CHAPTER XXX. CONCERNING THE BLACK STONES THAT ARE DUG IN CATHAY, AND ARE BURNT FOR FUEL.
It is a fact that all over the country of Cathay there is a kind of black stones existing in beds in the mountains, which they dig out and burn like firewood. If you supply the fire with them at night, and see that they are well kindled, you will find them still alight in the morning; and they make such capital fuel that no other is used throughout the country. It is true that they have plenty of wood also, but they do not burn it, because those stones burn better and cost less.[NOTE 1]
[Moreover with that vast number of people, and the number of hot baths that they maintain—for every one has such a bath at least three times a week, and in winter if possible every day, whilst every nobleman and man of wealth has a private bath for his own use—the wood would not suffice for the purpose.]
NOTE 1.—There is a great consumption of coal in Northern China, especially in the brick stoves, which are universal, even in poor houses. Coal seems to exist in every one of the eighteen provinces of China, which in this respect is justly pronounced to be one of the most favoured countries in the world. Near the capital coal is mined at Yuen-ming-yuen, and in a variety of isolated deposits among the hills in the direction of the Kalgan road, and in the district round Siuen-hwa-fu. (Sindachu of Polo, ante ch. lix.) But the most important coal-fields in relation to the future are those of Shan-tung Hu-nan, Ho-nan, and Shan-si. The last is eminently the coal and iron province of China, and its coal-field, as described by Baron Richthofen, combines, in an extraordinary manner, all the advantages that can enhance the value of such a field except (at present) that of facile export; whilst the quantity available is so great that from Southern Shan-si alone he estimates the whole world could be supplied, at the present rate of consumption, for several thousand years. "Adits, miles in length, could be driven within the body of the coal…. These extraordinary conditions … will eventually give rise to some curious features in mining… if a railroad should ever be built from the plain to this region … branches of it will be constructed within the body of one or other of these beds of anthracite." Baron Richthofen, in the paper which we quote from, indicates the revolution in the deposit of the world's wealth and power, to which such facts, combined with other characteristics of China, point as probable; a revolution so vast that its contemplation seems like that of a planetary catastrophe.
In the coal-fields of Hu-nan "the mines are chiefly opened where the rivers intersect the inclined strata of the coal-measures and allow the coal-beds to be attacked by the miner immediately at their out-croppings."
At the highest point of the Great Kiang, reached by Sarel and Blakiston, they found mines on the cliffs over the river, from which the coal was sent down by long bamboo cables, the loaded baskets drawing up the empty ones.
[Many coal-fields have been explored since; one of the most important is the coal-field of the Yun-nan province; the finest deposits are perhaps those found in the bend of the Kiang; coal is found also at Mong-Tzu, Lin-ngan, etc.; this rich coal region has been explored in 1898 by the French engineer A. Leclère. (See Congrès int. Géog., Paris, 1900, pp. 178-184.)—H. C.]
In various parts of China, as in Che-kiang, Sze-ch'wan, and at Peking, they form powdered coal, mixed with mud, into bricks, somewhat like our "patent fuel." This practice is noticed by Ibn Batuta, as well as the use of coal in making porcelain, though this he seems to have misunderstood. Rashiduddin also mentions the use of coal in China. It was in use, according to citations of Pauthier's, before the Christian era. It is a popular belief in China, that every provincial capital is bound to be established over a coal-field, so as to have a provision in case of siege. It is said that during the British siege of Canton mines were opened to the north of the city.
(The Distribution of Coal in China, by Baron Richthofen, in Ocean Highways, N.S., I. 311; Macgowan in Ch. Repos. xix. 385-387; Blakiston, 133, 265; Mid. Kingdom, I. 73, 78; Amyot, xi. 334; Cathay, 261, 478, 482; Notes by Rev. A. Williamson in J. N. Ch. Br. R. A. S., December, 1867; Hedde and Rondot, p. 63.)
Aeneas Sylvius relates as a miracle that took place before his eyes in Scotland, that poor and almost naked beggars, when stones were given them as alms at the church doors, went away quite delighted; for stones of that kind were imbued either with brimstone or with some oily matter, so that they could be burnt instead of wood, of which the country was destitute. (Quoted by Jos. Robertson, Statuta Eccles. Scotic. I. xciii.)
The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello of
Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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CHAPTER XXXI. HOW THE GREAT KAAN CAUSES STORES OF CORN TO BE MADE, TO HELP HIS PEOPLE WITHAL IN TIME OF DEARTH.
You must know that when the Emperor sees that corn is cheap and abundant, he buys up large quantities, and has it stored in all his provinces in great granaries, where it is so well looked after that it will keep for three or four years.[NOTE 1]
And this applies, let me tell you, to all kinds of corn, whether wheat, barley, millet, rice, panic, or what not, and when there is any scarcity of a particular kind of corn, he causes that to be issued. And if the price of the corn is at one bezant the measure, he lets them have it at a bezant for four measures, or at whatever price will produce general cheapness; and every one can have food in this way. And by this providence of the Emperor's, his people can never suffer from dearth. He does the same over his whole Empire; causing these supplies to be stored everywhere, according to calculation of the wants and necessities of the people.
NOTE 1.—"Le fait si bien estuier que il dure bien trois ans ou quatre" (Pauthier): "si bien estudier" (G.T.). The word may be estiver (It. stivare), to stow, but I half suspect it should be estuver in the sense of "kiln-dry," though both the Geog. Latin and the Crusca render it gubernare.[1] Lecomte says: "Rice is always stored in the public granaries for three or four years in advance. It keeps long if care be taken to air it and stir it about; and although not so good to the taste or look as new rice, it is said to be more wholesome."
The Archbishop of Soltania (A.D. 1330) speaks of these stores. "The said Emperor is very pitiful and compassionate … and so when there is a dearth in the land he openeth his garners, and giveth forth of his wheat and his rice for half what others are selling it at." Kúblái Kaan's measures of this kind are recorded in the annals of the Dynasty, as quoted by Pauthier. The same practice is ascribed to the sovereigns of the T'ang Dynasty by the old Arab Relations. In later days a missionary gives in the Lettres Edifiantes an unfavourable account of the action of these public granaries, and of the rascality that occurred in connection with them. (Lecomte, II. 101; Cathay, 240; Relat. I. 39; Let. Ed. xxiv. 76.)
