Part 1 of 2
Chapter References
1. An Imaginative Geography
1. E Relph, Place and Placelessness (London: Pion, 1976); M. Samuels, 'Existentialism and Human Geography', in Humanistic Geography, ed. D. Ley and M. Samuels (London: Croom Helm, 1979); C.G. Jung, 'Mind and Earth', in his Collected Works Vol. 10 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974).
2. G. Bachelard, The Poetics of Space (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); Yi-Fu Tuan, 'Topophilia', in Man, Space and Environment, ed. p. English and R. Mayfield (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972); Yi-Fu Tuan, 'Sacred Space', in Dimensions of Human Geography, ed. K Butzer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).
3. M. Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1959); See F. Yates, The Art of Memory (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978) for a discussion of space and memory.
4. J. Sumption, Pilgrimage (London: Faber & Faber, 1975).
5. E. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979); H. Baudet, Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non- European Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965).
6. See Baudet; and B. Stafford, Voyage into Substance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984).
7. See p. Dodd (ed.), The Art of Travel (London: Frank Cass, 1982) for extensive discussion of travel writing; also E. swinglehurst, Cook's Tours (Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, 1982).
8. See Relph, pp. 79.ff; also Eliade, pp. 22 -4; I. Illich, H2O and the Waters of Forgetfulness (Dallas: Dallas Institute of Humanities and Culture, 1985)
9. See M. Le Bris, Romantics and Romanticism (Geneva: skira, 1981); C. Loomis, 'The Arctic Sublime', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination, ed. U. Knoepflmacher and G. Tennyson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977); A. Moorehead: The Fatal Impact (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968); The White Nile (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976).
10. Said; also Stafford, Voyage into Substance; E. Brown (ed), Geography Yesterday and Tomorrow (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980); L. Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion (New York: Academic Press, 1979); J. Boon, The Anthropological Romance of Bali (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977); R. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973); A. Miller, 'I see no end to traveling' (Sydney: Bay Books, 1986); C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).
11. See C. Allen, A Mountain in Tibet (London: Andre Deutsch, 1982); P. Hopkirk, Trespassers on the Roof of the World (London: John Murray, 1982); L. Miller, On Top of the World (London: Paddington Press, 1976); G. Woodcock, Into Tibet (London: Faber & Faber, 1971); S. Camman, Trade Through the Himalayas (Connecticut Greenwood Press, 1970); J. MacGregor, Tibet: A Chronicle of Exploration (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970).
12. see A. Lamb, Britain and Chinese Central Asia (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960).
13. See Dodd, Art of Travel; Stafford, Voyage into Substance; P. Fussell, Abroad (New York:Oxford University Press, 1980); F. Barker et al. (eds.), Europe and Its Others, 2 vols. (Colchester University of Essex, 1984).
14. Fussell, pp. 202-15.
15. Ibid. pp. 108-9, 174-7.
16. C. Levi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); also J. Hillman, Re-Visioning Psychology (New York Harper & Row, 1975), p. 164 on the idea of bricoleur; R. Byron, First Russia-Then Tibet (1933; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985) See also N. Douglas, Siren Land (1911; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986) for a brilliant example of this collage style
17. Byron.
18. Fussell, p. 214.
19. Bachelard, Poetics. See also R. Funk, Language, Hermeneutic and Word of God (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), pp. 265-73, where the travel section of Paul's letters in the New Testament are read as an integral part of Paul's message.
20. Fussell, p. 210.
21. W. Mitchell (ed.), On Narrative (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. x.
22. P. Matthiesson, The Snow Leopard (London: Picador, 1980); P. Bishop, 'The Geography of Hope and Despair, Peter Matthiesson's The Snow Leopard', Critique XXVI, no. 4 (Summer 1985) See also W. Least Heat-Moon, Blue Highways (London: Picador, 1984) for a striking image of route. He structures his narrative around the blue roads on maps of US highways.
23. J. Hillman, 'The Thought of the Heart', The Eranos Jahrbuch 48-1979 (Frankfurt a/M: Insel Verlag, 1980), pp. 151-3; M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. l (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), p. 58; see also P. Spacks, Imagining a Self (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976). This is an examination of autobiography and novel in the eighteenth century, which was a critical period in the intensification of concern over personal identity and subjectivity.
24. H. White, 'The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality', in Mitchell, p. 18.
25. V. Turner: 'Pilgrimages as Social Processes', in his Dramas, Fields and Metaphors (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974), 'The Centre Out There. Pilgrim's Goal', History of Religions, 13, no. 3 (February 1973).
26. See Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place (London: Edward Arnold, 1977; also Bachelard, Poetics
27. See J. Layard, A Celtic Quest (Zurich: Spring Publications, 1975). He examines this triple parallelism between geographical boundaries, those of individual psychology and those of social reality.
28. D. Lowenthal, 'Geography, Experience and Imagination Towards a Geographical Epistemology', in English and Mayfield.
29. Yi-Fu Tuan, 'Sacred Space', in Butzer, p. 92; Barker; J. Fabian, Time and the Other (New York Columbia University Press, 1983).
30. Said, pp. 157-97
31. Ibid. pp. 167.
32. Ibid. pp. 166-88.
33. J. Hillman, 'Notes on White Supremacy', Spring 1986 (Dallas. Spring Publications, 1986), pp. 45-6. We can trace the appearance of the West's unconscious even closer to home than Africa. For example, in the imaginative constructions and reconstructions of places such as Pompeii (moral warnings about imperial decline and sexual permissiveness); Knossos (a golden age of innocence, power and wisdom destroyed by the overwhelming forces of nature); Capri (a languid, earthy paradise underlain by dark myths); Patmos (the visionary extreme of European consciousness). See, for example, H. Wunderlich, The Secret of Crete (Athens Efstathiadis Group, 1983) for insights into the discovery and archaeological reconstruction of Knossos on Crete early in the twentieth century; or N. Douglas's Siren Land (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986) for a broody, complex evocation of Capri and the Amalfi coast at the turn of the century. On Patmos's evocative power in the nineteenth century, see Holderlin's poem 'Bread and Wine'.
34. J. Hillman 'Notes on White Supremacy', 'An Introductory Note: C.G Carus -- C.G. Jung', in C.G. Cams, Psyche: Part One (New York: Spring Publications, 1970). On the 'discovery' of the unconscious, see H. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (New York: Basic Books, 1970). There is, of course, no fixed category of the Other. From disciplines as diverse as anthropology, psychology, religious philosophy, art aesthetics, and so on comes a bewildering array of images and reflections on Otherness. While most of these perspectives attempt to conceptualize 'their' Other as a coherent, unified object, archetypal psychology insists upon its complexity, diversity and contradictory qualities. However, some moves against unified images of Otherness can be seen in these other disciplines. In anthropology, for example, there is Fabian's Time and the Other, or Boon's Anthropological Romance of Bali. A wide range of discussions, owing much to the deconstructionalist philosophy of Foucault, can be found in Barker, Europe and Its Others. Archetypal psychology's insistence on the transpersonal roots of these images of Otherness is similarly echoed by at least some of these post-modernist theorists; see the discussion in E. Casey, 'Jung and the Post-Modern Condition', Spring 1987 (Dallas: Spring Publications, 1987)
35. S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971); C.G. Jung, Collected Works, Vol. 16 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974); J. Hillman. Re-Visioning Psychology (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), The Dream and the Underworld (New York Harper & Row, 1979).
