are of two kinds: ‘Parihars’ and Bhumka’. The Pariahs may be any man who is visited with the divine afflatus or selected as a mouthpiece by the deity. Parihars are also rare, but every village has it Bhumka, who perform the regular sacrifices to the village gods and the special ones entailed by disease or other calamities. The Korku have some belief in sympathetic magic as other primitive people. They also trust in Omens.

Korku tribe also has funeral rites. The dead are usually buried, the head pointing to the south. The earth is mixed with thorns while being filled in so as to keep off hyenas and stones are placed over the grave. Their family members and relatives honor the dead with carved and decorated teak wood memorial boards, placed under a sacred tree in the memory of the deceased during a highly religious ceremony. The primitive men in Hoshangabad district used painting as the chief source of amusement. Pachmarhi and Adamgarh hillock is the living monument of their art. The times have changed and there is a variety of means of amusement available to the people now.

CONTEMPORARY TRIBAL ART OF PACHMARHI INDIA

In the remote mountains, deep dense forests, swamps and deserts the lives of hunters and gatherer remained almost undisturbed, long after more advanced cultures settled in the valleys and lowlands. The tribal people living in the rock shelters observed the colonizing groups and recorded their activities in paintings on the walls of their rock shelters. Later, they were to adopt from the newcomers only few basic cultural items. This is the most complete record, supported by the evidence of archaeological remains, of the tribal culture, as it existed in the past.


Huge Shelter Occupied by the Local Tribes


Dr Meenakshi Dubey-Pathak with Local Tribe near Shelter


Tracing the Rock Art at the Nagdwari Cave

Over time the valley culture exerted greater influence on the tribal groups. They left the rock shelters and the painted record ceased. Although this occurred only a few hundred years ago, there exist only a few, more recent paintings, which may be linked to the earlier examples of rock art. The Korku honour their deceased members with carved and decorated teak wood memorial boards, which are placed under a sacred tree in their memories during the highly religious ceremony. This may last for seven to eight hours. During the ceremony the tribe females dance in a circle around the sacred mango tree. In between they hold the memorial board in their hands and dance.


Dr Meenakshi Dubey-Pathak with Tribal Couple


Memorial Board placed under a Sacred Tree


Memorial Board placed under a Sacred Tree

Following this the carved boards are venerated and wept over. Later, a goat or jungle fowl is sacrificed and eaten, while the local liquor made from the flowers of the Mahua tree (Bassia latifolia) is consumed. One such sacred tree is situated in the “Gond Baba Udhayan” (lit. - Garden of the Gond deity) located in the Pachmarhi town itself. Tribal people who come from the surrounding villages of Pachmarhi use this site for their religious rituals followed by feasts. Memorial boards are placed at the base of the sacred tree within ten years of a death. The subjects carved into the board are selected form a limited list of elements. These are usually horse riders; group of geometrical human figures holding hands, and representations of sun or moon and the name of the deceased.

In carvings of the horse and its rider the Korku do not depict their own ancestors, as they did not have horses. The figures mounted on horse represent their conquerors. This element of the carving is totally unrelated to the loves of the deceased, but its stylistic form and that of other human figures is similar to the more recent rock paintings situated in rock shelters only a few kilometers away (Wakankar and Brooks 1976: 16).


Women of the Tribe busy with their daily routine

Many of the present day tribal communities decorate the walls of their house with paintings. The selected subjects relate to their natural and cultural environments, depicting birds, floral patterns, whilst other appears to be of symbolic or ritual importance. These wall paintings also seem to have their roots in the rock art tradition. At present the Korku tribal live in wattle huts whose walls are coated by clay colored white. The tradition of paintings continues as the korku women decorated their house walls with paintings and sketches. They use local colour such as the dark or Indian red, yellow ochre, blue and white. The paintings are executed during the slack rainy season or occasionally during festival events. The women in the Korku society carry out all domestic work and look after the children.

The depiction of a peacock on the wall of a hut in the Kajri village situated 35 kilometers from Pachmarhi town is very similar to rock paintings found recently in the Langi Hill shelter . A symbol painted on the same repaired wall closely resembles a rock painting of the Swem Aam shelter that has only been recently explored. That the two traditions share the same roots can be seen in the common subject matter and the continuing stylistic conventions displayed by the contemporary art.

INDIAN ROCK ART : PACHMARHI THEMES

The subject matter in rock art can be very varied. The main subject everywhere is the animal or scenes of hunting them, which is the most common subject of rock paintings belonging to the Mesolithic and later periods. The subject matter of rock paintings also helps in studying many facets of human life. "The depictions of the species of animals, human and the food gatherers tell us much about the ecosystem in which they lived. The depiction of weapons, tools and other implements reveal their technical abilities. The illustration of his myths and beliefs bring back to our consciousness the essential aspects of out intellectual roots and displays the existential relationship between man, nature and the supernatural" (Anati-1980-20).

In the Indian rock paintings the presentation of man and animals is of almost the same standard although stylistically there are many differences (Mathpal 1980- 93). The artist did not represent everything he saw or knew. Besides animals and their hunters, there are other subjects depicted in rock art via social and cultural activities, ritual performances, domestic life and different images of women, such as mother with a child. In the early period human figures are rarely painted and the depiction is only symbolic and stick-shaped. Many human figures are conical animalized (Gordon 1960- 512), grotesque (Breuil and Lantier 1965- 187) and disproportionate (Bernguer 1973:40?45). In the rock paintings of Pachmarhi Hills prehistoric artists had depicted many cultural dimensions of their life and surroundings. Artists of early and later periods were greatly interested in the depiction of ritual dance and music. In the later period different types of musical instruments, battle scenes, soldiers, horse riders, symbols, patterns etc depicted them. The subject matter of the rock painting of Pachmarhi has been divided into the following categories: -

(a) Human forms. (b) Animal forms. (c) Scenes. (d) Material culture. (e) Mythology. (f) Nature. (g) Inscriptions.

HUMAN FORMS

Human beings are painted lesser realistically than the animals. There are total 2449 human forms belonging to all the periods in Pachmarhi. These forms have been divided into the following 30 sub-groups according to the subject matter: -

(a) Man. (b) Women. (c) Boy. (d) Girl. (e) Infant. (f) Hunter. (g) Fighter. (h) Rider. (i) Attendant. (j) Dancer. (k) Drummer. (l) Pipe Player. (m) Harp Player. (n) Cymbal Player. (o) Man with Mask. (p) Man with Kanvar. (q) Man with animal hide. (r) Women with sickle. (s) Man with axe or (Tree cutter). (t) Honey Collector. (u) Ritual performer. (v) Head Hunter. (w) Leader. (x) Mother Goddess. (y) Copulation. (z) Man in Hut. (aa) Anthropomorphic. (ab) Women engaged in domestic chores. (ac) Pregnant Women. (ae) Fragmented Figures.


Figures with Tiger


Archer

ANIMAL FORMS


Elephant

Normally animal forms part of a hunting scene. A good number of the large or medium size animal’s figures have been painted naturalistically. The common most details are their horns, snout and ears. The animal drawings of early period are very natural and more realistic than those belonging to the later period. In the earliest period the animals were depicted in considerable size, beautifully decorated with abstract and geometric patterns. There are nearly 1008 images of animals belonging to 25 different species. These species comprise Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Wild buffalos, Bison, Oxen, Cow, Nilgai, Sambhar, Swamp deer, Wild boar, hyena, wolf Dog, Monkey, Horse, Pangolin, crocodile and probably a giraffe like long necked animal. Drawing of Porcupine, Rabbit and small creatures like Lizard, Scorpion and Fish are also found. Drawings of birds such as jungle fowl, peafowl and some ostrich like unidentified birds are also recorded. Some depiction of insects like centipedes and honeybees has also been found.


Goats


Monkeys


Bison with Lizard


Row of Cows


Ascetically Drawn Bison Panel


Hunters with Birds

• BIRDS

Total 37 drawings of a limited variety of birds have been found in various shelters in Pachmarhi Probably birds did not form major part of food but only an object of entertainment and curiosity in their surroundings and thus did not receive much significance in the lives of pre-historic men.

• MISCELLANEOUS

Different types of fish, turtles, scorpions, lizards, insects like centipede and honey bees have been depicted in different shelters.

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Part 2 of 2

INDIAN ROCK ART : PACHMARHI THEMES

SCENES

Prehistoric artists have drawn all aspects of their life independently and complete in it. The artists depicted various compositions on the rock surface. Such compositions usually comprise scenes of hunting, food gathering, fighting, dancing, and music, social and daily chores.


Tree Ladder Scene


Figures with Monkeys


Dancers


Dancing Figures and Animals

MATERIAL CULTURE - HEAD HUNTING SCENES


Headhunter

The subject of head hunting in the history of rock art is very uncommon. At present, in Indian rock painting its only the rock art of Pachmarhi which contain this unique depiction of head hunting. Peru in South America is the only other so far known place where scenes of head hunting are found (Bednarick 1989:73).

There are a total of seven depictions of headhunters, which have been first recorded by me. Executed in bichrome colour, these depictions belong to the historic period. The acts in these scenes depict the brutality prevalent in the society of the Stone Age man. The head hunting scene is very prominent in Lanji Hill shelter wherein a human figure is holding a human head in his right hand and shown running, yet looking back over his shoulder, perhaps anticipating a chase or ensuring himself of breaking contact with his enemy. A giant and robust figure measuring 3 ft in length and 2.5 ft in width executed in light red colour has been depicted which makes everyone curious . A headhunter with identical description as stated above, has been recorded at Swem Aam shelter.