[The Yuen-shi in ch. 96 contains sections on dispensaries (Hui min yao kü), granary regulations (Shi ti), and regulations for a time of dearth (Chen Sü). (Bretschneider, Med. Res. I. p. 187.)—H. C.]
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Notes:
[1] Marsden observes incidentally (Hist. of Sumatra, 1st edition, p. 71) that he was told in Bengal they used to dry-kiln the rice for exportation, "owing to which, or to some other process, it will continue good for several years."
You must know that when the Emperor sees that corn is cheap and abundant, he buys up large quantities, and has it stored in all his provinces in great granaries, where it is so well looked after that it will keep for three or four years.[NOTE 1]
And this applies, let me tell you, to all kinds of corn, whether wheat, barley, millet, rice, panic, or what not, and when there is any scarcity of a particular kind of corn, he causes that to be issued. And if the price of the corn is at one bezant the measure, he lets them have it at a bezant for four measures, or at whatever price will produce general cheapness; and every one can have food in this way. And by this providence of the Emperor's, his people can never suffer from dearth. He does the same over his whole Empire; causing these supplies to be stored everywhere, according to calculation of the wants and necessities of the people.
NOTE 1.—"Le fait si bien estuier que il dure bien trois ans ou quatre" (Pauthier): "si bien estudier" (G.T.). The word may be estiver (It. stivare), to stow, but I half suspect it should be estuver in the sense of "kiln-dry," though both the Geog. Latin and the Crusca render it gubernare.[1] Lecomte says: "Rice is always stored in the public granaries for three or four years in advance. It keeps long if care be taken to air it and stir it about; and although not so good to the taste or look as new rice, it is said to be more wholesome."
The Archbishop of Soltania (A.D. 1330) speaks of these stores. "The said Emperor is very pitiful and compassionate … and so when there is a dearth in the land he openeth his garners, and giveth forth of his wheat and his rice for half what others are selling it at." Kúblái Kaan's measures of this kind are recorded in the annals of the Dynasty, as quoted by Pauthier. The same practice is ascribed to the sovereigns of the T'ang Dynasty by the old Arab Relations. In later days a missionary gives in the Lettres Edifiantes an unfavourable account of the action of these public granaries, and of the rascality that occurred in connection with them. (Lecomte, II. 101; Cathay, 240; Relat. I. 39; Let. Ed. xxiv. 76.)
[The Yuen-shi in ch. 96 contains sections on dispensaries (Hui min yao kü), granary regulations (Shi ti), and regulations for a time of dearth (Chen Sü). (Bretschneider, Med. Res. I. p. 187.)—H. C.]
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Notes:
[1] Marsden observes incidentally (Hist. of Sumatra, 1st edition, p. 71) that he was told in Bengal they used to dry-kiln the rice for exportation, "owing to which, or to some other process, it will continue good for several years."
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Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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CHAPTER XXXII. OF THE CHARITY OF THE EMPEROR TO THE POOR.
I have told you how the Great Kaan provides for the distribution of necessaries to his people in time of dearth, by making store in time of cheapness. Now I will tell you of his alms and great charity to the poor of his city of Cambaluc.
You see he causes selection to be made of a number of families in the city which are in a state of indigence, and of such families some may consist of six in the house, some of eight, some of ten, more or fewer in each as it may hap, but the whole number being very great. And each family he causes annually to be supplied with wheat and other corn sufficient for the whole year. And this he never fails to do every year. Moreover, all those who choose to go to the daily dole at the Court receive a great loaf apiece, hot from the baking, and nobody is denied; for so the Lord hath ordered. And so some 30,000 people go for it every day from year's end to year's end. Now this is a great goodness in the Emperor to take pity of his poor people thus! And they benefit so much by it that they worship him as he were God.
[He also provides the poor with clothes. For he lays a tithe upon all wool, silk, hemp, and the like, from which clothing can be made; and he has these woven and laid up in a building set apart for the purpose; and as all artizans are bound to give a day's labour weekly, in this way the Kaan has these stuffs made into clothing for those poor families, suitable for summer or winter, according to the time of year. He also provides the clothing for his troops, and has woollens woven for them in every city, the material for which is furnished by the tithe aforesaid. You should know that the Tartars, before they were converted to the religion of the Idolaters, never practised almsgiving. Indeed, when any poor man begged of them they would tell him, "Go with God's curse, for if He loved you as He loves me, He would have provided for you." But the sages of the Idolaters, and especially the Bacsis mentioned before, told the Great Kaan that it was a good work to provide for the poor, and that his idols would be greatly pleased if he did so. And since then he has taken to do for the poor so much as you have heard.[NOTE 1]]
NOTE 1.—This is a curious testimony to an ameliorating effect of Buddhism on rude nations. The general establishment of medical aid for men and animals is alluded to in the edicts of Asoka;[1] and hospitals for the diseased and destitute were found by Fahian at Palibothra, whilst Hiuen Tsang speaks of the distribution of food and medicine at the Punyasálás or "Houses of Beneficence," in the Panjáb. Various examples of a charitable spirit in Chinese Institutions will be found in a letter by Père d'Entrecolles in the XVth Recueil of Lettres Edifiantes; and a similar detail in Nevius's China and the Chinese, ch. xv. (See Prinsep's Essays, II. 15; Beal's Fah-hian, 107; Pèl. Boudd. II. 190.) The Tartar sentiment towards the poor survives on the Arctic shores:—"The Yakuts regard the rich as favoured by the gods; the poor as rejected and cast out by them." (Billings, Fr. Tranls. I. 233.)
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Notes:
[1] As rendered by J. Prinsep. But I see that Professor H. H. Wilson did not admit the passage to bear that meaning.
I have told you how the Great Kaan provides for the distribution of necessaries to his people in time of dearth, by making store in time of cheapness. Now I will tell you of his alms and great charity to the poor of his city of Cambaluc.
You see he causes selection to be made of a number of families in the city which are in a state of indigence, and of such families some may consist of six in the house, some of eight, some of ten, more or fewer in each as it may hap, but the whole number being very great. And each family he causes annually to be supplied with wheat and other corn sufficient for the whole year. And this he never fails to do every year. Moreover, all those who choose to go to the daily dole at the Court receive a great loaf apiece, hot from the baking, and nobody is denied; for so the Lord hath ordered. And so some 30,000 people go for it every day from year's end to year's end. Now this is a great goodness in the Emperor to take pity of his poor people thus! And they benefit so much by it that they worship him as he were God.