36. See J. Anderson, The Ulysses Factor (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1970); W. Noyce, The Springs of Adventure (New York: the World Publishing Company, 1958); J. Lester, 'Wrestling with the Self on Mount Everest', Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 23, no. 2 (Spring 1983); M. and J. Fisher, Shackleton (London: James Barrie, 1957), is an excellent example of the biographical approach to the psychology of exploration.
37. See Relph; Lowenthal, 'Geography, Experience ...'; Tuan, 'Topophilia'; R. Sach, 'Conceptions of Geographical Space', Progress in Human Geography 4, no. 3 (September 1980); T. Saarinen and J. Sell, 'Environmental Perception', Progress in Human Geography, 5, no. 4 (1981); J. Allen, 'The Place of the Imagination in the History of Geographical Exploration', in Geographies of the Mind, ed D. Lowenthal and M. Bowden (New York Oxford University Press, 1976).
38. See M. Bowden, 'The Great American Desert in the American Mind. The Historiography of a Geographical Notion', in Lowenthal and Bowden; R. Barthes, 'The Blue Guide', Mythologies (London: Paladin, 1973).
39. F. Grenard, Tibet (1903; Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 1974).
40. See C. Norberg-Schulz, Genius Loci (New York: Rizzoli, 1980).
41. Eliade; Jung, 'Mind and Earth'; J. Hillman, 'Anima Mundi', Spring 1982 (Dallas. Spring Publications, 1982); E. Casey, 'Getting Placed', Spring 1982 (Dallas: Spring Publications, 1982); Layard.
42. Relph; Bachelard, Poetics; Tuan, 'Sacred Space'; Lowenthal, 'Geography, Experience ...'; M. Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); E. Gison, 'Understanding the Subjective Meaning of Places', in Ley and Samuels.
43. See M. Eliade, Australian Religions (New York: Cornell University Press, 1973).
44. Tuan, 'Topophilia'; Tuan, 'Geopiety'.
45. Heidegger.
46. Casey, 'Getting Placed', p. 17.
47. Eliade, Sacred and Profane, p. 25; see also L. Shiner, 'Sacred Space, Profane Space, Human Space', Journal of the American Academy of Religion XL, no. 4 (December 1972); I. Saliba, 'Homo Religiousus' in Mircea Eliade (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1976)
48. Eliade, Sacred and Profane; D. Eck, 'India's Tirthas: "Crossings" in Sacred Geography', History of Religions 20, no. 4 (May 1981).
49. Eliade, Sacred and Profane, pp. 32 -40; D. Lowenthal, 'Past Time, Present Place. Landscape and Memory', The Geographical Review LXV, no. 1 (January 1975). Yates, Art of Memory, presents a brilliant discussion of the Classical and Renaissance art of using structured places for the purposes of reclaiming both empirical memory and also archetypal memory, memoria.
50. See J. Nicholas, Temenos and Topophilia (London: The Guild of Pastoral Psychology Monograph 186, 1977); J. Swan, 'Sacred Places in Nature', The Journal of Environmental Education 14 (1983).
51. See P. Porter and F Lukerman, 'The Geography of Utopia', in Lowenthal and Bowden.
52. N. Graburn, 'Tourism The Sacred Journey', in Hosts and Guests, ed. V. Smith (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979); S. Bhardway, Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); J. Preston, 'Sacred Centres and Symbolic Networks in South Asia', The Mankind Quarterly XX, nos.3, 4 (January -April 1980); Sumption.
53. Turner: 'Pilgrimages as Social Processes', 'The Centre Out There'/
54. Quoted in M. Philip, 'Disconcerting Discourses', Australian Society (February 1985); M. Foucault, Power/Knowledge (London: The Harvester Press, 1980).
55. Said, p. 216; also M. Edwardes, The West in Asia 1850 -1914 (London: B.T. Batsford Ltd., 1967). Despite his insistence on the primacy of geography as an organizer of disparate discourses, Said pays scant attention to the details of place and to the images evoked by specific places. Nor does he address his influential study to the problem of imaginative creation and production. The context of his work is also limited, dealing primarily with imperial politics and the organization of scholarship.
56. See I. Sachs, The Discovery of the Third World (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976) for a discussion of Europocentrism; also Said, p. 117.
57. Said, p. 5.
58. Ibid. p. 62.
59. See M. Sheridan, Foucault: The Will to Truth (London: Tavistock Publications, 1981), p. 34.
60. T. Gladwin, East is a Big Bird (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971).
61. See R. Jenkyns, The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980); Moorehead, The White Nile; Fussell, Abroad.
62. See P. Newby, 'Literature and the Fashioning of Tourist Taste', in Humanistic Geography and Literature, ed. D. Pocock (London: Croom Helm, 1981).
63. Boon, p. 149; there are many overt examples of anthropology as a travel account. These include C. Levi-Strauss, Triste Tropique (London: Cape, 1973); J. Briggs, Never in Anger (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970); F. Donner, Shabono (New York: Delacorte Press, 1982). What makes these studies fit into the genre of travel accounts is the presence of the authors within the stories. They are shown as experiencing, involved, reacting subjects. The texts also have a certain essayistic and collage-like quality.
64. Said, pp. 93-8.
65. Ibid. pp. 63, 67.
66. See Brown; D. Middleton, Victorian Lady Travelers (Chicago: Academy, 1982) discusses the role of the Royal Geographical Society in the nineteenth century; E. Gilbert, British Pioneers in Geography (Newton Abbot, Devon: David & Charles, 1972).
67. Said, p. 14.
68. Ibid. p. 22.
69. Said, p. 6; see also his 'Orientalism Reconsidered', Race and Class XXVII, no. 2 (Autumn 1985).
70. J. Hillman, 'On Parapsychology', Loose Ends (Dallas: Spring Publications, 1978) p. 127; H. Corbin: Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn 'Arabi (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), 'Mundus Imaginalis or the Imaginary and the Imaginal', Spring 1972 (New York: Spring Publications, 1972); G. Durand, 'Exploring the Imaginal', Spring 1971 (New York: Spring Publications, 1971).