In yet another depiction at Nagdwari shelter a headhunter decorated in red lines, perhaps his tattoo marks, has been shown carrying a well-dressed severed head . At Rajat Prapat shelter four human figures have been depicted as headhunters running in the same direction but at different distances. Drawn rhythmically and full of action, this scene is eye catching and gives an insight into the historic life.


Headhunters Running


Headhunters

Remarkably, all the drawings of headhunters are filled with white colour and outlined with red colour. The figures have sharp facial features and body proportionate. Headhunters were probably most respected perhaps because they ensured protection of the clan, group or community and achieved victory over their enemies. Hence, the figures of headhunters are often found well decorated with headdress, crown, earrings and bodies covered from waist downwards up to the knees. Every figure holds a severed head, which is well decorated with crown, earrings, headdress identical to its hunter, running in the same direction and same of fashion looking back over the shoulder. The act of beheading human beings was perhaps not a ritual as nowhere in the shelters any such scene has been depicted. It may be assumed considering the prevalent brutality that beheading may be a form of severe punishment to those who committed a heinous crime of transgressing the law of the land of the tribes. However, it is quite likely that the head of the enemy was severed to ensure annihilation and carried back home to confirm victory to own ground, clan etc. and displayed as a war trophy.

Indian history is replete with the instances of human sacrifice prevalent amongst the tribes in the country, particularly, by Gond and Korku tribes. The tradition of human sacrifice was alive in Mahadeo Hill. “In the days that are forgotten, human victims hurled themselves over the rock as sacrifice to the goddess Kali and Kal Bhairav, the consort and son of Shiva, the destroyer”. Capt J Forsyth has mentioned about an eyewitness account of an incident of human sacrifice at Mahadeo Hills in his famous book “The Highlands of Central India” (Forsyth J 1889:180-184).

MYTHOLOGICAL SCENES


Tree Symbol Worship

The rock art suggestive of mythological origin is that of tree worship, cross worship, symbols of mother Goddess and demons. Gordon has commented that only a few Indian rock art paintings have a religious significance (Gordon 1958:109). “Symbols and so called signs found in rock paintings in different parts of the world are difficult to decipher. It is a code we have been unable to crack”, says Benerguer referring to European Ice Age symbols (Benerguer 1973:73). The paintings of Pachmarhi, which are likely to be related to mythology, have been grouped as follows:

1. Mother Goddess 2. Tree Worship 3. Symbol 4. Cross Worship 5. Swastika 6. Labyrinth (chakra) 7. Geometrical figures 8. Superhuman or deity worship 9. Demons 10. Mythical Animals

INSCRIPTIONS

Writing of inscriptions on the walls of the caves and shelters is associated with Hermits and Monks living in isolation in early historic times. It was common practice in many hills and forest area inhabited by Hermits. These inscriptions do help us place paintings of historic period to certain chronological order. Two inscriptions both in Nagri script in Pachmarhi have been recorded. One is in Dorothy Deep and the other is in Mahadeo shelter. The inscriptions in Mahadeo are too faded to be translated but the inscriptions at Dorothy Deep are by far the most legible. It consists of two lines written in cremish white colour. The first line is obviously meant to be same as commencement of much longer second like. It would appear to be from Nagri of probably 11th to 12th centuries. The translation, which does not make any sense, is as follows: "Lenamasiya a vri vri Dha Dha Ve She Jai Jai".

INDIAN ROCK ART : ANALYTICAL STUDY

The Stone Age man has painted many aspects regarding the social, cultural, economical, religious and ritualistic, pertaining to his life on the bare and uneven rock surface. The surfaces in the caves and shelters have been formed naturally over a period of time. The depictions of contemporary flora fauna and domestic activities have also found their places in these paintings. The antiquity of these unique paintings was probably realised first time by Archibald and Carlleyle in 1867-68 when they discovered the first rock paintings in India at Sohagighat in Uttar Pradesh. Mainly amateurs have brought approximately 150 sites of the rock paintings to our attention. The archeologists never seem to appreciate the antiquity of these paintings. Hence due to lack of attention, this national heritage of our country is now subjected to vandalism. It is pathetic to see at some places where those paintings are near extinction due to lack of protective measures. The shelters in Pachmarhi are well known from tourist and archaeological points of view. But their historic, cultural, artistic, musical and dimensional aspects have been left uncovered totally by most of the researchers known to have worked here. Unlike in Bhimbetka, there are numerous shelters and painted shelters scattered all over the Pachmarhi Hills. The approaches to many shelters are difficult, dangerous and time consuming.

Considering Pachmarhi town as the hub there is hardly any direction where the paintings are not evident. The painted shelters are also found in the outer periphery of the Pachmarhi Hills in the Satpura ranges. The study of these shelters has not been done in my work; however, some references of these have been made here and there. I feel a separate study in a different time frame is needed for the detail study of such paintings. Therefore, I have confined my study to the painted rock shelters of Pachmarhi Hills only. I am hopeful that this work will be an authentic record of the paintings of Pachmarhi hills for the students of the rock art in the future. The present study is the first comprehensive and exhaustive record encompassing thematic and stylistic analysis of the rock paintings of Pachmarhi Hills.

METHODOLOGY

The freehand drawings of the rock painting are the most popular method amongst the Indian scholars. But these kinds of drawings or copies can never be accurate and authentic, hence unsuitable for a scientific study. Such reproductions do not provide us the actual size of the form and scale for reduction or enlargements. Even a line drawing made in this way (reproduction without the colour scheme) cannot do justice to a coloured figure drawn on the shelter. Only a few drawings have been recorded to show the details of their features and ornaments etc. Photography is also a very common method for recording the rock paintings. It is an authentic and trustworthy method. The scholars like Leroi Gourhan (1968) have used basically coloured photographic reproduction of South Western European Cave paintings. Marshack (1975:64-89) has also used the special technique of extra close-up, ultra violet and infrared photography for his work. The photography has not been able to avoid the scratching and writing by vandals on the paintings. Many of the paintings are faded to varying degrees because of their age and prolonged exposure to the natural agencies. Therefore such paintings cannot be reproduced satisfactorily by photography. (Mathpal 1984 :4) Brooks (1975 : 92 :97) has evolved another process of reproducing Indian rock paintings. He first prepares a coloured transparency of the original paintings and makes a line drawing from it by projecting the transparency on the paper. After filling the drawing with colours he prepares a fresh transparency by superimposing the projection of the earlier transparency on the coloured drawing.

Today, the method for the reproduction of the rock painting followed is the combination of three means, tracing for dimensions, photography for colour effect and video recording. Tracing method applied by me to reproduce the rock paintings of Pachmarhi hills is not new. Nearly all the art of the Ice Age as well as the later period in Europe and Africa has been reproduced by this method (Cooks, 1961: 61-65, Vinicombe, 1966: 559 - 60). In India also J Cockburn, Manoranjan Ghosh, D.H. Gordon, V.S. Wakankar and Y Mathpal have employed the direct tracing method. In this method, the figure on the rock surface was first traced on fine transparent sheet. The reverse of the tracing paper was then rubbed with a lead Pencil to serve as carbon paper. The traced drawing was then transferred on the drawing paper. The figure on drawing paper was carefully compared with the original paintings on the rock surface to eliminate errors caused in tracing due to the uneven and rough surface of the rock. The drawing was than coloured on the spot continuously observing the tones and the shades of the original. The natural background of the painting was also reproduced in the same way. This method has been followed only in some paintings of the rock shelters, which are easily approachable and located nearer the town. The area of Pachmarhi hills is still one of the most inaccessible parts of India (Wakankar and Brooks 1975: 103). Shelters are spread all over in the dense forest. The shelters are 10 to 30 kms away from the town. This process was not found practicable at every place because the nature of terrain, constraint of the time and danger of the wild life.

The author has done the maximum recording of the rock paintings by the photography method using both coloured films and transparencies. This gives accurate sizes and originality of colours. Infact about the colours you cannot say the present colour tone is as original as it was about ten thousand years ago. Because of the natural weathering paintings are getting faded gradually and they are loosing their original colour and shades. On one hand the size and drawing of figure can certainly be correct and original but on the other one cannot say about the exact tone of their original colours from these photographs. Third method is video recording of some rock paintings of Pachmarhi area. It is so because day-by-day natural weathering and vandalism are damaging these paintings. Thus this is the best process to record the painting with there natural surroundings. All forms and compositions of Pachmarhi Hills have been copied in different methods. During the survey the figures and scenes have been counted at each shelter starting from left to right and from top to bottom. As many of the paintings are damaged and faded by natural agencies and vadalised by ignorant tourist, it is essential to have a factual record of them for the posterity.

The paintings have been analysed under the seven main categories:
(a) Human forms, (b) Animal forms, (c) Scenes, (d) Material culture, (e) Mythology, (f) Nature, (g) Inscriptions

Forms and scenes are studied according to their colour, style, size, technique, period and shelter. Description and analysis of subject matter is the main theme of the thesis. Next is the colour pigments and technology employed in the creation of paintings and finally, chronology, comparative study, motivation behind the art; the aesthetic aspects forms and styles are discussed. The present study is based on data collected from Pachmarhi hills over a period of five years during the suitable weather conditions. Consequently, the sole endeavour throughout the research work by the author has been to carry out an analytical study of the paintings, paying due attention to the above discussed aspects.

The artists painted at considerable heights, standing on ladders or branches of the nearby trees, which existed then near the shelters. Painted walls have been used several times by the painters of later periods, without removing the older paintings. These overlapped or superimposed paintings of different colours; styles and periods may be seen in the many shelters of Pachmarhi.