[He also provides the poor with clothes. For he lays a tithe upon all wool, silk, hemp, and the like, from which clothing can be made; and he has these woven and laid up in a building set apart for the purpose; and as all artizans are bound to give a day's labour weekly, in this way the Kaan has these stuffs made into clothing for those poor families, suitable for summer or winter, according to the time of year. He also provides the clothing for his troops, and has woollens woven for them in every city, the material for which is furnished by the tithe aforesaid. You should know that the Tartars, before they were converted to the religion of the Idolaters, never practised almsgiving. Indeed, when any poor man begged of them they would tell him, "Go with God's curse, for if He loved you as He loves me, He would have provided for you." But the sages of the Idolaters, and especially the Bacsis mentioned before, told the Great Kaan that it was a good work to provide for the poor, and that his idols would be greatly pleased if he did so. And since then he has taken to do for the poor so much as you have heard.[NOTE 1]]
NOTE 1.—This is a curious testimony to an ameliorating effect of Buddhism on rude nations. The general establishment of medical aid for men and animals is alluded to in the edicts of Asoka;[1] and hospitals for the diseased and destitute were found by Fahian at Palibothra, whilst Hiuen Tsang speaks of the distribution of food and medicine at the Punyasálás or "Houses of Beneficence," in the Panjáb. Various examples of a charitable spirit in Chinese Institutions will be found in a letter by Père d'Entrecolles in the XVth Recueil of Lettres Edifiantes; and a similar detail in Nevius's China and the Chinese, ch. xv. (See Prinsep's Essays, II. 15; Beal's Fah-hian, 107; Pèl. Boudd. II. 190.) The Tartar sentiment towards the poor survives on the Arctic shores:—"The Yakuts regard the rich as favoured by the gods; the poor as rejected and cast out by them." (Billings, Fr. Tranls. I. 233.)
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Notes:
[1] As rendered by J. Prinsep. But I see that Professor H. H. Wilson did not admit the passage to bear that meaning.
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Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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CHAPTER XXXIII. [CONCERNING THE ASTROLOGERS IN THE CITY OF CAMBALUC.]
[There are in the city of Cambaluc, what with Christians, Saracens, and Cathayans, some five thousand astrologers and soothsayers, whom the Great Kaan provides with annual maintenance and clothing, just as he provides the poor of whom we have spoken, and they are in the constant exercise of their art in this city.
They have a kind of astrolabe on which are inscribed the planetary signs, the hours and critical points of the whole year. And every year these Christian, Saracen, and Cathayan astrologers, each sect apart, investigate by means of this astrolabe the course and character of the whole year, according to the indications of each of its Moons, in order to discover by the natural course and disposition of the planets, and the other circumstances of the heavens, what shall be the nature of the weather, and what peculiarities shall be produced by each Moon of the year; as, for example, under which Moon there shall be thunderstorms and tempests, under which there shall be disease, murrain, wars, disorders, and treasons, and so on, according to the indications of each; but always adding that it lies with God to do less or more according to His pleasure. And they write down the results of their examination in certain little pamphlets for the year, which are called Tacuin, and these are sold for a groat to all who desire to know what is coming. Those of the astrologers, of course whose predictions are found to be most exact, are held to be the greatest adepts in their art, and get the greater fame.[NOTE 1]
And if any one having some great matter in hand, or proposing to make a long journey for traffic or other business, desires to know what will be the upshot, he goes to one of these astrologers and says: "Turn up your books and see what is the present aspect of the heavens, for I am going away on such and such a business." Then the astrologer will reply that the applicant must also tell the year, month, and hour of his birth; and when he has got that information he will see how the horoscope of his nativity combines with the indications of the time when the question is put, and then he predicts the result, good or bad, according to the aspect of the heavens.
You must know, too, that the Tartars reckon their years by twelves; the sign of the first year being the Lion, of the second the Ox, of the third the Dragon, of the fourth the Dog, and so forth up to the twelfth;[NOTE 2] so that when one is asked the year of his birth he answers that it was in the year of the Lion (let us say), on such a day or night, at such an hour, and such a moment. And the father of a child always takes care to write these particulars down in a book. When the twelve yearly symbols have been gone through, then they come back to the first, and go through with them again in the same succession.]
NOTE 1.—It is odd that Marsden should have sought a Chinese explanation of the Arabic word Takwím even with Tavernier before him: "They sell in Persia an annual almanac called Tacuim, which is properly an ephemeris containing the longitude and latitude of the planets, their conjunctions and oppositions, and other such matter. The Tacuim is full of predictions regarding war, pestilence, and famine; it indicates the favourable time for putting on new clothes, for getting bled or purged, for making a journey, and so forth. They put entire faith in it, and whoever can afford one governs himself in all things by its rules." (Bk. V. ch. xiv.)
The use of the term by Marco may possibly be an illustration of what I have elsewhere propounded, viz. that he was not acquainted with Chinese, but that his intercourse and conversation lay chiefly with the foreigners at the Kaan's Court, and probably was carried on in the Persian language. But not long after the date of our Book we find the word used in Italian by Jacopo Alighieri (Dante's son):—
Marco does not allude to the fact that almanacs were published by the Government, as they were then and still are. Pauthier (515 seqq.) gives some very curious details on this subject from the Annals of the Yuen. In the accounts of the year 1328, it appears that no less than 3,123,185 copies were printed in three different sizes at different prices, besides a separate almanac for the Hwei-Hwei or Mahomedans. Had Polo not omitted to touch on the issue of almanacs by Government he could scarcely have failed to enter on the subject of printing, on which he has kept a silence so singular and unaccountable.
The Chinese Government still "considers the publication of a Calendar of the first importance and utility. It must do everything in its power, not only to point out to its numerous subjects the distribution of the seasons,… but on account of the general superstition it must mark in the almanac the lucky and unlucky days, the best days for being married, for undertaking a journey, for making their dresses, for buying or building, for presenting petitions to the Emperor, and for many other cases of ordinary life. By this means the Government keeps the people within the limits of humble obedience; it is for this reason that the Emperors of China established the Academy of Astronomy." (Timk. I. 358.) The acceptance of the Imperial Almanac by a foreign Prince is considered an acknowledgment of vassalage to the Emperor.