71. Three archetypes are of particular relevance in this study -- the puer, the anima and the senex. See J. Hillman (ed.), The Puer Papers (Dallas. Spring Publications, 1979); Hillman: Anima (Dallas Spring Publications, 1985), 'On Senex Consciousness', Spring 1970 (New York: Spring Publications, 1970), 'The Negative Senex', Spring 1975 (New York: Spring Publications, 1975)
72. J. Hillman, 'The Imagination of Air and the Collapse of Alchemy'. The Eranos Jahrbuch 50-1981 (Frankfurt a/M Insel Verlag, 1982), pp. 283-4.
73. J. Allen, 'Imagination and Exploration', tends to consider individual fantasies as leading to a failure in the creation of accurate geographical ideas.
74. Hillman, Anima, p. 25.
75. C.G. Jung, Collected Works Vo1. 16: The Practice of Psychotherapy (London. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974); see also J. Hillman, Healing Fiction (Barry town, NY: Station Hill Press 1983).
76. J. Hillman, Re-Visioning Psychology, p. 62. See also G Dudley, 'Jung and Eliade', Psychological Perspectives 10, no. 1 (1979); D. Holt, 'Jung and Marx', Spring 1973 (Dallas Spring Publications, 1973)
77. Saliba.
78. Said, Orientialism.
79. J. Hilton, Lost Horizon (1933; London: Pan, 1947).
80. See Fussell.
81. D. Rayfield, The Dream of Lhasa (London: Paul Elek, 1976), p. 115.
82. See C. Allen, A Mountain in Tibet.
83. P. Fleming, Travels in Tartary (1934/6; London: The Reprint Society, 1941), pp. 258, 275-9.
84. C. Markham (ed. ), Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa (1879; New Delhi. Manjusri Publishing House, 1971); S. Turner, An Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama in Tibet (1800; New Delhi Manjusri Publishing House, 1971).
85. G. Bachelard, Water and Dreams (Dallas: Pegasus Foundation, 1983), p. 4.
86. W. Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1961)
2. Tibet Discovered
1. See G. Woodcock, Into Tibet (London Faber & Faber, 1971); F. de Filippi, An Account of Tibet. Travels of Ippolito Desideri of Pistoia S.J. 1712-1727 (London: n. p., 1927); J. MacGregor, Tibet -- A Chronicle of Exploration (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970) C. Markham, Narratives of George Bogle to Tibet and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa (1879; Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1971).
2 See A. Moorehead, The Fatal Impact (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968); B. Stafford, Voyage Into Substance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984).
3. M. Nicolson, Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1959); G. de Beer, Early Travelers in the Alps (1930; London, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1966); L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1871); Stafford.
4 C. Hibbert, The Grand Tour (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969).
5. S. Turner, An Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama in Tibet (1800; New Delhi Manjusri Publishing House, 1971) p. 343.
6. Markham, p. 19.
7. Ibid. p. 100; Turner, p. 215
8. Kirkpatrick, An Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul (London, 1811; New Delhi Asian Publishing Services, 1975), p. xii.
9. See E. Said, Orientalism (New York Vintage Books, 1979); H. Baudet, Paradise on Earth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965).
10 See Baudet; Stafford; C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore (Berkeley University of California Press, 1967); T. Penniman, A Hundred Years of Anthropology (New York William Morrow & Co., 1974)
11. R. Phillimort, Historical Records of the Survey of India (Dehra Dun Survey of India, 1945, Vol. 1).
12. In Bogle's and Turner's accounts, reference is made to the 'Teshoo Lama', whose correct title is the 'Panchen Lama'. I will refer to him by his correct title throughout this study. Also in these early texts, the term 'Booteeas', was often used vaguely to denote both Bhutanese and Tibetans.
13. Turner, p. ix.
14. S. Camman, Trade Through the Himalayas (Connecticut Greenwood Press, 1970) p. 31.
15. Markham, p. 5.
16. Ibid. p. 6.
17. Ibid. pp. 6-7.
18. Ibid. pp. 8 -9.
19. For example, at about the same time J. Goethe shows in his Italian Journey 1786-1788 (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1982), that he was struggling to combine both an objective descriptive style and one that addressed inner experiential questions. In this text one can trace the leading edge of the European literary and aesthetic exploration of mountain landscape.
20. See D. Siddle, 'David Livingstone: A Mid-Victorian Field Scientist', Geographical Journal 140, no. 1 (February 1974), on the nineteenth-century debate about amateur versus professional travelers and explorers.
21. J. Fabian, Time and the Other (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), pp. 111-13, 149; Europe and Its Others, ed. F. Barker et al., 2 vols. (Colchester: University of Essex, 1984)
22. Markham, p. 9.
23. See Camman, pp. 20-1.
24. Markham, p. 12.
25. Turner, pp. 206-7.
26. Markham, p. 9.
27. Ibid. p. 11.
28. See H. Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire 1801-1917 (Oxford Oxford University Press, 1967).
29. Turner, p. 209.
30. Camman, pp. 55-6.
31. Turner, p. 288.
32. Ibid. p. 289.
33. See K. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1955).
34. Markham, p. 318.
35. Ibid. p. 177.
36. Ibid. p118.
37. Baudet, pp. 43-4.
38. Ibid. pp. 38-9.
39. Turner, p. xiii.
40. Phillimore.
41. Said, Orientalism, p. 117.
42. Markham, Narratives, p. 107.
43. Markham, p. 111.
44. Ibid. p. 99.
45. Ibid. p. 112.
46. Turner, p. 293.
47. Ibid. pp. 272 -3; see also Bogle's expansionist attitudes, in Markham, pp. 57-60.
48. Kirkpatrick, pp. vi -vii.
49. Markham, p. 6.
50. Baudet, p. 49.
51. See Turner's stereotypical generalizations about Asiatics as lacking innovation, being conservative, and so on: An Account, pp. 41, 367.
52. See Said, Orientalism, p. 51.
53. Ibid. p. 52.
54. Markham, p. 14.
55. Ibid. p. 15;Turner, pp. v-vi.
56. Turner, p. 9.
57. Markham, p. 16.
58. Turner, p. v.
59. M. Eliade, in his classic study of sacred space, does not bring out this idea of the boundary being a place in its own right; that the threshold has imaginal depth. Sacred and Profane (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1959).
60. Markham, p. 18.
61. Ibid.
62. Markham, p. 69.
63. Ibid. p. 75.
64. Ibid. pp. 67-8.
65. Ibid. p. 68.
66. Turner, pp. 198, 317-18.
67. Ibid. pp. 197 -217; Markham, pp. 68-72.
68. See K. Bazarov, Landscape Painting (London: Octopus Books, 1981), pp. 86-7.
69. Markham, p. 20.
70. Turner, p. 387.
71. Ibid. p. 45.
72. Ibid. pp. 20, 53-4, 192-3.
73. Markham, p. 18; cf. Kirkpatrick, pp. 137-8.
74. See Stephen, p. 39.
75. Turner, pp. 137, 213-14.
76. Cf. also ibid., p. 197, where Turner comments on Tibetan beliefs about mountain spirits.
77. Ibid., p. 101. See E. Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origins of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, ed. J. Boulton (1757; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958).