TECHNIQUES OF PAINTING

Four techniques have been used in the creation of Indian rock paintings. These are wet transparent colour (water colour painting), wet opaque colour (Oil or tempera), crayon (dry colour painting) and stencil (Spray colour painting). The transparent and opaque colour techniques are more common in rock paintings than the stencil technique, which is generally restricted to the execution of negative handprints (Mathpal 1984: 185). The only example of a stencil drawing is mentioned by Gordon from Kabra Pahar in Raigarh area of Madhaya Pradesh (Gordon 1959: 12). The techniques of paintings are not so complicated. Every artist should have either used wet colour or dry colours paste but drawings by means other than colour are also recorded on rock surfaces. These include engraving, carvings and brushings. Except for the stencil techniques, other techniques have been commonly used in the execution of paintings at Pachmarhi. In addition to the paintings, rock engravings are also found in Pachmarhi. The shelters at Rajat Prapat shelter bears a very few designs of symbols filled with white colour, and Astachal shelter also has an engraved horse rider. Only the earlier period paintings are found executed in wet transparent colour technique. Colours are greatly diluted in water; only red and white were applied as transparent. Later period paintings are executed in what is now known as non-transparent, opaque and crayon techniques. Only two inscriptions engraved on the rock surface have been found at Pachmarhi.

INDIAN ROCK ART: STYLE

The style is different from the technique. The word 'technique' represents the early evolutionary stage of the paintings where as the word 'style' denotes the experimental conditions. It represents the comprehensive and mature stage of the compromise. The conflicting claims in painting of symbolism and representation are very much like the conflicting claims in life of body and soul. And just as the finest forms of life are neither the extreme of hedonism on the one hand nor of asceticism on the other. Both symbolism and representation are easy enough to be described in words. It is a phenomenon that can be readily grasped by the mind (Newton 1945 : 22).

The main qualities of rock paintings which have attracted scholars and artists are the representation of figures including styles, pose and posture, composition, action, movement and different size of forms. Scholars like Breuil (Breuil? 1952 : 32-42) Burkitt (1923 : 187), Kuhn (1958 : 55, 58), Pericot (1961 :201 ? 2), Gordon (1958 : 99 ? 108), Pandey (19975 : 34), Wakankar and Brooks (1976 : 96 ? 103) and Mathpal (1984 : 171) have noticed continuous development in styles of execution. Leroi Gourhan has interpreted all the animal and human forms and abstract symbols on a well determined scheme of four styles on the assumption that in the absence of stratigraphic evidence, style alone can be the base of dating. But again he says, if we attempted this then any formless drawing, of any epoch, would be presumably Aurignacian (1968 : 44).

The style is the basic criterion to establish the chronology and decide the series, but the style alone cannot decide the chronology. We have noticed at Pachmarhi several ways of executing figures of a single period and even in a single composition. In every following composition each new figure varies from the others. Thus if all details of outline, colour filling, decoration and unpainted inner spaces on animal bodies were to be taken into account, the number of styles to emerge would be virtually limitless and therefore of no analytical value. The other factors also contribute in the classification for this purpose; the help of super-imposition and other aspects are necessary.

"The Mahadeo hill paintings have a whole array of stylistic peculiarities which do not appear in other rock paintings but which can be found in some periods of early Historic art and even in recent folk arts. An eye-catching peculiarity is the treatment of facial features. Rock painters all over India drew heads in profile. This convention was followed in the Mahadeo hills but both the eyes are usually indicated. In some paintings both eyes are placed on the visible half of the face, in others the second eye (invisible in a profile) is placed out side the profile line. The bodies of humans are always shown frontally and the legs and feets in profile" (Neumyer E, 1985; 22).

NATURALISTIC

Generally there were several types of drawings. Though we find both human and animal forms in this first style. But the realism or naturalism has been observed only in animal drawings. The technique adopted is potraying the animals in a freehand wash, no outline was drawn but the figure was completed with wash only. But in many cases, first the outline was completed and than the body was filled, either by a wash of light red or white or by different geometrical patterns. In some cases drawing was completed by a thin white wash and then the details of outlines and strips were finished with brighter white line. In this case the wash outline is so perfect that it gives a naturalistic look of the animal.

REPRESENTATIONAL

The human forms associate with the representational style are simple and without any skill. The figures are either in outline or in silhouette having the formation of square. The torso of the outline figures is decorated with straight, zigzag or horizontal lines. They have been adorned with peculiar headdresses. The figures are shown equipped with stick like objects. The overall picture gives the impression of a hunting society (plate148-). The considerable change in the human forms is also witnessed. There are divergent views regarding the origin of human forms. According to Gordon the human depiction begins with square shape which was followed by stick shape. He further elaborates that where ever square forms are found associated with stick forms, they represent transition. Henceforth, we get major development in huma drawing in stick shape and square shape. According to Wakankar the conception of human drawing beings with the portrayal of stick shape man and square shape style followed it.

In many places square shape figures are found associated with stick shape figures which on their part are equipped with bows and arrows. “At Pachmarhi the figures of both the series are shown together. The earliest human figures drawn in the picture are in square shape. The largest number of these paintings have been depicted in Pachmarhi area and at other places. However, their number is very limited. The square shape human figures have been located so far at Sighanpur, Kabra Pahad, Pachmarhi, Sagar, Khawai, Bhopal and Mandideep areas. These figures are either armed with wooden sticks or bare handed” (Panday S. K., 1975 : 93). Arrows are always fixed with microliths. These figures represent male hunters. However, at Pachmarhi some such figures do represent female form too. In the perspective drawings some time children are also shown associated with the group.

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Hunters with Bows


Hunting Scene

There are numerous variations among square forms. Sometime squares are filled with curvilinear liners. The hands are shown raised up, legs stretched and the head is triangular in shape. Sometime torso is decorated with linear or intricate patterns, while the limbs are shown only in stick forms. The figures are shown generally bare handed, though sticks, bows and arrows are occasionally represented. These paintings are executed in monochrome (dark red or burnt sienna) and bichrome (red and white or creamish yellow). These paintings are shown with breasts, which clearly indicate their feminity. This style has been termed as representational, the naturalism continued in case of animal figures and representational style was adopted for human figures. The earlier animal figures follow the simple decoration but gradually the complicated designs in the form of intricate patterns dominate the paintings. Gradually, this style indicates advancement in the cultural complex of the painters. His perception was gradually developing and he was leading towards the consciousness of his surroundings. Since his experiences were transferred into visual art, he started portraying the narrative groupings.


Lion Mask


Soldiers Celebrate Victory

We get several modifications in stick like forms. The change can be detected in case of head dresses. Torso, though continued, but double or triple lined, as well as the triangular forms of torso also started. Another two more new elements were added to this style. The artists replaced the head with the animal masks. The purpose of the masks was to camoflauge the hunter during the course of hunting and identifying oneself with the totemic deity during the ceremonial dances. The second element has been found in case of animal figures in the form of X-ray drawings. The artist was well versed with the anatomy of the animals. Gradually, he started giving the anatomical details of the animals. He successfully depicted the naturalism in the animal drawings. Instead of depicting the individual animals, the paintings of heards were attempted. Artist has also attempted narrative groupings by depicting family groups engaged in different activities. Not only that even he painted the picture of man-eater tiger in different stages.

SYMBOLIC

A radical change is also marked in the paintings. The convertionalised forms gradually replaced the stick shape human figures. The decoration in case of animal figures was also changed. Afterwards, we get the domination of geometrical forms. We observed many human forms in triangular and rectangular shapes, engaged in different activities. Dancing, fighting and running, horse riders are also found executed in symbolic style. Artists have depicted them in various techniques, and monochrome and bichrome colours. The different religious symbols such as moon, sun, cross, swastika and tree worship are also depicted in the same style. This style is the most impressive manifestation of the intellectual level and represents the great majority of prehistoric art sites of painted or engrave geometric or symbolic figures.


Cross Symbol


Cross Symbol

INDIAN ROCK ART: DATING THE STYLES

The chronology of the rock paintings is based on the subject matter or cultural content, superimpositions, styles and archaeological findings from the painted rock shelters. The chronological study of Indian rock paintings begins with the work of Col D H Gordon, who devoted much of his time to the study, but only 217 figures from the large shelters of Pachmarhi Hills. He classified them in four series. The first of the series was compared with those of Singhanpur and Kabra Pahar. The second one was confined to Mahadeo hills. The third was mainly from the area around Pachmarhi and could be compared with the Ellora group. He compared the paintings of Jhalai with those of Ajanta. This, of course, was put in a time bracket of about 6th century A.D. The fourth series was compared with the early medieval sculpture, dating between 9th and 13th century A.D. Each series has an early and late phase. He examined this sequence with reference to drawing in 13 more shelters in and around Pachmarhi. According to him a geometric human figure (with rectangular bodies filled in wavy lines and triangular heads) (Series IA) and stick shaped figures (IB) are older than crude figures of hunters (2A and B). Series 3A comprises both geometric figures and crude silhouettes. Series 3A has the most natural animals silhouettes. In the paintings of series 4A and 4B, horse riders and fighters are grouped. In earlier writings he has also mentioned animals of the fifth series executed in greenish yellow. But unfortunately, Gordon's chronology does not clarify his various series. He also did not give a summarized chart with details of features of each of his series.