It is a penal offence to issue a pirated or counterfeit edition of the Government Almanac. No one ventures to be without one, lest he become liable to the greatest misfortunes by undertaking the important measures on black-balled days.
The price varies now, according to Williams, from 1-1/2_d._ to 5_d._ a copy. The price in 1328 was 1 tsien or cash for the cheapest edition, and 1 liang or tael of silver for the édition de luxe; but as these prices were in paper-money it is extremely difficult to say, in the varying depreciation of that currency, what the price really amounted to.
[Illustration: Mongol Compendium Instrument seen in the Observatory Garden]
[Illustration: Mongol Armillary Sphere in the Observatory Garden]
["The Calendars for the use of the people, published by Imperial command, are of two kinds. The first, Wan-nien-shu, the Calendar of Ten Thousand Years, is an abridgment of the Calendar, comprising 397 years, viz. from 1624 to 2020. The second and more complete Calendar is the Annual Calendar, which, under the preceding dynasties, was named Li-je, Order of Days, and is now called Shih-hsien-shu, Book of Constant Conformity (with the Heavens). This name was given by the Emperor Shun-chih, in the first year of his reign (1644), on being presented by Father John Schall (Tang Jo-wang) with a new Calendar, calculated on the principles of European science. This Annual Calendar gives the following indications: (1°) The cyclical signs of the current year, of the months, and of all the days; (2°) the long and short months, as well as the intercalary month, as the case maybe; (3°) the designation of each day by the 5 elements, the 28 constellations, and the 12 happy presages; (4°) the day and hour of the new moon, of the full moon, and of the two dichotomies, Shang-hsien and Hsia-hsien; (5°) the day and hour for the positions of the sun in the 24 zodiacal signs, calculated for the various capitals of China as well as for Manchuria, Mongolia, and the tributary Kingdoms; (6°) the hour of sunrise and sunset and the length of day and night for the principal days of the month in the several capitals; (7°) various superstitious indications purporting to point out what days and hours are auspicious or not for such or such affairs in different places. Those superstitious indications are stated to have been introduced into the Calendar under the Yüan dynasty." (P. Hoang, Chinese Calendar, pp. 2-3.)—H. C.]
We may note that in Polo's time one of the principal officers of the Mathematical Board was Gaisue, a native of Folin or the Byzantine Empire, who was also in charge of the medical department of the Court. Regarding the Observatory, see note at p. 378, supra.
And I am indebted yet again to the generous zeal of Mr. Wylie of Shanghai, for the principal notes and extracts which will, I trust, satisfy others as well as myself that the instruments in the garden of the Observatory belong to the period of Marco Polo's residence in China.[1]
The objections to the alleged age of these instruments were entirely based on an inspection of photographs. The opinion was given very strongly that no instrument of the kind, so perfect in theory and in execution, could have been even imagined in those days, and that nothing of such scientific quality could have been made except by the Jesuits. In fact it was asserted or implied that these instruments must have been made about the year 1700, and were therefore not earlier in age than those which stand on the terraced roof of the Observatory, and are well known to most of us from the representation in Duhalde and in many popular works.
The only authority that I could lay hand on was Lecomte, and what he says was not conclusive. I extract the most pertinent passages:
"It was on the terrace of the tower that the Chinese astronomers had set their instruments, and though few in number they occupied the whole area. But Father Verbiest, the Director of the Observatory, considering them useless for astronomical observation, persuaded the Emperor to let them be removed, to make way for several instruments of his own construction. The instruments set aside by the European astronomers are still in a hall adjoining the tower, buried in dust and oblivion; and we saw them only through a grated window. They appeared to us to be very large and well cast, in form approaching our astronomical circles; that is all that we could make out. There was, however, thrown into a back yard by itself, a celestial globe of bronze, of about 3 feet in diameter. Of this we were able to take a nearer view. Its form was somewhat oval; the divisions by no means exact, and the whole work coarse enough.
"Besides this in a lower hall they had established a gnomon…. This observatory, not worthy of much consideration for its ancient instruments, much less for its situation, its form, or its construction, is now enriched by several bronze instruments which Father Verbiest has placed there. These are large, well cast, adorned in every case with figures of dragons," etc. He then proceeds to describe them:
"(1). Armillary Zodiacal Sphere of 6 feet diameter. This sphere reposes on the heads of four dragons, the bodies of which after various convolutions come to rest upon the extremities of two brazen beams forming a cross, and thus bear the entire weight of the instrument. These dragons … are represented according to the notion the Chinese form of them, enveloped in clouds, covered above the horns with long hair, with a tufted beard on the lower jaw, flaming eyes, long sharp teeth, the gaping throat ever vomiting a torrent of fire. Four lion-cubs of the same material bear the ends of the cross beams, and the heads of these are raised or depressed by means of attached screws, according to what is required. The circles are divided on both exterior and interior surface into 360 degrees; each degree into 60 minutes by transverse lines, and the minutes into sections of 10 seconds each by the sight-edge[2] applied to them."
Of Verbiest's other instruments we need give only the names: (2) Equinoxial Sphere, 6 feet diameter. (3) Azimuthal Horizon, same diam. (4) Great Quadrant, of 6 feet radius. (5) Sextant of about 8 feet radius. (6) Celestial Globe of 6 feet diameter.
As Lecomte gives no details of the old instruments which he saw through a grating, and as the description of this zodiacal sphere (No. 1) corresponds in some of its main features with that represented in the photograph, I could not but recognize the possibility that this instrument of Verbiest's had for some reason or other been removed from the Terrace, and that the photograph might therefore possibly not be a representation of one of the ancient instruments displaced by him.[3]
The question having been raised it was very desirable to settle it, and I applied to Mr. Wylie for information, as I had received the photographs from him, and knew that he had been Mr. Thomson's companion and helper in the matter.
"Let me assure you," he writes (21st August, 1874), "the Jesuits had nothing to do with the manufacture of the so-called Mongol instruments; and whoever made them, they were certainly on the Peking Observatory before Loyola was born. They are not made for the astronomical system introduced by the Jesuits, but are altogether conformable to the system introduced by Kúblái's astronomer Ko Show-king…. I will mention one thing which is quite decisive as to the Jesuits. The circle is divided into 365-1/4 degrees, each degree into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. The Jesuits always used the sexagesimal division. Lecomte speaks of the imperfection of the division on the Jesuit-made instruments; but those on the Mongol instruments are immeasurably coarser.