78. Markham, p. 113.
79. Turner, p. 223.
80. Ibid. p. 297.
81. Cf. ibid. pp. 190, 353.
82. Ibid. p. 63.
83. See the plates in ibid. pp. 86, 96, 138; and in Kirkpatrick, p. 158.
84. Cf. Bazarov, pp. 70-1, 84-6; de Beer, fig. 34, p. 185.
85. Turner, p. 216.
86. Markham, p. 93.
87. Turner, p. 127.
88. Ibid. p. 184.
89. See Nicolson; Stephen.
90. de Beer, pp. 180-4; J Hillman, 'The Imagination of Air and the Collapse of Alchemy', The Eranos Jahrbuch 50-1981 (Frankfurt a/M Insel Verlag, 1982).
91. See Hillman, 'Imagination of Air', pp. 290-1, for detailed discussion on the place of air in the scientific imagination of the eighteenth century; also I. Illich, H2O and the Waters of Forgetfulness (Dallas: Dallas Institute of Humanities and Culture, 1985).
92. Turner, p. 102.
93. Ibid. p. 198.
94. Ibid. p. 388.
95. Ibid. p. 45.
96. Ibid. p. 408.
97. See Hillman, 'Imagination of Air', for a discussion of the imagination at work in empirical fantasies about air.
98. Turner, p. 192.
99. Ibid. p. 16
100. Ibid. p. 21
101. Ibid. p. vi.
102. Markham, p. 12
103. R. Fields, How the Swans Came to the Lake (Boulder, CO: Shambhala, 1981), pp. 42-7.
104. Markham, p. 11
105. W. Jones, 'On the Gods of Greece, Italy and India', in The British Discovery of Hinduism in the Eighteenth Century, ed. P. Marshall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
106. The apex of this cult of Classical Greece was surely reached in Victorian England. See R. Jenkyns, The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980).
107. Turner, pp. 306-7.
108. Kirkpatrick, p. 188.
109. Markham, pp. 138, 143, 146, 196; Turner, p. 307.
110. Markham, p. 88.
111. Ibid. p. 102.
112. Turner, pp. 308-10.
113. See Baudet, pp. 49-50, on the respect shown towards Islamic literature in eighteenth-century Europe.
114. Turner, pp. v, 17.
115. Markham, p. 87.
116. Turner, pp. 306-7.
117. Ibid. p. 362.
118. Ibid. pp. 243, 256; Kirkpatrick, p. 152.
119. Turner, p. 312.
120. Ibid. pp. 172, 257.
121. Markham, p. 143
122. Turner, p. 257.
123. See Fields, pp. 32-3
124. Markham, p. 33
125. Ibid. p. 196; see M. Foucault, The Order of Things (London: Tavistock, 1980), for an extensive discussion of the organization of knowledge in the Age of Reason.
126. Turner, p. 310.
127. Markham, pp. 12, 80.
128. Ibid. pp. 152-5.
129. Ibid. p. 196.
130. Turner, pp. 334-7
131. Ibid. pp. 334-5.
132. Markham, pp. 84, 95.
133. Ibid. p. 196.
134. Turner, pp. 202, 257.
135. Markham, p. 29
136. Ibid. pp. 48, 62
137. Ibid. p. 103.
138. Ibid. p. 104.
139. Ibid. pp. 27-30; Turner, pp. 256-8
140. Markham, pp. 11, 86.
141. Turner, pp. 31, 104, 198, 256, 319.
142. Markham, p. 23
143. Turner, pp. 102, 171.
144. Markham, p. 144.
145. Turner, p. 284.
146. Ibid. p. 152.
147. Ibid. pp. 331-2
148. Ibid. p. 284.
149. See, for example, the delightful anthology of eighteenth-and early-nineteenth-century verse in The Poetry of Geology, ed. R. Hazen (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982).
150. Markham, p. 18; Turner, p. 404
151. Turner, p. 277.
152. Ibid. p. 278; see for example, Penniman, pp. 34-72. He discusses the importance of travel in laying the basis for modern anthropology; see also Stafford.
153. See F. Jacob, The Logic of Living Systems (London: Allen Lane, 1974), p. 138 Jacob discusses the emergence of the modern concept of 'environment'.
154. Markham, p. 18.
155. Turner, pp. 281-2.
156. See C. Bell, The Religion of Tibet (Oxford Oxford University Press, 1931); C. Humphreys, Buddhism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 189.
157. See the discussions in Said, Orientialism, Foucault, Order.
158. Baudet, pp. 59 -60
159. Said, Orientalism, p. 120
160. Ibid. p. 120.
161. See C.G. Jung's use of the term 'complexio oppositorum', in his Collected Works Vol. 9ii: Aion (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959).
162. Turner, p. xvi.
3. Inventing the Threshold
1. G. White, 'Views in India, chiefly among the Himalaya Mountains, 1825', in Eternal Himalaya, ed. H. Ahluwalia (New Delhi: Interprint, 1982), p. 94.
2. White, p. 95; see also L. Barber, The Heyday of Natural History (London: Jonathan Cape, 1980) for a discussion of the enthusiasm for natural history between 1820 and 1870. Similarly, for his comments in 1856 on the suitability of the Himalayas for tea plantations and for general colonization by Europeans, see B. Hodgson, Essays on the Languages, Literature and Religion of Nepal and Tibet (ed. P. Denwood: New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1972). For other early-nineteenth-century approaches to the aesthetics of Indian and Himalayan landscape see W. and T. Daniell, Oriental Scenery, 6 vols. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown, 1795-1815); W. Orme, Twenty Four Views in Hindustan (London: Edward Orme, 1905); J. Fraser, Views in the Himala Mountains (London: Rodwell & Martin, 1820).
3. A. Lamb, Britain and Chinese Central Asia (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960), p. 30
4. J. Keay, When Men and Mountains Meet (London: Century Publishing, 1983), p. 163.
5. R. Phillimore, Historical Records of the Survey of India: Vol. II, 1800-1815 (Dehra Dun Survey of India, 1950), p. 86.
6. M. Le Bris, Romantics and Romanticism (Geneva: Skira, 1981), p. 19.
7. Le Bris.
8. See K. Bazarov, Landscape Painting (London: Octopus Books, 1981), pp. 44, 53.
9. Le Bris, p. 30; see the examples of the picturesque in Daniell; Orme; Fraser.
10. White, p. 126.
11. Ibid. p. 125.
12. R. Phillimore, Historical Records of the Survey of India: Vol. III, 1815-1830 (Dehra Dun: Survey of India, 1950), p. 42.