R K Verma has classified the rock paintings of the Mirzapur area according to style, into four main series, with three subdivisions of Series-II. He has considered the silhouetted drawings of animals as the oldest. The animal figures in Series IIA are either outlined or have partially filled in limbs, while in series IIB natural silhouettes of animal and horse riders are grouped. The scene of elephant trapping at Lithuania-II is assigned to Series IIB. Drawings of Series-IIC comprise crude, outlined figures of hunters. Symbolic and geometric signs characterise paintings of Series III. In the paintings of Series IV crude figures of animals are included. Jagdish Gupta has also classified the rock paintings in 1967 on published material. S K Pandey has classified the rock paintings of Betwa region in 1969. Wakankar, who has discovered the largest number of rock paintings in India, has prepared several chronologies of Indian rock art between 1973 and 1976. Wakankar has classified the entire rock art of India into five periods and 20 styles:

(a) Period I - Mesolithic or earlier (8000 (?) - 2500 BC): Style 6
(b) Period II - Neolithic/Chalcolithic & Early Iron Age (2500? 3000 BC): Styles 7-10
(c) Period III - Early Historic (300 BC ? AD 800): Style 16
(e) Period IV - Medieval (AD 800 ? 1300): Styles 17 and 18
(e) Period V - Recent (1300 AD to present): Styles 19 and 20

Summary of paintings styles, according to Wakankar in 1976:

SUMMARY OF PAINTING STYLES

Style / Features / Colours

I Mesolithic and Earlier [8000(?)-2500 BC]

1 / Large silhouette, Tuskless elephants, Bison and no human figures / Faded Red,
Brown & black
2 / Buffalos and Bisons in outline R/ ed
3 / Animal drawing in thick outlines with partially filled and decorated bodies, Hunters shown, chasing game like rhinoceros, bisons, antelope and elephant. / Red
4 / Bisons, deer and antilope in outline and non-geometric body decoration. / Red
5 / Animals with body decoration in several geometric patterns and partially filled limbs. Main animals are rhinoceros, tiger, ox, deer and antelope. / Red & Bichrome
6 / Geometric and floral designs hut shaped symbols and animals. Figures of Style-3 and human figures of Style 4 and 5. / Red & Purple

II Neolithic\Chalcolithic and Iron Age (2500 ? 300 BC)

7 / Silhouette drawing of bison, buffalow, elephant, ox, black buck, monkey, and lizard. / Red & brown
8 / Simple and stylized outline of cattle, boar, jackal, deer and antelope-overlapped by drawing of Period-III. / Red
9 / Figures depicted, crude and thick white drawing of animals and triangular bodied human figures. / White
10 / Silhouettes drawings of animals ox, tigers and human / White, Yellowish White

III Early Historic (300 BC - 800 A.D.)

11 / Symbols like Swastika, hollow cross design and inscriptions. / Red, White
Green, Yellow
12 / Animals with outlined, partially filled and large decorated bodies, Hunter with large bows and arrows, resemblance with Nevasal. Navadatoli pottery designs. / Red & Purple
13 / Drawings of horse and elephant riders Swordsman and archers in outline and wash. / Red & White
14 / Polychrome decorative patterns, Gupta and Shankh Inscription. / Red
15 / Multi coloured decorative designs. / White, Red & Yellow
16 / Social and Cultural life in natural silhouettes and scene of tribal conflicts. / White & Red

IV Medieval (800-1300AD)

17 / Stylized drawing of cavaliers and soldiers. / Red, White & Orange
18 / Silhouettes and linear drawings of elephants, horses and human forms. / Red & White
V Recent (1300 Present)
19 / Swordsmen and camel like animal in outline. / Crayon Charcoal
20 / Geometric human figures in double Outline along with Devanagri scripts. / Red

However, the efforts of Wakankar (1978), Gordon (1958), Verma (1964), SK Pandey (1969) and Mathpal (1984), who have been able to put forward minimum workable criteria and guidelines for choronological interpretations, are well perceived.

There are only three periods reflected in the rock paintings of Pachmarhi. One - scenes of a society of hunters and food gatherers, which can be called Prehistoric period (Mesolithic). Two - scenes of using chariots, huts, agriculture, pottery and domestic animals, which can be termed Protohistoric period (Neo/Chalcolithic). Three - scenes of fighters, riders and the use of metallic weapons, which undoubtedly, belong to the historic period.

(a) Prehistoric period - Mesolithic, Late Mesolithic.
(b) Protohistoric period ? Neolithic/Chalcolithic, Late Chalcolithic.
(c) Historic period - Historic, Late Historic.

CONCLUSION


Dr Meenakshi Pathak Records Rock Art in the Pachmarhi Hills

Pachmarhi is a small township on a plateau located in the folds of the Satpura ranges in Central India. It is 210 kms from Bhopal and 52 kms from Pipariya. Pipariya is the nearest railway station on the Bombay-Howrah mainline via Jabalpur. The hills of Pachmarhi have a complex of rock shelters, very difficult to count. More than 55 shelters have been surveyed here and there still be many more to discover. The reason as to why most of India's rock art is in Central India is geological. The Satpura and Vindhayan ranges consist of soft sand stone, which over millions of years, has weathered into hills containing overhanging rocks and cliffs and caves of many shapes and sizes. From early prehistoric times till a few centuries ago these provided shelters for humankind. The archaeological excavations particularly at Jambu Dweap in the past have proved that the early Stone Age man occupied these shelters. Numerous microliths have been found at the shelters in the Bari Aam area. Most interesting findings for me was a pendant made of the tooth of an herbivorous animal probably a monkey, and yellow ochre coloured nodules at the shelter in Bori area.

The location of Pachmarhi from the ecological point of view is such that it meets the basic needs of human beings to survive - food, (in the form of animals and vegetables) water and shelters. The aboriginals exploited the edible flowers, fruits, tubers, honey and animals available for food. The natural sources of water are numerous and perennial too. The hills have the shelters, large enough to accommodate 200 to 300 people and provide protection against wind, sun and rain. It is therefore obvious that prehistoric man occupied these shelters for nearly 10,000 years! Many of these shelters contain large numbers of paintings in varying states of preservation. They are placed at varying angles on the rock faces, often overlapping other paintings and varying sizes, from a few centimeters to several meters.

Indian rock paintings, mainly concentrated in Central India, have only recently received the attention they deserve. The majority of these paintings are in Madhaya Pradesh. Pachmarhi and the surrounding Mahadeo hills make a rich center of the paintings. It is interesting to note that the rock surface was not prepared in any way before painting, and often uneven surfaces and corners were chosen for painting, while broad and even surfaces, where you may expect existence of paintings, are left unpainted. The painted shelters are often located at considerable heights and access to them is very difficult. There are many shelters which cannot be used for dwelling but are painted rather better than those more suitable for dwelling purposes. Some of the shelters have numerous figures, painted with several superimpositions of figures, whilst some shelters contain a very few figures. The majority of the paintings are red and white, showing up admirably on the rock surface. A few paintings are also in yellow colour. Infact, paintings are executed in fourteen different shades, of these three main colours - Red, White and Yellow. These colours are obtained by grinding pieces of rock found locally and mixing the powder with water or some other binder. Nodules of hematite (geru) were used for red, and limestone or Caroline for white. It is believed that fluffed out sticks were used as brushes and porcupine quills for doing the fine work. Some cupmarks and cupules have been found in the Astachal and Ghurmar shelters.

The styles of paintings range from naturalistic to very symbolic or abstract. Three main styles of execution are recorded. The oldest drawings are more naturalistic or realistic and elegant and the later ones are more representational. Drawings are outlined, monochromic, bichrome and without light and shades. Nearly all drawings of animals are shown in profile and in motion. Outlines of animal forms are generally realistic and the bodies are decorated with geometric patterns.

Horns and legs are drawn in a slight three-quarters posture. There are a few figures in an x-ray style, showing the fetus within the womb. Inner details of the body are usually omitted. In rare cases, human figures, eyes, nostrils, ear, mouth and other facial details are shown. No figures are shown with shadows on the ground. There is neither background with human and animal figures nor perspective and foreshortening. Animals in herds are drawn in horizontal rows, which are one above the other. The paintings of the Pachmarhi area may be classified broadly in three groups. Firstly, depicting scenes of hunters and food gatherers, secondly pottery makers and cultivators, and thirdly fighters and horse riders with metallic weapons. First is considered prehistoric while the second protohistoric and the last historic period. The most common subjects of prehistoric paintings are animals - bison, boar, elephant, sambhar, gaur & antilopes. Besides, there are rabbit, fish, lizard, scorpion and small creatures. The drawings of animals are very naturalistically executed and show the animals in various postures and moods - standing, walking, running, leaping, looking back etc. Hunting scenes are also very common. Usually, the hunters are shown in small groups. They were shown with sticks, bows and arrows, stone tipped spears and traps. They face large animals like bison. Human figures are shown with different activities such as ritual dancing. A very interesting painting of ritualistic dancing 8 meters long can be found at Mount Rosa shelter, which is the most beautiful drawing of the mesolithic period in this area. At the same shelter, in one instance, a woman is extracting milk from both breasts. It may be a representation of the mother Goddess. Mesolithic people were decorating their bodies with ornaments. They wore necklaces, bracelets, bangles, pendants, elbow bands, knee bands and anklets. Men wore long loose hair and women braids. They used sticks, slings, spears, bows and arrows, traps for hunting. Their arrows and spears were barbed with microliths. These people used many kinds of masks, headdress and animal hides. The masks were different in shape and were used for hunting and dancing. Headdresses were crowned with feathers, antlers and horns.