"I understand it is not the ornamentation your friend objects to?[4] If it is, I would observe that there is no evidence of progress in the decorative and ornamental arts during the Ming Dynasty; and even in the Jesuit instruments that part of the work is purely Chinese, excepting in one instrument, which I am persuaded must have been made in Europe.
"I have a Chinese work called Luh-King-t'oo-Kaou, 'Illustrations and Investigations of the Six Classics.' This was written in A.D. 1131-1162, and revised and printed in 1165-1174. It contains a representation of an armillary sphere, which appears to me to be much the same as the sphere in question. There is a solid horizon fixed to a graduated outer circle. Inside the latter is a meridian circle, at right angles to which is a graduated colure; then the equator, apparently a double ring, and the ecliptic; also two diametric bars. The cut is rudely executed, but it certainly shows that some one imagined something more perfect. The instrument stands on a cross frame, with 4 dragon supporters and a prop in the centre.[5]
"It should be remembered that under the Mongol Dynasty the Chinese had much intercourse with Central Asia; and among others Yelewchootsae, as confidential minister and astronomer, followed Chinghiz in his Western campaign, held intercourse with the astronomers of Samarkand, and on his return laid some astronomical inventions before the Emperor.
"I append a notice of the Observatory taken from a popular description of Peking, by which it will be seen that the construction of these instruments is attributed to Ko Show-king, one of the most renowned astronomers of China. He was the chief astronomer under Kúblái Kaan" [to whom he was presented in 1262; he was born in 1231.—H. C.]
"It must be remembered that there was a special vitality among the Chinese under the Yuen with regard to the arts and sciences, and the Emperor had the choice of artizans and men of science from all countries. From the age of the Yuen till the arrival of the Jesuits, we hear nothing of any new instruments having been made; and it is well known that astronomy was never in a lower condition than under the Ming."[6]
Mr. Wylie then draws attention to the account given by Trigault of the instruments that Matteo Ricci saw at Nanking, when he went (in the year 1599) to pay a visit to some of the literati of that city. He transcribes the account from the French Hist. de l'Expédition Chrestienne en la Chine, 1618. But as I have the Latin, which is the original and is more lucid, by me, I will translate from that.[7]
"Not only at Peking, but in this capital also (Nanking) there is a College of Chinese Mathematicians, and this one certainly is more distinguished by the vastness of its buildings than by the skill of its professors. They have little talent and less learning, and do nothing beyond the preparation of the almanacs on the rules of calculation made by the ancients; and when it chances that events do not agree with their calculation they assert that what they had calculated was the regular course of things, but that the aberrant conduct of the stars was a prognostic from heaven of something going to happen on the earth. This something they make out according to their fancy, and so spread a veil over their own blunders. These gentlemen did not much trust Father Matteo, fearing, no doubt, lest he should put them to shame; but when at last they were freed from this apprehension they came and amicably visited the Father in hope of learning something from him. And when he went to return their visit he saw something that really was new and beyond his expectation.
"There is a high hill at one side of the city, but still within the walls. On the top of the hill there is an ample terrace, capitally adapted for astronomical observation, and surrounded by magnificent buildings which form the residence of the Professors…. On this terrace are to be seen astronomical instruments of cast-metal, well worthy of inspection whether for size or for beauty; and we certainly have never seen or read of anything in Europe like them. For nearly 250 years they have stood thus exposed to the rain, the snow, and all other atmospheric inclemencies, and yet they have lost absolutely nothing of their original lustre. And lest I should be accused of raising expectations which I do not justify, I will do my best in a digression, probably not unwelcome, to bring them before the eyes of my readers.
"The larger of these instruments were four in number. First we inspected a great globe [A], graduated with meridians and parallels; we estimated that three men would hardly be able to embrace its girth…. A second instrument was a great sphere [B ], not less in diameter than that measure of the outstretched arms which is commonly called a geometric pace. It had a horizon and poles; instead of circles it was provided with certain double hoops (armillae), the void space between the pair serving the purpose of the circles of our spheres. All these were divided into 365 degrees and some odd minutes. There was no globe to represent the earth in the centre, but there was a certain tube, bored like a gun-barrel, which could readily be turned about and fixed to any azimuth or any altitude so as to observe any particular star through the tube, just as we do with our vane-sights;[8]—not at all a despicable device! The third machine was a gnomon [C], the height of which was twice the diameter of the former instrument, erected on a very large and long slab of marble, on the northern side of the terrace. The stone slab had a channel cut round the margin, to be filled with water in order to determine whether the slab was level or not, and the style was set vertical as in hour-dials.[9] We may suppose this gnomon to have been erected that by its aid the shadow at the solstices and equinoxes might be precisely noted, for in that view both the slab and the style were graduated. The fourth and last instrument, and the largest of all, was one consisting as it were of three or four huge astrolabes in juxtaposition [D]; each of them having a diameter of such a geometrical pace as I have specified. The fiducial line, or Alhidada, as it is called, was not lacking, nor yet the Dioptra.[10] Of these astrolabes, one having a tilted position in the direction of the south, represented the equator; a second, which stood crosswise on the first, in a north and south plane, the Father took for a meridian; but it could be turned round on its axis; a third stood in the meridian plane with its axis perpendicular, and seemed to stand for a vertical circle; but this also could be turned round so as to show any vertical whatever. Moreover all these were graduated, and the degrees marked by prominent studs of iron, so that in the night the graduation could be read by the touch without a light. All this compound astrolabe instrument was erected on a level marble platform with channels round it for levelling. On each of these instruments explanations of everything were given in Chinese characters; and there were also engraved the 24 zodiacal constellations which answer to our 12 signs, 2 to each.[11] There was, however, one error common to all the instruments, viz. that, in all, the elevation of the Pole was assumed to be 36°. Now there can be no question about the fact that the city of Nanking lies in lat. 32-1/4°; whence it would seem probable that these instruments were made for another locality, and had been erected at Nanking, without reference to its position, by some one ill versed in mathematical science.[12]
[Illustration: Observatory Terrace]
[Illustration: Observatory Instruments of the Jesuits.]