13. A. Gerard, 'Narrative of a Journey from Soobathoo to Shipke, in Chinese Tartary, 1818', Journal of the Asiatic Society 11, no. 1 (1842), p. 371.
14. Gerard, p. 375.
15. Ibid. p. 378.
16. L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1871), pp. 258-61.
17. C. Markham, Narratives of the Mission of Geoge Bogle to Tibet and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa (1879; New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1971) p. 224.
18. White, p. 135.
19. Le Bris, p. 23.
20. Ibid. p. 24.
21. Ibid. p. 30; M. Nicolson, Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1959); P. Fletcher, in Gardens and Grim Ravines (Princeton Princeton University Press, 1983), discusses the shift in Romantic aesthetics that occurred in Victorian poetry.
22. White, p. 135.
23. In Markham, p. 248.
24. Quoted in White, p. 177; see also pp. 93, 148, 156; also Manning's observations in Markham, p. 251.
25. Cf. the criticism by J. Goethe, in the late eighteenth century, of an overly subjective attitude towards landscape: Italian Journey: 1786-1788 (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1982).
26. See S. Kern, The Culture of Time and Space: 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), for a discussion about the relationship between travel, European imperial expansion and images of extended time and space
27. In Markham; and G. Woodcock, Into Tibet (London: Faber & Faber, 1971).
28. M. Huc and Gabet, Travels in Tartary, Tibet and China, 1844-5-6 (1850; London: George Routledge & Sons, 1928).
29. W. Moorcroft and G. Trebeck, Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and in the Punjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir; in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara: Vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1838); W. Moorcroft, 'A Journey to Lake Manasarovara in Un- des, a Province of Little Tibet', Asiatik Researches 12 (1816); G. Adler, Beyond Bokhara (London Century Publications, 1985).
30. T. Duka, Life and Works of Alexander Csoma de Koros (1885; New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1972); Hodgson.
31. See the general accounts by Keay, Where Men and Mountains Meet; and C. Allen, A Mountain in Tibet (London: Andre Deutsch, 1982).
32. White; see also J. Fraser, Journal of a Tour through Part of the Snowy Range of the Himala (London: 1820); F. Hamilton, An Account of the Kingdom of Nepal (1819; New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1971); A. Eden, Political Missions to Bootan (New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1972).
33. J. Shipp, The Path of Glory (ed. C. Stranks: London: Chat to & Windus, 1969); W. Henry, Surgeon Henry's Trifles (ed. P. Hayward: London: Chat to & Windus, 1970); Phillimore, Survey Vols. II, III, IV
34. Keay, Men and Mountains.
35. Ibid. Men and Mountains, pp. 80 ff.
36. Moorcroft and Trebeck, p. 338.
37. Mutual familiarity of each other's work was quite extensive among Himalayan travelers, even in these early years. See, for example, Hamilton's repeated comments on Kirkpatrick's earlier journey over a similar route: An Account.
38. Manning in Markham, p. 283.
39. D. Middleton, 'Guide to the Publications of the Royal Geographical Society, 1830-1892', Geographical Journal 144, Part 1 (January -December 1978).
40. Keay, Men and Mountains.
41. T. Freeman, 'The Royal Geographical Society and the Development of Geography', in Geography: Yesterday and Tomorrow, ed. E. Brown (London: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 5.
42. Freeman, p. 4.
43. See Markham's complaints about Manning, in Markham.
44. See Huc and Gabet, especially the introduction by P. Pelliot.
45. See Keay, Men and Mountains, pp. 107-8, 122-3, 132.
46. Wilson's comments in Moorcroft and Trebeck, p. 1ii.
47. Moorcroft and Trebeck, p. xiv.
48. Ibid., p. xxxv.
49. H. Baudet, Paradise on Earth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), pp. 60 ff.
50. Wilson in Moorcroft and Trebeck, p. 1v.
51. A. Burns, Travels into Bokhara (London: n. p., 1834); and Keay's comments in Men and Mountains, p. 134.
52. Keay, Men and Mountains, p. 34.
53. Wilson in Moorcroft and Trebeck, p. 1 iv.
54. Markham, p vi.
55. Ibid. p. lxxx
56. Ibid. p. 283.
57. Ibid. p. 284.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid. p. 258.
60. Ibid.
61. L. Sterne, A Sentimental Journey (1768; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970).
62. In Markham, p. 214.
63. Ibid. p. 290.
64. Ibid. p. 289.
65. F. Maraini, Secret Tibet (London: Hutchinson, 1952).
66. P. Millington, To Lhassa at Last (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1905).
67. R. Byron, First Russia: Then Tibet (London: Macmillan & Co., 1933)
68. P. Matthiesson, The Snow Leopard (London: Picador, 1980).
69. See D. Siddle, 'David Livingstone: A Mid-Victorian Field Scientist', Geographical Journal 140, Part 1 (February 1974); also J. Jackson in The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 5 (1835), pp. 381-7.
70. Markham, p. vi.
71. See the discussion of Bogle's journey in the previous chapter; also E. Kawaguchi, Three Years in Tibet (1909; Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 1979); Moorcroft and Trebeck, Travels, is full of sensitive ethnographic observations.
72. In Markham, Narratives, pp. 275, 271-3, 267 ff.
73. Ibid. p. 286.
74. Ibid. pp. 220-2.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid. pp. 228-9, 240.
77. Ibid. p. 288.
78. Gerard, p. 363.
79. Ibid. p. 390.
80. Ibid. p. 366.
81. Ibid. p. 367.
82. Moorcroft, p. 407.
83. Ibid. p. 408
84. Gerard, p. 366.
85. Ibid. p. 370
86. For other examples of entry in Tibet being denied to Westerners at this time, see Phillimore Survey Vol. III, p. 43; Lamb, Britain and Chinese Central Asia, pp. 43, 63, 65.
87. Moorcroft, p. 402; Allen, A Mountain in Tibet.
88. Gerard, p. 372.
89. Heidegger, quoted in E. Casey, 'Getting Placed', Spring 1982, (Dallas Spring Publications, 1982), p. 18.
90. See V. Turner, The Ritual Process (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979) for the idea of a 'liminal phase' in a rite of passage.
91. See H. Colebrook, 'On the Height of the Himalaya Mountains', Asiatick Researches 12 (1816); Phillimore, Survey Vol. II, pp. 86-8; Survey Vol. III, p. 2; Allen, A Mountain, p. 59.
92. See Lamb, Britain and Chinese Central Asia, pp. 20-4.
93. Ibid. pp. 28-9, 37, 46. It seems unlikely that British actions in the Himalayas had any significant influence on Peking's policy towards Britain.
94. Ibid. pp. 32, 41 ff.
95. See B. Gordon, 'Sacred Directions, Orientation and the Top of The Map, History of Religions 10, no. 3 (February 1971).
96. Moorcroft and Trebeck; M. Edwardes, Playing the Great Game (London Hamish Hamilton, 1975), p. 20; Lamb, Britain and Chinese Central Asia, p. 61.