Drawings of the protohistoric period show a gradual development like pottery making, building of hutments and means of transport (cart, chariot), agricultural implements, and other man-made utensils are depicted. The execution of figures is more representational. Drawings of the historic period show a society of fighters and riders, soldiers armed with swords and shields. It is very clear but these paintings do not depict the life of the cave dwellers. In other cases this period encompasses varied subjects such as honey collection, fishing, and domestic chores. Musical scenes are depicted with different instruments - harp, drum, pipe and cymbal. In one instance a very unique and interesting depiction of Head Hunters has been seen. This kind of depiction is only found at Pachmarhi in India. These figures are holding severed human heads. The figures and severed heads are highly decorated with ornaments like earrings, necklaces, crowns, topknots, and wearing loincloths. All the figures have sharp features and are proportionately made. The figures are holding severed heads in the right hand and sword in left hand. Another interesting painting of the Bori area shows a very clear face with both eyes face in front posture. It is a very unusual depiction, which is found only in this area. The subject matter of Pachmarhi area also includes a large number of different symbols and signs, mythical creatures, trees, bushes, decorative designs and inscriptions. There are also the scenes of collecting honey with the help of pets and music too. In another painting the fishing activity is shown with the small conical net, which is called Kumna by the present tribal of Pachmarhi.

The descendants of the original hunters and gatherers and artists of this region are the Korku and Gond tribes who still uphold some of the traditions of their ancestors. In the rock paintings, their ancestors are depicted dancing in pairs or in a row and playing musical instruments. They hunted animals and collected honey from hives of wild bees. Their mode of dress was quite simple. The women used to carry food and water and looked after the children. The forebears of the present day tribal people had a variety of ways to express the magic of their beliefs, rituals and taboos. The tribes living in these hills make memorials made of wood. Carved teakwood boards placed under a sacred Mango tree honor the dead. The subject of the carvings are totally unrelated to the life of the deceased but the style and subject - horse rider, sun, moon, tree and hut - is similar to the late period paintings depicted by their predecessors in the past on the mural of the rock shelter. They also decorate the walls of their wattle hut and this activity seems to have its roots in the cave dwelling traditions of their ancestors. Man and horses of geometric construction are randomly spaced across the walls; such paintings are done during the rainy season or on festive occasions bearing close resemblance to those found in the painted shelters.

THE NEED FOR CONSERVATION


Mahadeo Cave


Fragmented Condition

The paintings found in Pachmarhi Hills are faded or partially obliterated and in fragmented condition. Some of them are covered with the thin layer of calcium or moss. The colours of some of the paintings have merged with those of the rock. The degree of natural preservation of these paintings varyies according to the location of the shelter, exposure to sunlight, rain, wind and worst of all, the unaware or mischievous human beings! Most of the shelters have now become accessible due to the development of tracks and roads, a consequence of the development of tourism in this area and the religious significance attached to the place. The paintings now face threat of human vandalism, and local tribal groups are now going deeper to explore the forests for their livelihood. For example, the rock paintings at Nagdwari are being badly damaged during annual festivals of Maha-Shivaratri and Nagapanchami, when pilgrims visit the shrines in thousands. The pilgrims are also damaging Neemgiri, Chitrashala and Agenda shelters that are located on the same hills of Nagdwari.

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The Message of the Superman
by Tara and Charles Carreon
3/20/21


The Message of the Superman, by Tara and Charles Carreon

I come again eternally to this identical and selfsame life, in its greatest and its smallest, to teach again the eternal return of all things. -- Friedrich Nietzsche

God Is Dead, Everything Is Permitted, by Tara and Charles Carreon

BUDDHA ENTERS THE PHONE BOOTH ... BUT IT IS SUPERMAN WHO COMES OUT ...

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Vishnu Purana
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/20/21


Vishnu Purana
Information
Religion: Hinduism
Author: Sage Parashara
Language: Sanskrit
Chapters: 126
Verses: 23,000

The Vishnu Purana (IAST: Viṣṇu Purāṇa) is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism.[1] It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus.[1][2]

The manuscripts of Vishnu Purana have survived into the modern era in many versions.[3][4][5] More than any other major Purana, the Vishnu Purana presents its contents in Pancalaksana format – Sarga (cosmogony), Pratisarga (cosmology), Vamśa (genealogy of the gods, sages and kings), Manvantara (cosmic cycles), and Vamśānucaritam (legends during the times of various kings).[6][7][8] Some manuscripts of the text are notable for not including sections found in other major Puranas, such as those on Mahatmyas and tour guides on pilgrimage,[9] but some versions include chapters on temples and travel guides to sacred pilgrimage sites.[1][10] The text is also notable as the earliest Purana to have been translated and published in 1864 CE by HH Wilson, based on manuscripts then available, setting the presumptions and premises about what Puranas may have been.[11][12]

The Vishnu Purana is among the shorter Purana texts, with about 7,000 verses in extant versions.[13][14] It primarily centers around the Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts that they are dependent on Vishnu.[14] The Purana, states Wilson, is pantheistic and the ideas in it, like other Puranas, are premised on the Vedic beliefs and ideas.[15]

Vishnu Purana, like all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa.[16] The actual author(s) and date of its composition are unknown and contested. Estimates range of its composition range from 400 BCE to 900 CE.[9] The text was likely composed and rewritten in layers over a period of time, with roots possibly in ancient 1st-millennium BCE texts that have not survived into the modern era.[17] The Padma Purana categorizes Vishnu Purana as a Sattva Purana (Purana which represents goodness and purity).[18]

Date of composition


Samudra manthanam depicted in above sculpture, is described in the Vishnu Purana. Suvarnabhumi Airport, Bangkok

The composition date of Vishnu Purana is unknown and contested, with estimates widely disagreeing.[9] Some proposed dates for the earliest version[note 1] of Vishnu Purana by various scholars include:

• Vincent Smith (1908): 400-300 BCE,[9]
• CV Vaidya (1925): ~9th-century,[9]
• Moriz Winternitz (1932): possibly early 1st millennium, but states Rocher, he added, "it is no more possible to assign a definite date to the Vishnu Purana than it is for any other Purana".[9]
• Rajendra Chandra Hazra (1940): 275-325 CE[9]
• Ramachandra Dikshitar (1951): 700-300 BCE,[9][21]
• Roy (1968): after the 9th century.[9]
• Horace Hayman Wilson (1864): acknowledged that the tradition believes it to be 1st millennium BCE text and the text has roots in the Vedic literature, but after his analysis suggested that the extant manuscripts may be from the 11th century.[9][22]
• Wendy Doniger (1988): c. 450 CE.[23]

Rocher states that the "date of the Vishnu Purana is as contested as that of any other Purana".[9] References to Vishnu Purana in texts such as Brihadvishnu whose dates are better established, states Rocher, suggest that a version of Vishnu Purana existed by about 1000 CE, but it is unclear to what extent the extant manuscripts reflect the revisions during the 2nd millennium.[9][5] Vishnu Purana like all Puranas has a complicated chronology. Dimmitt and van Buitenen state that each of the Puranas including the Vishnu Purana is encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to ascertain when, where, why and by whom these were written:[24]

As they exist today, the Puranas are a stratified literature. Each titled work consists of material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no Purana has a single date of composition. (...) It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been continuously added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf, but randomly.

— Cornelia Dimmitt and J.A.B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas[24]

Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British India colonial era, some in the 19th century.[25][26] The scholarship on Vishnu Purana, and other Puranas, has suffered from cases of forgeries, states Ludo Rocher, where liberties in the transmission of Puranas were normal and those who copied older manuscripts replaced words or added new content to fit the theory that the colonial scholars were keen on publishing.[25][26]

Structure

The extant text comprises six aṃśas (parts) and 126 adhyāyas (chapters).[27] The first part has 22 chapters, the second part consists 16 chapters, the third part comprises 18 chapters and the fourth part has 24 chapters. The fifth and the sixth parts are the longest and the shortest part of the text, comprising 38 and 8 chapters respectively.[28][29]

The textual tradition claims that the original Vishnu Purana had 23,000 verses,[30] but the surviving manuscripts have just a third of these, about 7,000 verses.[13] The text is composed in metric verses or sloka, wherein each verse has exactly 32 syllables, of which 16 syllables in the verse may be free style per ancient literary standards.[31]

The Vishnu Purana is an exception in that it presents its contents in Vishnu worship-related Pancalaksana format – Sarga (cosmogony), Pratisarga (cosmology), Vamśa (mythical genealogy of the gods, sages and kings), Manvantara (cosmic cycles), and Vamśānucaritam (legends during the times of various kings).[6][7][8] This is rare, state Dimmitt and van Buitenen, because just 2% of the known Puranic literature corpus is about these five Pancalaksana items, and about 98% is about diverse range of encyclopedic topics.[32]

Contents

Who is Vishnu?
Out of Vishnu this universe has arisen,
in him its exists,
he is the one who governs its existence and destruction,
he is the universe.