"Some years afterwards Father Matteo saw similar instruments at Peking, or rather the same instruments, so exactly alike were they, insomuch that they had unquestionably been made by the same artist. And indeed it is known that they were cast at the period when the Tartars were dominant in China; and we may without rashness conjecture that they were the work of some foreigner acquainted with our studies. But it is time to have done with these instruments."—(Lib. IV. cap. 5.)
In this interesting description it will be seen that the Armillary Sphere [B ] agrees entirely with that represented in illustration facing p. 450. And the second of his photographs in my possession, but not, I believe, yet published, answers perfectly to the curious description of the 4th instrument [D]. Indeed, I should scarcely have been able to translate that description intelligibly but for the aid of the photograph before me. It shows the three astrolabes or graduated circles with travelling indexes arranged exactly as described, and pivoted on a complex frame of bronze; (1) circle in the plane of the equator for measuring right ascensions; (2) circle with its axis vertical to the plane of the last, for measuring declinations: (3) circle with vertical axis, for zenith distances? The Gnomon [A] was seen by Mr. Wylie in one of the lower rooms of the Observatory (see below). Of the Globe we do not now hear; and that mentioned by Lecomte among the ancient instruments was inferior to what Ricci describes at Peking.
I now transcribe Mr. Wylie's translation of an extract from a Popular Description of Peking:
"The observatory is on an elevated stage on the city wall, in the south-east corner of the (Tartar) city, and was built in the year (A.D. 1279). In the centre was the Tze-wei[13] Palace, inside of which were a pair of scrolls, and a cross inscription, by the imperial hand. Formerly it contained the Hwan-t'ien-e [B ] 'Armillary Sphere'; the Keen-e [D?] 'Transit Instrument' (?); the Tung-kew [A] 'Brass Globe'; and the Leang-t'ien-ch'ih, 'Sector,' which were constructed by Ko Show-king under the Yuen Dynasty.
"In (1673) the old instruments having stood the wear of long past years, had become almost useless, and six new instruments were made by imperial authority. These were the T'ien-t'ee 'Celestial Globe' (6); Chih-taoue 'Equinoctial Sphere' (2); Hwang-taoue 'Zodiacal Sphere' (1); Te-p'ing kinge 'Azimuthal Horizon' (3); Te-p'ing weie 'Altitude Instrument' (4); Ke-yene 'Sextant' (5). These were placed in the Observatory, and to the present day are respectfully used. The old instruments were at the same time removed, and deposited at the foot of the stage. In (1715) the Te-ping King-wei-e 'Azimuth and Altitude Instrument' was made;[14] and in 1744 the Ke-hang-foo-chin-e (literally 'Sphere and Tube instrument for sweeping the heavens'). All these were placed on the Observatory stage.
"There is a wind-index-pole called the 'Fair-wind-pennon,' on which is an iron disk marked out in 28 points, corresponding in number to the 28 constellations."[15]
+ Mr. Wylie justly observes that the evidence is all in accord, and it leaves, I think, no reasonable room for doubt that the instruments now in the Observatory garden at Peking are those which were cast aside by Father Verbiest[16] in 1673 (or 1668); which Father Ricci saw at Peking at the beginning of the century, and of which he has described the duplicates at Nanking; and which had come down from the time of the Mongols, or, more precisely, of Kúblái Khan.
Ricci speaks of their age as nearly 250 years in 1599; Verbiest as nearly 300 years in 1668. But these estimates evidently point to the termination of the Mongol Dynasty (1368), to which the Chinese would naturally refer their oral chronology. We have seen that Kúblái's reign was the era of flourishing astronomy, and that the instruments are referred to his astronomer Ko Shéu-king; nor does there seem any ground for questioning this. In fact, it being once established that the instruments existed when the Jesuits entered China, all the objections fall to the ground.
We may observe that the number of the ancient instruments mentioned in the popular Chinese account agrees with the number of important instruments described by Ricci, and the titles of three at least out of the four seem to indicate the same instruments. The catalogue of the new instruments of 1673 (or 1668) given in the native work also agrees exactly with that given by Lecomte.[17] And in reference to my question as to the possibility that one of Verbiest's instruments might have been removed from the terrace to the garden, it is now hardly worth while to repeat Mr. Wylie's assurance that there is no ground whatever for such a supposition. The instruments represented by Lecomte are all still on the terrace, only their positions have been somewhat altered to make room for the two added in last century.
Probably, says Mr. Wylie, more might have been added from Chinese works, especially the biography of Ko Shéu-king. But my kind correspondent was unable to travel beyond the books on his own shelves. Nor was it needful.
It will have been seen that, beautiful as the art and casting of these instruments is, it would be a mistake to suppose that they are entitled to equally high rank in scientific accuracy. Mr. Wylie mentioned the question that had been started to Freiherr von Gumpach, who was for some years Professor of Astronomy in the Peking College. Whilst entirely rejecting the doubts that had been raised as to the age of the Mongol instruments, he said that he had seen those of Tycho Brahe, and the former are quite unworthy to be compared with Tycho's in scientific accuracy.
The doubts expressed have been useful in drawing attention to these remarkable reliques of the era of Kúblái's reign, and of Marco Polo's residence in Cathay, though I fear they are answerable for having added some pages to a work that required no enlargement!
[Mr. Wylie sent a most valuable paper on The Mongol Astronomical Instruments at Peking to the Congress of Orientalists held at St. Petersburg, which was reprinted at Shanghai in 1897 in Chinese
Researches. Some of the astronomical instruments have been removed to Potsdam by the Germans since the siege of the foreign Legations at Peking in 1900.—H. C.]
On these auguries, and on diviners and fortune-tellers, see Semedo, p. 118 seqq.; Kidd, p. 313 (also for preceding references, Mid. Kingdom, II. 152; Gaubil, 136).