97. Edwardes, Playing the Great Game, pp. 10-11, 16-19, 24; Phillimore, Survey Vols. II, III, IV
98. Quoted in Phillimore, Survey Vol. III, p. 35 (emphasis added).
99. Hamilton, p. 89.
100. Phillimore, Survey Vol. II, p. 86.
101. Quoted in W. Hunter, Life of Brian Houghton Hodgson (London: John Murray, 1896), p. 287.
102. Phillimore, Survey Vol. III, p. 39.
103. See Hodgson; also M Foucault, Power/Knowledge (London: The Harvester Press, 1980).
104. Phillimore, Survey Vol. II, p. 89.
105. In Markham, p. 265.
106. Ibid. p. 267.
107. See H.P. Blavatsky: The Book of Golden Precepts (London: n.p., 1889), The Voice of the Silence (London: n. p., 1889).
108. Moorcroft, p. 430.
109. Ibid. p. 485.
110. Hamilton, pp. 56-8; H de Lubac, La Rencontre du Bouddhisme et de l'Occident (Paris. n.p., 1952); G. Welbon, The Buddhist Nirvana and its Western Interpreters (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968).
111. Hamilton, p. 57.
112. See the appreciative comments about Tibetan religious ritual made in Gerard, p. 382; and in Moorcroft and Trebeck, pp. 340-5; Moorcroft, pp. 432-4, 465. These can be compared with the negative comments by Hamilton, pp. 56-8.
113. Moorcroft and Trebeck, p. 346.
114. Ibid.
115. Ibid. p. 291.
116. Ibid. p. 365.
117. Moorcroft, p. 433
118. In Markham, Narratives, p. 291
119. Ibid. p. 255.
120. Ibid. p. 256.
121. Ibid. p. 290.
122. Ibid. p. 291.
123. See E. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979); Foucault, Power/Knowledge, also T. Penmman, A Hundred Years of Anthropology (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1974) for comments about the place of travel in the development of anthropology
124. White, p. 159.
4. The Axis Mundi Appears
1. L. Miller, On Top of the World (London: Paddington Press, 1976), pp. 17, 33.
2. M. Huc and Gabet, Travels in Tartary, Tibet and China, 1844-5-6 (1850; London: George Routledge & Sons, 1928); see also the introduction to H. Prinsep, Tibet, Tartary and Mongolia (London: W.H. Allen, 1852).
3. J. Hooker, Himalayan Journals, 2 vols. (London 1855; New Delhi Today and Tomorrow Publishers, 1980); L. Huxley, Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (London: John Murray, 1918), Vol. 1, p. 363.
4. A. Cunningham, Laddk (1853; New Delhi: Sagar Publications, 1977); T. Thomson, Western Himalayas and Tibet (1852; Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 1979); H Strachey, 'On the Physical Geography of Western Tibet', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 23 (1853).
5. E. Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet (1863; New Delhi: Susil Gupta, 1968).
6. G. Heaney, 'Rennell and the Surveyors of India', Geographical Journal 134, Part 3 (September 1968); R. Clark, Men, Myths and Mountains (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975), pp. 93 ff.
7. B. Hodgson, Essays on the Languages, Literature and Religion of Nepal and Tibet (1874; New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1972). Especially important was his work on the Dhyani Buddhas.
8. Hodgson, part II, p. 1.
9. W. Hunter, The Life of Brian Houghton Hodgson (London: John Murray, 1896), p. 287.
10. See C. Allen, A Mountain in Tibet (London: Andre Deutsch, 1982) pp. 68, 140-5, 149, for some examples of the quest to find 'missing links' and 'blank spots'.
11. C.H. Gutzlaff, 'Tibet and Stefan', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 20 (1851).
12. See T. Penniman, A Hundred Years of Anthropology (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1974).
13. J. and P. Phillips, Victorians at Home and Away (London: Croom Helm, 1978), p. 18.
14. Huxley, Life and Letters, Vol. 1, p. 364.
15. T. Freeman, 'The Royal Geographical Society and the Development of Geography', in Geography: Yesterday and Tomorrow, ed. E. Brown (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980); C. Loomis, 'The Arctic Sublime', in Nature and the Victorian Imagination, eds. U. Knoepflmacher and G. Tennyson (Berkeley University of California Press, 1977)
16. Gutzlaff, p. 191
17. See chapter 2.
18. Huxley, Vol. 1, pp. 363, 486; Vol. 2, p. 412.
19. J. Ruskin, Modern Painters Vol4 (1854; Orpington, Kent: George Allen, 1888); D. Robertson, 'Mid-Victorians Among the Alps', in Knoepflmacher, Nature and the Victorian Imagination; K. Clark, The Victorian Mountaineers (London: B.T. Batsford, 1953); E. Helsinger, Ruskin and the Eye of the Beholder (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982).
20. See the analysis in R. Shannon, The Crisis of Imperialism 1865-1915 (St Albans, Herts: Paladin, 1976)
21. A. Wilson, The Abode of Snow (1885; Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 1979) p. ix.
22. Ibid. p. x.
23. Ibid.
24. M. Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1959), pp. 36,42.
25. Wilson, p. 128.
26. Ibid. pp. 120-30
27. See K. Clark, Ruskin Today (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982); Robertson, 'Mid-Victorians'; D. Cosgrove, 'John Ruskin and the Geographical Imagination', The Geographical Review 69, No. 1 (January 1979).
28. Hooker, Vol. l, p. 324.
29. Ruskin, quoted in K. Clark, p. 25.
30. See the introduction to Thomson.
31. Thomson, pp. 207, 231. Thomson's strictly empirical approach to clouds (pp. 244-5) is in contrast with Ruskin's use of both empiricism and imagination. See D. Cosgrove and J. Thornes, 'Of Truth of Clouds: John Ruskin and the Moral Order of Things', in Humanistic Geography and Literature, ed. D. Pocock (London: Croom Helm, 1981)
32. Huxley, Vol. l, pp. 363-4: Vol. 2, pp. 223, 265; see also H. Smith, 'A Trip to Tibet ...', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society II (1866-67), for a lively debate between Smith, an amateur, and the famous Himalayan scientist-explorer Thomson, about the accuracy of Strachey's observations at Lake Manasarovar. Thomson sprang to the defence of Strachey, his friend and colleague: 'He did not think that a traveler merely going on a fishing excursion should pass a very decided opinion in contradiction of the observations of travelers who had preceded him'. See also D. Siddle, 'David Livingstone: A Mid-Victorian Field Scientist', Geographical Joumal 140, Part 1 (February 1974) for a discussion about the demise in status of the amateur scientist-traveler.