—Vishnu Purana, 1.14[33][34]

Vishnu Purana opens as a conversation between sage Maitreya and his guru, Parashara, with the sage asking, "what is the nature of this universe and everything that is in it?"[27][35]

First aṃśa: cosmology

The first Amsha (part) of Vishnu Purana presents cosmology, dealing with the creation, maintenance and destruction of the universe.[36] The mythology, states Rocher, is woven with the evolutionary theories of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.[36]

The Hindu god Vishnu is presented as the central element of this text's cosmology, unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are. The reverence and the worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part as the means for liberation, along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and others.[36][37] The chapters 1.16 through 1.20 of the Vishnu Purana presents the legend of compassionate and Vishnu devotee Prahlada and his persecution by his demon king father Hiranyakasipu, wherein Prahlada is ultimately saved by Vishnu.[38][39] This story is also found in other Puranas.[40]

Vishnu is described in the first book of Vishnu Purana as, translates Wilson, all elements, all matter in the world, the entire universe, all living beings, as well as Atman (Inner Self, essence) within every living being, nature, intellect, ego, mind, senses, ignorance, wisdom, the four Vedas, all that is and all that is not.[37][41]

Second aṃśa: earth

The second part of the text describes its theory of earth, the seven continents and seven oceans.[33][42] It describes mount Meru, mount Mandara and other major mountains, as well as Bharata-varsha (literally, the country of Bharata) along with its numerous rivers and diverse people.[33][43] The seven continents are named Jambu, Plaksha, Salmala, Kusha, Krauncha, Saka and Pushkara, each surrounded by different types of liquids (salt water, fresh water, wine, sugarcane juice, clarified butter, liquid yoghurt, and milk).[33][42]

This part of the Vishnu Purana describes spheres above the earth, planets, the sun and the moon. Four chapters (2.13 to 2.16)[44] of the second book of the text present the legends of King Bharata, who abdicates his throne to lead the life of a sannyasi, which is similar to the legends found in section 5.7 to 5.14 of the Bhagavata Purana.[33] The geography of Mount Mandara as east of Mount Meru, presented in this book and other Puranas, states Stella Kramrisch, may be related to the word Mandir (Hindu temple) and the reason of its design, "image, aim and destination".[45]

Third aṃśa: time

The initial chapters of the third book of the Vishnu Purana presents its theory of manvantaras, or Manus-ages (each 306.72 million years long[46]).[33][47] This is premised upon the Hindu belief that everything is cyclic, and even Yuga (era, ages) start, mature and then dissolve. Six manvantaras, states the text, have already passed, and the current age belong to the seventh.[47] In each age, asserts the text, the Vedas are arranged into four, it is challenged, and this has happened twenty eight times already.[48] Each time, a Veda-Vyasa appears and he diligently organizes the eternal knowledge, with the aid of his students.[33][49]


The Vishnu Purana includes several chapters in book 3 on rites of passage from birth through death. Included are chapters on cremation rites (above).

After presenting the emergence of Vedic schools, the text presents the ethical duties of the four varnas in chapter 2.8, the four Ashrama (stages) of the life of each human being in chapter 2.9, the rites of passage including wedding rituals in chapters 2.10 through 2.12, and Shraddha (rites in honor of ancestors, faith) in chapters 2.13 through 2.16.[33][50]

The Vishnu Purana asserts that the Brahmin should study shastras, worship gods and perform libations on behalf of others, the Kshatriya should maintain arms and protect the earth, the Vaishya should engage in commerce and farming, while the Shudra should subsist by profits of trade, service other varnas and through mechanical labor.[51][52] The text asserts the ethical duties of all varnas is to do good to others, never abuse anyone, never engage in calumny or untruth, never covet another person's wife, never steal another's property, never bear ill-will towards anyone, never beat or slay any human being or living being.[53][52] Be diligent in the service of the gods, sages and guru, asserts the Purana, seek the welfare of all creatures, one's own children and of one's own soul.[53][54] Anyone, regardless of their varna or stage of life, who lives a life according to the above duties is the best worshipper of Vishnu, claims the Vishnu Purana.[53][54] Similar statements on ethical duties of man are found in other parts of Vishnu Purana.[55]

The text describes in chapter 2.9, the four stages of life as brahmacharya (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (retirement) and sannyasa (renunciation, mendicant).[56][57] The text repeats the ethical duties in this chapter, translates Wilson.[56][57] The chapters on Shraddha (rites for ancestors) describe the rites associated with a death in family, the preparation of the dead body, its cremation and the rituals after the cremation.[58]

The third book closes with the legend of Vishnu, through Mayamoha, helping the Devas win over Asuras, by teaching the Asuras heretical doctrines that deny the Vedas, who declare their contempt for the Vedas, which makes them easy to identify and thereby defeat.[33][59]


The longest part of the Vishnu Purana is dedicated to the legend of Krishna (above).

Fourth aṃśa: dynasties

The fourth book of the text, in 24 long chapters, presents royal dynasties, starting with Brahma, followed by solar and lunar dynasties, then those on earth over the Yugas (eras), with Pariksit asserted as the "current king".[33][60][61] The text includes the legends of numerous characters such as Shaubhri, Mandhatri, Narmada, sage Kapila, Rama, Nimi, Janaka, Buddha, Satyavati, Puru, Yadu, Krishna, Devaka, Pandu, Kuru, Bharata, Bhisma and others.[62]

Fifth aṃśa: Krishna

The fifth book of the Vishnu Purana is the longest, with 38 chapters.[63][64][65] It is dedicated to the legend of Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu.[66] The book begins with the story of Krishna's birth, his childhood pranks and plays, his exploits, his purpose of ending the tyranny of demon-tyrant king of Mathura, named Kansa.[63][67][65]

The Krishna story in the Vishnu Purana is similar to his legend in the Bhagavata Purana, in several other Puranas and the Harivamsa of the Mahabharata.[63] Scholars have long debated whether the Bhagavata Purana expanded the Krishna legend in the Vishnu Purana, or whether the latter abridged the version in former, or both depended on the Harivamsa estimated to have been composed sometime in the 1st millennium of the common era.[63][68][69]

Sixth aṃśa: liberation

Soul and Prakriti
This soul is of its own nature,
pure, composed of happiness and wisdom.
The properties of pain, ignorance and impurity,
are those of Prakriti, not of soul.

—Vishnu Purana, 6.7[70]

The last book of the Vishnu Purana is the shortest, with 8 chapters.[63][71] The first part of the sixth book asserts that Kali Yuga is vicious, cruel and filled with evilness that create suffering, yet "Kali Yuga is excellent" because one can refuse to join the evil, devote oneself to Vishnu and thus achieve salvation.[72]

The last chapters, from 6.6 to 6.7 of the text discusses Yoga and meditation, as a means to Vishnu devotion.[63][73] Contemplative devotion, asserts the text, is the union with the Brahman (supreme soul, ultimate reality), which is only achievable with virtues such as compassion, truth, honesty, disinterestedness, self-restraint and holy studies.[74] The text mentions five Yamas, five Niyamas, Pranayama and Pratyahara.[75] The pure and perfect soul is called Vishnu, states the text, and absorption in Vishnu is liberation.[76]

The final chapter 6.8 of the text asserts itself to be an "imperishable Vaishnava Purana".[77]

Influences

Vishnu Purana is one of the 18 major Puranas, and these text share many legends, likely influenced each other.[63] The fifth chapter of the Vishnu Purana was likely influenced by the Mahabharata.[68] Similarly, the verses on rites of passage and ashramas (stages) of life are likely drawn from the Dharmasutra literature. Rajendra Hazra, in 1940, assumed that Vishnu Purana is ancient and proposed that texts such as Apasthamba Dharmasutra borrowed text from it.[78] Modern scholars such as Allan Dahlaquist disagree, however, and state that the borrowing may have been in the other direction, from Dharmasutras into the Purana.[78]

Other chapters, particularly those in book 5 and 6 of the Vishnu Purana have Advaita Vedanta and Yoga influences.[79][80][81] The theistic Vedanta scholar Ramanuja, according to Sucharita Adluri, incorporated ideas from the Vishnu Purana to identify the Brahman concept in the Upanishads with Vishnu, thus providing a Vedic foundation to the Srivaishnava tradition.[82]

See also

• Dvaita Vedanta
• Hindu texts
• Upanishad
• Veda

Notes

1. This is not the version that has survived into the modern era. The estimates for earliest version are based on the analysis of the content, events described, literary style, references to other Indian texts within this Purana.[19][20]