NOTE 2.— + The real cycle of the Mongols, which was also that of the Chinese, runs: 1. Rat; 2. Ox; 3. Tiger; 4. Hare; 5. Dragon; 6. Serpent; 7. Horse; 8. Sheep; 9. Ape; 10. Cock; 11. Dog; 12. Swine. But as such a cycle [12 earthly branches, Ti-chih] is too short to avoid confusion, it is combined with a co-efficient cycle of ten epithets [celestial Stems, T'ien-kan] in such wise as to produce a 60-year cycle of compound names before the same shall recur. These co-efficient epithets are found in four different forms: (1) From the Elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water, attaching to each a masculine and feminine attribute so as to make ten epithets. (2) From the Colours: Blue, Red, Yellow, White, Black, similarly treated. (3) By terms without meaning in Mongol, directly adopted or imitated from the Chinese, Ga, Yi, Bing, Ting, etc. (4) By the five Cardinal Points: East, South, Middle, West, North. Thus 1864 was the first year of a 60-year cycle:—
And then a new cycle commences just as before.
This Calendar was carried by the Mongols into all their dominions, and it would appear to have long survived them in Persia. Thus a document issued in favour of Sir John Chardin by the Shaikh-ul-Islám of Ispahan, bears the strange date for a Mahomedan luminary of "The year of the Swine." The Hindus also had a 60-year cycle, but with them each year had an independent name.
The Mongols borrowed their system from the Chinese, who attribute its invention to the Emperor Hwang-ti, and its initiation to the 61st year of his reign, corresponding to B.C. 2637. ["It was Ta-nao, Minister to the Emperor Hwang-ti, who, by command of his Sovereign, devised the sexagenary cycle. Hwang-ti began to reign 2697 B.C., and the 61st year of his reign was taken for the first cyclical sign." P. Hoang, Chinese Calendar; p. 11.—H. C.] The characters representing what we have called the ten coefficient epithets are called by the Chinese the "Heavenly Stems"; those equivalent to the twelve animal symbols are the "Earthly Branches," and they are applied in their combinations not to years only, but to cycles of months, days, and hours, such hours being equal to two of ours. Thus every year, month, day, and hour will have two appropriate characters, and the four pairs belonging to the time of any man's birth constitute what the Chinese call the "Eight Characters" of his age, to which constant reference is made in some of their systems of fortune-telling, and in the selection of propitious days for the transaction of business. To this system the text alludes. A curious account of the principles of prognostication on such a basis will be found in Doolittle's Social Life of the Chinese (p. 579 seqq.; on the Calendar, see Schmidt's Preface to S. Setzen; Pallas, Sammlungen, II. 228 seqq.; Prinsep's Essays, Useful Tables, 146.)
["Kubilai Khan established in Peking two astronomical boards and two observatories. One of them was a Chinese Observatory (sze t'ien t'ai), the other a Mohammedan Observatory (hui hui sze t'ien t'ai), each with its particular astronomical and chronological systems, its particular astrology and instruments. The first astronomical and calendar system was compiled for the Mongols by Ye-liu Ch'u-ts'ai, who was in Chingis Khan's service, not only as a high counsellor, but also as an astronomer and astrologer. After having been convinced of the obsoleteness and incorrectness of the astronomical calculations in the Ta ming li (the name of the calendar system of the Kin Dynasty), he thought out at the time he was at Samarcand a new system, valid not only for China, but also for the countries conquered by the Mongols in Western Asia, and named it in memory of Chingis Khan's expedition Si ching keng wu yüan li, i.e., 'Astronomical Calendar beginning with the year Keng wu, compiled during the war in the west.' Keng-wu was the year 1210 of our era. Ye-liu Ch'u-ts'ai chose this year, and the moment of the winter solstice, for the beginning of his period; because, according to his calculations, it coincided with the beginning of a new astronomical or planetary period. He took also into consideration, that since the year 1211 Chingis Khan's glory had spread over the whole world. Ye-liu Ch'u-ts'ai's calendar was not adopted in China, but the system of it is explained in the Yuen-shi, in the section on Astronomy and the Calendar.
"In the year 1267, the Mohammedans presented to Kubilai their astronomical calendar (wan nien li, i.e.), the calendar of ten thousand years. By taking this denomination in its literal sense, we may conclude that the Mahommedans brought to China the ancient Persian system, founded on the period of 10,000 years. The compilers of the Yuen-shi seem not to have had access to documents relating to this system, for they give no details about it. Finally by order of Kubilai the astronomers Hui-Heng and Ko Show-King composed a new calculation under the name of Shou-shi-li which came into use from the year 1280. It is thoroughly explained in the Yuen-shi. Notwithstanding the fame this system generally enjoyed, its blemishes came soon to light. In the sixth month of 1302 an eclipse of the sun happened, and the calculation of the astronomer proved to be erroneous (it seems the calculation had anticipated the real time). The astronomers of the Ming Dynasty explained the errors in the Shou-shi-li by the circumstance, that in that calculation the period for one degree of precession of the equinox was taken too long (eighty-one years). But they were themselves hardly able to overcome these difficulties." (Palladius, pp. 51-53.)—H. C.]
_______________
Notes:
[1] Besides the works quoted in the text I have only been able to consult Gaubil's notices, as abstracted in Lalande; and the Introductory Remarks to Mr. J. Williams's Observations of Comets … extracted from the Chinese Annals, London, 1871.
[2] Pinnula. The French pinnule is properly a sight-vane at the end of a traversing bar. The transverse lines imply that minutes were read by the system of our diagonal scales; and these I understand to have been subdivided still further by aid of a divided edge attached to the sight-vane; qu. a Vernier?
[3] Verbiest himself speaks of the displaced instruments thus … "ut nova instrumenta astronomica facienda mihi imponeret, quae scilicet more Europaeo affabre facta, et in specula Astroptica Pekinensi collocata, aeternam Imperii Tartarici memoriam apud posteritatem servarent, prioribus instrumentis Sinicis rudioris Minervae, quae jam a trecentis proxime annis speculam occupabant, inde amotis. Imperator statim annuit illorum postulatis. et totius rei curam, publico diplomate mihi imposuit. Ego itaque intra quadriennis spatium sex diversi generis instrumenta confeci." This is from an account of the Observatory written by Verbiest himself, and printed at Peking in 1668 (Liber Organicus Astronomiae Europaeae apud Sinas Restitutae, etc.). My friend Mr. D. Hanbury made the extract from a copy of this rare book in the London Institution Library. An enlarged edition was published in Europe. (Dillingen, 1687.)
[4] On the contrary, he considered the photographs interesting, as showing to how late a period the art of fine casting had endured.
[5] This ancient instrument is probably the same that is engraved in Pauthier's Chine Ancienne under the title of "The Sphere of the Emperor Shun" (B.C. 2255!).