33. Hooker, Vol. l, p. 254.
34. See Huxley, Vol. 1, p. 303; Wilson, p. 238. Both dearly indicate the concern over Himalayan altitude records which started to appear in the mid-nineteenth century. See also K. Mason, 'Johnson's "Suppressed Account" of E61', Alpine Journal 34, no. 22 (1921), for a discussion concerning Johnson's much-disputed claim to have climbed to 23,890 feet in 1866. This controversy was a long and famous one in Himalayan mountaineering history. Geology, too, contributed towards this direct engagement with the high mountain peaks. There was, for example, an interconnection between geological drawing and the representation of the sublime. The aesthetics of the sublime -- mysterious, awe-inspiring, theatrical and wonderful -- were encouraged by close attention to geological features. Early-nineteenth-century paintings such as 'Gordale Scar' (1813) by James Ward, which combined topographical and geological precision with bold imaginative interpretation, were direct precursors of Ruskin's ideas. M. Pointon, 'Geology and Landscape Painting in Nineteenth Century England', in his Images of the Earth (Lancaster: British Society for the History of Science Monograph, 1981).
35. See R. Clark.
36. Hooker, Vol. l, pp. 252-3; Wilson, p. 239.
37. Wilson, p. 182
38. S. Bourne, 'Narratives of a Photographical Trip to Kashmir and Adjacent Districts', The British Journal of Photography (23 November - 28 December 1866) 23 November, pp. 559-60; C. Lambert, A Trip to Cashmere and Ladak (London: H. King, 1877) for another example of early Himalayan photography.
39. J. Berger and J. Mohr, Another Way of Telling (London: Writers & Readers, 1982) p. 97; F. Barker et al. (eds), Europe and Its Others, 2 vols. (Colchester: University of Essex, 1984), Vol. 1 pp. 10-11.
40. R. Herschkowitz, The British Photographer Abroad (London: Robert Herschkowitz Ltd, 1980), p. 7.
41. Ibid. p. 6.
42. Ruskin, Modern Painters Vol. 4, pp. 32-3
43. Bourne, 'Narrative of a Photographic Trip . ..' (28 December 1866), p. 618.
44. S. Bourne, 'Ten Weeks with a Camera in the Himalayas', The British Journal of Photography (15 February 1864), p. 69; see also Pointon, 'Geology and Landscape Painting'.
45. See Ruskin, in K. Clark, pp. 94-5.
46. L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1871) pp. 48 -9; Wilson, p. 216. Intricate associations with wild landscape were beginning to spring up in the British imagination, from Dartmoor to the Outer Hebrides. By the end of the eighteenth century such places, long abandoned by mainstream culture, had come to be imaginatively repopulated, drawn firmly into a new sense of British identity. As the nineteenth century progressed, this network of intimate associations spread wider to encompass the Alps, and then the Himalayas, the Arctic, and so on.
47. Thomson, p. 336 (emphasis added)
48. Hooker, Vol. l, pp. 112-15, 327; Vol. 2, pp. 46, 53, 118.
49. Ibid. Vol. 2, p. 102; Wilson, pp. 214-16, 340-1.
50. Hooker, Vol. 2, pp. 43, 46, 50, 77, 84, 86.
51. R. Temple, Travels in Nepal and Sikhim: 1881-7 (Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 1977) p. 8; L. Barber, The Heyday of Natural History' 1820-1870 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1980); Knoepflmacher, Nature and the Victorian Imagination; P. Fletcher, Gardens and Grim Ravines (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); L. Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion (New York: Academic Press, 1979).
52. Hooker, Vol. 2, p. 202
53. G. Bachelard, The Poetics of Space (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969)
54. Hooker, vol. 1, p. 218; see chapter 2 for a discussion of S. Turner's association of Tibet with Ancient Egypt; Temple, p. 16.
55. See the comparisons between The Tibetan Book of the Dead and The Egyptian Book of the Dead in C.G. Jung, Collected Works Vol. II (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974), para. 833; also C. Wilson, The Occult (New York: Vintage Books, 1973).
56. See A. Elkin, Aboriginal Men of High Degree (St. Lucia Queensland University Press, 1980); P. Matthiesson, The Snow Leopard (London: Picador, 1980).
57. A. Wilson, pp. 262-3.
58. Hooker, Vol. 1, p. 255
59. A. Wilson, pp. 243-50.
60. Hooker, Vol. 1, p. v; Lambert; F. Markham, Shooting in the Himalayas (London: Richard Bentley, 1854), p. 1.
61. Hooker, vol.1, pp. 234, 329-30.
62. Ibid. Vol. 2, pp. 7, 34, 60.
63. Fletcher; Knoepflmacher.
64. See Fletcher, pp. 18, 82-3, 223; R. Clark, pp. 136 -7; See also Ruskin's subsequent doubts about nature as a moral force, Modern Painters Vol. 4; and in K. Clark, pp. 88-9; see also G. Levine, 'High and Low: Ruskin and the Novelists', in Knoepflmacher, pp. 138-40.
65. Hooker, Vol. 2, p. 137.
66. See Thomson, pp. 92, 133, 135, 160, 233.
67. Ibid. p. 376 (emphasis added).
68. Cf. the discussion about revolutions in T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970).
69. A. Wilson, pp. 92, 129, 132.
70. Ibid. pp. 134, 209, 251.
71. Ibid. pp. 251-2.
72. Hooker, Vol. 2, p. 174.
73. Ibid. Vol. l, p. 253.
74. Temple, p. 121.
75. Hooker, Vol. 2, p. 131 (emphasis added).
77. Hooker, Vol. 1, pp. 253-4; Ruskin, Modern Painters Vol. 4
78. Hooker, Vol. 1, p. 110.
79. Ruskin in K. Clark, pp. 97, 105.
80. Robertson, 'Mid-Victorians', p.128; Ruskin in K. Clark, p. 118; Cosgrove and Thornes, p. 39.
81. Stephen, p. 67
82. A. Wilson, p. 1.
83. A. Wilson, p. 2; E. Swinglehurst, Cook's Tours (Pool, Dorset: Blandford Press, 1982).
84. A. Wilson, pp. 20, 78 ff; Temple, p. 10; Lambert, p. 5.
85. A. Wilson, p. 4.
86. Ibid. pp. 8, 17-18, 29-30, 32, 34, 66-73.
87. Ibid. pp. 63-5.
88. Ibid. pp. 63-4.
89. D. MacIntyre, Hindu-Koh (London: n.p., 1889).
90. Huxley, Vol. 1, p. 529.
91. See the discussion in Cosgrove and Thornes.
92. A. Wilson, p. 218; see also W. Houghton, The Victorian Frame of Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970).
93. Ruskin in K. Clark, pp. 95-6.
94. K. Clark, p. 106.
95. Ibid. pp. 91-3.
96. A. Wilson, p. 88.
97. Cosgrove and Thornes.
98. G. Himmelfarb, Victorian Minds (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968) pp. 314 ff; Huxley, Vol. 2, pp. 39-45; M. Peckham, Victorian Revolutionaries (New York: George Braziller, 1970).