References

1. Dalal 2014, p. 460.
2. Rocher 1986, pp. 245-249.
3. Rocher 1986, pp. 18, 245-249.
4. Wilson 1864, pp. xxxiv-xxxv.
5. Gregory Bailey (2003). Arvind Sharma (ed.). The Study of Hinduism. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 141–142. ISBN 978-1-57003-449-7.
6. Rocher 1986, pp. 248-249.
7. Rao 1993, pp. 85–100.
8. Johnson 2009, p. 248.
9. Rocher 1986, p. 249.
10. Ariel Glucklich 2008, p. 146, Quote: The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called mahatmyas.
11. Wilson 1864, pp. i-xviii, for full context and comparison of Vishnu Purana with other Puranas then known, see all of the Preface section..
12. Gregory Bailey (2003). Arvind Sharma (ed.). The Study of Hinduism. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 148–149. ISBN 978-1-57003-449-7.
13. Wilson 1864, p. xxxv.
14. Rocher 1986, p. 246, 248 with footnote 501.
15. Wilson 1864, pp. xii-xiv.
16. Rocher 1986, p. 48.
17. Rocher 1986, pp. 41-48, 249.
18. Wilson, H. H. (1840). The Vishnu Purana: A system of Hindu mythology and tradition. Oriental Translation Fund. p. 12.
19. Dimmitt & van Buitenen 2012, p. 1-7.
20. Rocher 1986, p. 38-49, 59-66.
21. K P Gietz 1992, p. 986 with note 5739.
22. Edward Balfour (1885). The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia. B. Quaritch. p. 1025.
23. Collins 1988, p. 36.
24. Dimmitt & van Buitenen 2012, p. 5.
25. Rocher 1986, pp. 49-53.
26. Avril Ann Powell (2010). Scottish Orientalists and India: The Muir Brothers, Religion, Education and Empire. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 130, 128–134, 87–90. ISBN 978-1-84383-579-0.
27. Rocher 1986, p. 246.
28. Rocher 1986, pp. 246-248.
29. Wilson 1864.
30. Kireet Joshi (1991). The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 106. ISBN 978-81-208-0889-8.
31. Dimmitt & van Buitenen 2012, p. xiii.
32. Dimmitt & van Buitenen 2012, p. 9.
33. Rocher 1986, p. 247.
34. Wilson 1865, pp. 94-95.
35. "A Brief History of India", by Alain Daniélou, publisher = Inner Traditions / Bear & Co., p. 25
36. Rocher 1986, pp. 246-247.
37. Wilson 1865, pp. 93-96.
38. Dutt 1896, pp. ii-iii.
39. Wilson 1865, pp. 32-68.
40. Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 455
41. Wilson 1864, pp. 170-172, 196-198.
42. Wilson 1865, pp. 109-126.
43. Wilson 1865, pp. 127-190.
44. Wilson 1865, pp. 312-336.
45. Kramrisch 1976, p. 161 with footnote 78.
46. Doniger, Wendy; Hawley, John Stratton, eds. (1999). "Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. p. 691 (Manu). ISBN 0877790442. a day in the life of Brahma is divided into 14 periods called manvantaras ("Manu intervals"), each of which lasts for 306,720,000 years. In every second cycle [(new kalpa after pralaya)] the world is recreated, and a new Manu appears to become the father of the next human race. The present age is considered to be the seventh Manu cycle.
47. Wilson 1866, pp. 1-19.
48. Wilson 1866, pp. 33-51.
49. Wilson 1866, pp. 40-42.
50. Wilson 1866, pp. 80-199.
51. Wilson 1866, pp. 85-87.
52. Dutt 1896, pp. 191-192.
53. Wilson 1866, pp. 80-90.
54. Dutt 1896, pp. 191-193.
55. NK Devaraja (1976), What is living and what is dead in traditional Indian philosophy?, Philosophy East and West, Volume 26, Issue 4, pages 427-442, Quote: "Thus in the Visnu Purana, Prahlada, the great devotee of Visnu, is found making a number of statements of the following type: Knowing that god Visnu is present in all creatures - since neither the totality of living beings, nor myself, nor the food is other than Viṣṇu - I serve all creatures with food; may this food bring them satisfaction. Elsewhere, in the same text, we read: We offer obeisance to that unborn, imperishable Brahman which is present in our and others bodies and in everything else, there being nothing other than it anywhere. This teaching of the ethics of universal love and service..."
56. Wilson 1866, pp. 92-96.
57. Dutt 1896, pp. 194-196.
58. Wilson 1866, pp. 1 48-170.
59. Wilson 1866, pp. 207-227.
60. Wilson 1866, pp. 229-336.
61. Wilson 1868, pp. 1-242.
62. Dutt 1896, pp. 237-306.
63. Rocher 1986, p. 248.
64. Wilson 1868, pp. 245-342.
65. Wilson 1870, pp. 1-167.
66. Dutt 1896, pp. 317-418.
67. Wilson 1870, pp. 245-342.
68. Walter Ruben (1941), The Kṛṣṇacarita in the Harivaṃśa and Certain Purāṇas, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 61, No. 3, pages 115-127
69. Bryant 2007, pp. 9-10, 95-109 (Chapter by Ekkehard Lorenz).
70. Wilson 1870, p. 225.
71. Wilson 1870, pp. 168-255.
72. Wilson 1870, pp. 177-185 with footnotes.
73. Wilson 1870, pp. 216-255.
74. Wilson 1870, pp. 227-229 with footnotes.
75. Wilson 1870, pp. 230-232 with footnotes.
76. Wilson 1870, pp. 242-243.
77. Wilson 1870, p. 244.
78. Allan Dahlaquist (1996). Megasthenes and Indian Religion. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 92 with footnote 1. ISBN 978-81-208-1323-6.
79. NK Devaraja (1970), Contemporary Relevance of Advaita Vedānta, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 20, No. 2, pages 129-136
80. KSR Datta (1978), The Visnu Purana and Advaita, Journal: Purana, Vol 20, pages 193-196
81. R. Balasubramanian (2000). "Advaita in the Puranas". Advaita Vedānta. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 51–78. ISBN 978-8187586043.
82. Sucharita Adluri (2015), Textual authority in Classical Indian Thought: Ramanuja and the Visnu Purana, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415695756, pages 1-11, 18-26

Bibliography

• Bryant, Edwin Francis (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803400-1.
• Collins, Charles Dillard (1988). The Iconography and Ritual of Siva at Elephanta: On Life, Illumination, and Being. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-773-0.
• Dimmitt, Cornelia; van Buitenen, J. A. B. (2012). Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Temple University Press (1st Edition: 1977). ISBN 978-1-4399-0464-0.
• Dalal, Rosen (2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin. ISBN 978-8184752779.
• Dutt, MN (1896). A prose translation of Vishnupuranam. Elysium Press.
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
• K P Gietz; et al. (1992). Epic and Puranic Bibliography (Up to 1985) Annoted and with Indexes: Part I: A - R, Part II: S - Z, Indexes. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03028-1.
• Ariel Glucklich (2008). The Strides of Vishnu : Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971825-2.
• Johnson, W.J. (2009). A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.
• Kramrisch, Stella (1976). The Hindu Temple, Volume 1 & 2. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0223-3.
• Rao, Velcheru Narayana (1993). "Purana as Brahminic Ideology". In Doniger Wendy (ed.). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0.
• Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447025225.
• Thapar, Romila (2013), The Past Before Us, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72651-2
• Wilson, H. H. (1864). The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition (Volume 1: Introduction, Book I). Read Country Books (reprinted in 2006). ISBN 1-84664-664-2.
• Wilson, H. H. (1865). The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition (Volume 2: Book I & II).
• Wilson, H. H. (1866). The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition (Volume 3: Book III & IV).
• Wilson, H. H. (1868). The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition (Volume 4: Book IV & V).
• Wilson, H. H. (1870). The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition (Volume 5 Part 1: Book V & VI).

Further reading

• Mani, Vettam. Puranic Encyclopedia. 1st English ed. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975.
• Shri Vishnupuran published by Gitapress Gorakhpur

External links

• Vishnu Purana translation by H.H. Wilson at sacred-texts
• Vishnu Purana English translation correct IAST transliteration and glossary
• Other language versions on the Internet Archive: Sanskrit (by Vishnuchitta Alwar, 1922), Bengali by Kaliprasanna Vidyaratna (1926), Hindi, Telugu by K. Bhavanarayana (1930)

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Koot Hoomi
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 3/21/21

-- Koot Hoomi, by Theosophy Wiki
-- Nisi Kanta Chattopadhyaya, by Theosophy Wiki
-- Chapter II: The Origin of the Yatra [Excerpt from The Bengali Drama: It's Origin and Development], by P Guha-Thakurta
-- Retrospect of the Year 1876-7, Excerpt from The Brahmo Year-Book for 1877: Brief Records of Work and Life in the Theistic Churches of India, edited by Sophia Dobson Collet
-- Personal Intelligence, from Journal of the National Indian Association in Aid of Social Progress and Female Education in India, by Sir M. Monier-Williams, KCIE
-- 1879, Excerpt from Masters and Men: The Human Story in the Mahatma Letters (a fictionalized account), by Virginia Hanson
-- Gustav Theodor Fechner, by Theosophy Wiki
-- Gustav Fechner, by Wikipedia

Koot Hoomi (also spelled Kuthumi, and frequently referred to simply as K.H.) is said to be one of the Mahatmas that inspired the founding of the Theosophical Society in 1875. He engaged in a correspondence with two English Theosophists living in India, A. P. Sinnett and A. O. Hume, which correspondence was published in the book The Mahatma Letters to A. P. Sinnett.

Skeptics have described Koot Hoomi and the other Mahatmas as a hoax.[1]

Personal features


A portrait of Master Koot Hoomi by Hermann Schmiechen


Facsimile (a fragment) of the 8th letter from the Koot Hoomi

Little descriptive references to K.H. occur in The Mahatma Letters to A. P. Sinnett and the writings of Mme. Blavatsky. The name Koot Hoomi seems to be a pseudonym. We find a reference to a "Rishi Kuthumi" in several Puranas, as for example in the Vishnu Purana (Book 3, Chapter 6) where he is said to be a pupil of Paushyinji. In reference to this Mme. Blavatsky wrote:

The name of Rishi Koothumi is mentioned in more than one Purana, and his Code is among the 18 Codes written by the various Rishis and preserved at Calcutta in the library of the Asiatic Society. But we have not been told whether there is any connection between our Mahatma of that name, and the Rishi, and we do not feel justified in speculating upon the subject. All we know is, that both are Northern Brahmans, while the Môryas are Kshatriyas.[2]

K.H.'s early letters to Sinnett are signed with the name Koot Hoomi Lal Sing. However, later in the correspondence, he says the "Lal Singh" was an addition made by his disciple Djwal Khool:

Why have you printed The Occult World before sending it to me for revision? I would have never allowed the passage to pass; nor the "Lal Sing" either foolishly invented as half a nom de plume by Djwal K. and carelessly allowed by me to take root without thinking of the consequences. . .[3]

In an interview by Charles Johnston to H. P. Blavatsky, he described the handwriting of Master K.H. in the following way:

. . . evidently a man of very gentle and even character, but of tremendously strong will; logical, easy-going, and taking endless pains to make his meaning clear. It was altogether the handwriting of a cultivated and very sympathetic man.[4]

Master KH is said to live in a house in a ravine in Tibet, near the house of Master Morya. In 1881, Colonel Henry S. Olcott wrote to A. O. Hume:

I have also personally known [Master Koot Hoomi] since 1875. He is of quite a different, a gentler, type, yet the bosom friend of the other [Master Morya]. They live near each other with a small Buddhist Temple about midway between their houses. In New York, I had . . . and a colored sketch on China silk of the landscape near [Koot Hoomi]'s and my Chohan's residences with a glimpse of the latter’s house and of part of the little temple.[5]

Mme. Blavatsky, in a letter to Mary Hollis Billing[6] wrote:

Now Morya lives generally with Koot-Hoomi who has his house in the direction of the Kara Korum [Karakoram] Mountains, beyond Ladak, which is in Little Tibet and belongs now to Kashmire. It is a large wooden building in the Chinese fashion pagoda-like, between a lake and a beautiful mountain. . . .[7]

This is confirmed by a reference given by Mahatma K. H. himself, in a letter to A. P. Sinnett:

I was coming down the defiles of Kouenlun — Karakorum you call them . . . and was crossing over to Lhadak on my way home.[8]

C. W. Leadbeater described the physical appearance of Master KH as follows:

The Master Kuthumi wears the body of a Kashmiri Brahman, and is as fair in complexion as the average Englishman. He, too, has flowing hair, and His eyes are blue and full of joy and love. His hair and beard are brown, which, as the sunlight catches it, becomes ruddy with glints of gold. His face is somewhat hard to describe, for His expression is ever changing as He smiles; the nose is finely chiselled, and the eyes are large and of a wonderful liquid blue.[9]

Education in Europe

Apparently before being an Adept, Master Koot Hoomi visited Europe and studied in some of the Universities there. Mme. Blavatsky said that Mahatma K.H. "is a Kashmiri Brahman by birth . . . and has travelled a good deal in Europe."[4]

Mr. A. O. Hume, in his "Hints on Esoteric Theosophy," wrote:

Take a case said to have occurred many years ago in Germany, in which a Brother, who has corresponded with us, is said to have taken part. He was at this time a student, and though in course of preparation was not then himself an Adept, but was, like all regular chelas, under the special charge of an Adept. A young friend of his was accused of forgery, and tried for the same. Our Brother, then a student as above explained, was called as a witness to prove his friend's handwriting; the case was perfectly clear and a conviction certain. Through his mentor, our Brother learnt that his accused friend did not really deserve punishment that would necessarily fall on him, and which would have ruined not only him, but other innocent persons dependent on him. He had really committed a forgery but not knowingly or meaningly, though it was impossible to show this. So when the alleged forged document was handed to the witness, he merely said: "I see nothing written here," and returned the deed blank. His mentor had caused the entire writing to disappear. It was supposed that a wrong paper had been by mistake handed to the witness; search was made high and low, but the deed never appeared, and the accused was perforce acquitted.[10]

Master Morya referred to K.H. as "a fine scholar".[11] Master K.H. is alleged to have spoken English and French, which in one letter led Master M. to call him "Frenchified".[12]

K.H.'s retreat and initiation

Mme. Blavatsky in Oct 2, 1881 described this to Mrs. Mary Hollis Billing as follows:

K. H. or Koot-Hoomi is now gone to sleep for three months to prepare during this Sumadhi or continuous trance state for his initiation, the last but one, when he will become one of the highest adepts. Poor K. H. his body is now lying cold and stiff in a separate square building of stone with no windows or doors in it, the entrance to which is effected through an underground passage from a door in Toong-ting (reliquary, a room situated in every Thaten (temple) or Lamisery; and his Spirit is quite free. An adept might lie so for years, when his body was carefully prepared for it beforehand by mesmeric passes etc. It is a beautiful spot where he is now in the square tower. The Himalayas on the right and a lovely lake near the lamisery. His Cho-han (spiritual instructor, master, and the Chief of a Tibetan Monastery takes care of his body. M . . also goes occasionally to visit him. It is an awful mystery that state of cataleptic sleep for such a length of time. . .[7]

Master Morya in a letter to A. P. Sinnett described K.H.'s retreat as follows:

At a certain spot not to be mentioned to outsiders, there is a chasm spanned by a frail bridge of woven grasses and with a raging torrent beneath. The bravest member of your Alpine clubs would scarcely dare to venture the passage, for it hangs like a spider’s web and seems to be rotten and impassable. Yet it is not; and he who dares the trial and succeeds — as he will if it is right that he should be permitted — comes into a gorge of surpassing beauty of scenery — to one of our places and to some of our people, of which and whom there is no note or minute among European geographers. At a stone’s throw from the old Lamasery stands the old tower, within whose bosom have gestated generations of Bodhisatwas. It is there, where now rests your lifeless friend — my brother, the light of my soul, to whom I made a faithful promise to watch during his absence over his work.[13]

Incarnations

The Master Kuthumi led a solitary lifestyle in His last incarnation. At the end of the nineteenth century, He ascended. The Teaching of the Ascended Masters speak of some of his previous incarnations by famous people.[14]

• Thutmose III
• Pythagoras
• Belshazzar
• Francis of Assisi
• Shah Jahan
• Merlin the Magician

Skepticism

There is skepticism about the existence of Koot Hoomi. Gordon Stein in his book Encyclopedia of Hoaxes has noted:

"There were flaws in Blavatsky's work. Koot Hoomi, for example, claimed to have been an Indian (not a Tibetan) who studied in Germany. Yet he did not speak German, Hindi, or Punjabi. He spoke French and English, but wrote them using the overlined characteristic of Russians who write in English or French. The other Mahatma, Master Morya, had a weakness for pipe smoking, something that was strictly forbidden in Tibet. Both these Masters supposedly lived in Tibet. Other inconsistencies obvious now, were not enough to alert Sinnett that he was being hoaxed."[1]

In 1884, Rev. George Patterson published an article "The Collapse of Koot Hoomi" which stated that Koot Hoomi did not exist.[15] Based on information he received from Emma Coulomb it was alleged that Hoomi was actually a dummy made from cloth with a painted face that her husband Alexis Coulomb wore on his shoulders at night. Blavatsky denied the accusations of fraud.[15]

Moncure D. Conway visited Blavatsky and investigated claims of the Mahatmas in 1884. He suggested that Hoomi was a fictitious creation of Blavatsky.[16] Conway wrote that Blavatsky "created the imaginary Koothoomi (originally Kothume) by piecing together parts of the names of her two chief disciples, Olcott and Hume."[17]

See also

• Ascended masters
• Alice A.Bailey
• Benjamin Creme
• Hodgson Report
• Initiation (Theosophy)
• K.H. Letters to C.W. Leadbeater
• Mahātmā
• Helena Roerich
• Theosophy

References

1. Stein, Gordon. (1993). Encyclopedia of Hoaxes. Gale Group. p. 224. ISBN 0-8103-8414-0
2. Blavatsky, H. P., Collected Writings vol. VI, (Adyar, Madras: Theosophical Publishing House, 1979), 41.
3. Hao Chin, Vic., Mahatma Letters to A. P. Sinnett No. 136, (Quezon City, Philippines: Theosophical Publishing House, 1993), 450.
4. Blavatsky, H. P., Collected Writings vol. VIII, (Adyar, Madras: Theosophical Publishing House, 1979), 399.
5. Hume, A. O., Hints on Esoteric Theosophy vol. 1 (Bombay, India: The Theosophical Society, 1882), 83
6. "Mary Hollis Billing - Theosophy Wiki". theosophy.wiki. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
7. Blavatsky, H.P., The Theosophical Forum (Point Loma, California: May 1936), 345.
8. Vicente Hao Chin, Jr., The Mahatma Letters to A.P. Sinnett in chronological sequence No. 5 (Quezon City: Theosophical Publishing House, 1993), ???.
9. Leadbeater, C. W., The Masters and the Path (Chicago: Theosophical Press, 1925), 38.
10. Hume, A. O., Hints on Esoteric Theosophy vol. 1 (Bombay, India: The Theosophical Society, 1882), 29
11. Hao Chin, Vic., Mahatma Letters to A. P. Sinnett No. 29, (Quezon City, Philippines: Theosophical Publishing House, 1993), 86.
12. Hao Chin, Vic., Mahatma Letters to A. P. Sinnett No. 26, (Quezon City, Philippines: Theosophical Publishing House, 1993), 83.
13. Hao Chin, Vic., Mahatma Letters to A. P. Sinnett No. 29, (Quezon City, Philippines: Theosophical Publishing House, 1993), 87.
14. Prophet, Mark. (2003). The masters and their retreats. Prophet, Elizabeth Clare., Booth, Annice. Corwin Springs, Mont.: Summit University Press. ISBN 0972040242. OCLC 53117044.
15. Fuller, Jean Overton. (1988). Blavatsky and Her Teachers: An Investigative Biography. East-West Publications. pp. 144-146
16. Conway, Moncure D. (1906). My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East. Houghton, Mifflin and Company. pp. 201-202
17. Versluis, Arthur. (1993). American Transcendentalism and Asian Religions. Oxford University Press. p. 291. ISBN 0-19-507658-3

Further reading

• Moncure D. Conway. (1906). My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East. Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
• Richard Hodgson. (1885). Account of Personal Investigations in India and Discussion of the Authorship of the “Koot Hoomi” Letters. Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research 3: 207-380.
• Jeffrey D. Lavoie. (2012). The Theosophical Society: The History of a Spiritualist Movement. Brown Walker Press.

External links

• Echoes of the Past: Master Koot Hoomi by Mary K. Neff
• Where was the "Ravine in Tibet"? by Daniel H. Caldwell
• The Collapse of Koot Hoomi by Rev. George Patterson