99. A. Wilson, p. 130.
100. See Penniman, A Hundred Years of Anthropology, pp. 53, 64-7; Cunningham, Ladak; Hooker, Vol. l, pp. 58-9; see H. Spenser, The Principles of Sociology Vol. l (London: Williams & Norgate, 1877), pp. 677 ff, for an example of the way in which travel accounts were used to establish anthropological ideas. In this case Spenser refers to Wilson's Abode of Snow, as well as to Bogle's and Turner's accounts; see also G. Leitner, Dardistan: 1866-1893 (New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1978) for a vast compilation of facts and measurements so typical of the mid-to-late nineteenth century.
101. Hooker, Vol. l, p. 165.
102. Penniman, p. 142; Peckham, pp. 175 -234; Hooker, vol. 1, p. 174.
103. Temple, p. 13.
104. Hooker, Vol. 1, p. 131; Huxley, Vol. 1, p. 270; R. Latham, Tribes and Races Vol. l (1859; Delhi: Cultural Publishing House, 1983), p. 502.
105. Temple, p. 46.
106. A Davies, 'The Aryan Myth: Its Religious Significance', Studies in Religion 10, no. 3 (1981), pp. 290-5; Penniman, p. 149; see also, E.P. Thompson's comments, about Max Mueller's formative contribution to the Aryan mythologizing, in his 'Folklore, Anthropology and Social History', Indian Historical Review II, no. 2 (January 1978).
107. Hodgson, Part II, p. 32; Hooker, vol. 1, p. 130.
108. A. Wilson, p. 147.
109. Ibid. pp.183-93.
110. Ibid. p. 217.
111. Cunningham, pp. 281-3.
112. A. Wilson, pp. 164-5.
113. Ibid. pp. 24-5, 302; Hodgson, Part II, pp. 83-90.
114. Allen, A Mountain in Tibet, pp. 15, 17, 68, 87, 106-7, 129.
115. A. Wilson, pp. 31-2
116. Hooker, vol. II, p. 138 (emphasis added); A. Wilson, p. 151.
117. A. Wilson, p. 152 (emphasis added).
118. Ibid. p. 219.
119. Ibid. p. 63; Davies, p. 291.
120. The idea of a core-image which gathers and organizes imagery is a fundamental one in theories of imaginative discourse. See, for example, R. Makkreel, Dilthey: Philosopher of the Social Sciences (Princeton Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 102.
121. Hooker, vol. 1, p. 118.
122. A. Wilson, p. 217.
123. See S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973) for a discussion of the processes of condensation and displacement in dream work.
124. T. Cooper, 'Travels in Western China and Eastern Thibet', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society 14 (1869-70); W. Gill, The River of Golden Sand (London: John Murray, 1880).
125. A. Wilson, pp. 78-83.
126. Temple, p. 116
127. A. Bennett, 'Rough Notes of a Visit to Daba, in Thibet, in August 1865'; Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society 10 (1865/66), pp. 166-7
128. See Bennett; Cooper, p. 340; Hooker, Vol. 2, pp. 71-81, 89, 127; Wilson, pp. 138-9, 142-5; Smith; Markham, Shooting, p. 162; A and R Schalgintweit, 'A Short Account', Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 25 (1856), p. 126; J. Edgar, Report on a Visit to Sikhim and the Thibetan Frontier (1873; New Delhi: Manjusri Publishing House, 1969) p. 11; T. Montgomerie, 'Journey to Shigatze in Tibet', Royal Geographical Journal 45 (1875), p. 331.
129. Markham, Shooting, p. 162; Cooper, 'Travels', p. 341.
130. A. Wilson, pp. 178-9.
131. See Loomis.
132. T. Montgomerie, 'Report on Trans-Himalayan Exploration During 1867', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 39 (1869), p. 148.
133. Hooker, Vol. 2, p. 215; A. Wilson, p. 47.
134. Bennett, p. 165.
135. Hooker, vol. 1, pp. 112, 118, 126, 274-282, 288, 342; Vol. 2, pp. 73, 78 -80, 219, 232, 246; Cunningham, p. 261.
136. A. Wilson, p 98.
137. Gutzlaff, p. 215.
138. See A. Wilson, p. 177; E. Schlagintweit, pp. 152-3; Hooker, Vol. 2, p. 177.
139. Gutzlaff, pp. 214-15.
140. Montgomerie, 'Journey'.
141. Hooker, Vol. 1, p. 138.
142. See Temple, p. 19, where he refers to the famous poem by Sir Edwin Arnold about the life of the Buddha: 'The Light of Asia'.
143. A. Wilson, p. 255.
144. Ibid.
145. Temple, pp. 21, 25.
146. See Gutzlaff, pp. 204-5, 222
147. A. Wilson, p. 146; Gill, p. 268; Hooker, vol. l, pp. 340-1; Gutzlaff, pp. 203-4, 207, 225; Cooper, p. 340; Cunningham, pp. 263-7; J. Barton, 'Report of Missionary Work in Thibet', Church Missionary Intelligence 14 (1863), p. 185.
148. B. Porter, Britain, Europe and the World, 1850-1982 Delusions of Grandeur (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 3-17
149. Hooker, Vol. 2, p. 38.
150. Loomis; L. Neatby, The Search For Franklin (London: Arthur Barker, 1970), pp. 245-6.
151. Hooker, Vol. 1, pp. 222, 255; Robertson, p. 126.
152. S. Bourne, 'Narrative of a Photographic Trip ...', The British Journal of Photography (7 December 1866), p. 584
153. See M. Le Bris, Romantics and Romanticism (Geneva: Skira, 1981) for discussion about this new mid-century Romanticism.
154. A. Wilson, p. 243.
155. Ibid. p. 247.
156. Ibid. p. 245.
157. Ibid. pp. 88, 244-8.
158. See P. Bishop, 'The Mysticism of Immensity', Colloquium 18, no. 2 (October 1986) for a discussion of the later results of this shift of religious belief and its new grounding in the vast horizons opened up by the physical sciences in the late nineteenth century. In particular the religious ideas of the Himalayan and Central Asian explorer Francis Younghusband are examined.
159. A. Wilson, p. 249.
160. Cunningham, pp. 232-4.
161. Freud.
162. A. Wilson, pp. 147 ff.
163. Gutzlaff; Montgomerie, 'Report'.
164. Cooper, p. 338.
165. Cunningham, p. 232.
166. A. Wilson, p. 148
167. C.G Jung, 'Paracelcus as a Spiritual Phenomenon', Collected Works Vol. 13 Alchemical Studies (trans R.F.C. Hull: London Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974), paras 186, 196.
168. A. Wilson, pp. 151-2 (emphasis added).
169. Gutzlaff, p. 215.