[6] After the death of Kúblái astronomy fell into neglect, and when Hongwu, the first Ming sovereign, took the throne (1368) the subject was almost forgotten. Nor was there any revival till the time of Ching. The latter was a prince who in 1573 associated himself with the astronomer Hing-yun-lu to reform the state of astronomy. (Gaubil.)
[7] I had entirely forgotten to look at Trigault till Mr. Wylie sent me the extract. The copy I use (De Christianá Expeditione apud Sinas … Auct. Nicolao Trigautio) is of Lugdun. 1616. The first edition was published at August. Vindelicorum (Augsburg) in 1615: the French, at Lyons, in 1616.
[8] "Pinnulis."
[9] "Et stilus eo modo quo in horologiis ad perpendiculum collocatus."
[10] The Alidada is the traversing index bar which carries the dioptra, pinnules, or sight-vanes. The word is found in some older English Dictionaries, and in France and Italy is still applied to the traversing index of a plane table or of a sextant. Littré derives it from (Ar.) 'adád, enumeration; but it is really from a quite different word, al-idádat [Arabic] "a door-post," which is found in this sense in an Arabic treatise on the Astrolabe. (See Dozy and Engelmann, p. 140.)
[11] This is an error of Ricci's, as Mr. Wylie observes, or of his reporter.
[12] Mr. Wylie is inclined to distrust the accuracy of this remark, as the only city nearly on the 36th parallel is P'ing-yang fu.
[13] The 28 sieu or stellar spaces, above spoken of, do not extend to the Pole; they are indeed very unequal in extent on the meridian as well as on the equator. And the area in the northern sky not embraced in them is divided into three large spaces called Yuen or enclosures, of which the field of circumpolar stars (or circle of perpetual apparition) forms one which is called Tze-Wei. (Williams.)
[14] "This was obviously made in France. There is nothing Chinese about it, either in construction or ornament. It is very different from all the others." (Note by Mr. Wylie.)
[15] "There follows a minute description of the brass clepsydra, and the brass gnomon, which it is unnecessary to translate. I have seen both these instruments, in two of the lower rooms."—Id.
[16] [Ferdinand Verbiest, S.J., was born at Pitthens, near Courtrai; he arrived in China in 1659 and died at Peking on the 29th January, 1688.—H. C.]
[17] We have attached letters A, B, C, to indicate the correspondences of the ancient instruments, and cyphers 1, 2, 3, to indicate the correspondences of the modern instruments.
[There are in the city of Cambaluc, what with Christians, Saracens, and Cathayans, some five thousand astrologers and soothsayers, whom the Great Kaan provides with annual maintenance and clothing, just as he provides the poor of whom we have spoken, and they are in the constant exercise of their art in this city.
They have a kind of astrolabe on which are inscribed the planetary signs, the hours and critical points of the whole year. And every year these Christian, Saracen, and Cathayan astrologers, each sect apart, investigate by means of this astrolabe the course and character of the whole year, according to the indications of each of its Moons, in order to discover by the natural course and disposition of the planets, and the other circumstances of the heavens, what shall be the nature of the weather, and what peculiarities shall be produced by each Moon of the year; as, for example, under which Moon there shall be thunderstorms and tempests, under which there shall be disease, murrain, wars, disorders, and treasons, and so on, according to the indications of each; but always adding that it lies with God to do less or more according to His pleasure. And they write down the results of their examination in certain little pamphlets for the year, which are called Tacuin, and these are sold for a groat to all who desire to know what is coming. Those of the astrologers, of course whose predictions are found to be most exact, are held to be the greatest adepts in their art, and get the greater fame.[NOTE 1]
And if any one having some great matter in hand, or proposing to make a long journey for traffic or other business, desires to know what will be the upshot, he goes to one of these astrologers and says: "Turn up your books and see what is the present aspect of the heavens, for I am going away on such and such a business." Then the astrologer will reply that the applicant must also tell the year, month, and hour of his birth; and when he has got that information he will see how the horoscope of his nativity combines with the indications of the time when the question is put, and then he predicts the result, good or bad, according to the aspect of the heavens.
You must know, too, that the Tartars reckon their years by twelves; the sign of the first year being the Lion, of the second the Ox, of the third the Dragon, of the fourth the Dog, and so forth up to the twelfth;[NOTE 2] so that when one is asked the year of his birth he answers that it was in the year of the Lion (let us say), on such a day or night, at such an hour, and such a moment. And the father of a child always takes care to write these particulars down in a book. When the twelve yearly symbols have been gone through, then they come back to the first, and go through with them again in the same succession.]
NOTE 1.—It is odd that Marsden should have sought a Chinese explanation of the Arabic word Takwím even with Tavernier before him: "They sell in Persia an annual almanac called Tacuim, which is properly an ephemeris containing the longitude and latitude of the planets, their conjunctions and oppositions, and other such matter. The Tacuim is full of predictions regarding war, pestilence, and famine; it indicates the favourable time for putting on new clothes, for getting bled or purged, for making a journey, and so forth. They put entire faith in it, and whoever can afford one governs himself in all things by its rules." (Bk. V. ch. xiv.)
The use of the term by Marco may possibly be an illustration of what I have elsewhere propounded, viz. that he was not acquainted with Chinese, but that his intercourse and conversation lay chiefly with the foreigners at the Kaan's Court, and probably was carried on in the Persian language. But not long after the date of our Book we find the word used in Italian by Jacopo Alighieri (Dante's son):—
"A voler giudicare
Si conviene adequare
Inprimo il Taccuino,
Per vedere il cammino
Come i Pianeti vanno
Per tutto quanto l'anno."
—Rime Antiche Toscane, III. 10.
Marco does not allude to the fact that almanacs were published by the Government, as they were then and still are. Pauthier (515 seqq.) gives some very curious details on this subject from the Annals of the Yuen. In the accounts of the year 1328, it appears that no less than 3,123,185 copies were printed in three different sizes at different prices, besides a separate almanac for the Hwei-Hwei or Mahomedans. Had Polo not omitted to touch on the issue of almanacs by Government he could scarcely have failed to enter on the subject of printing, on which he has kept a silence so singular and unaccountable.
The Chinese Government still "considers the publication of a Calendar of the first importance and utility. It must do everything in its power, not only to point out to its numerous subjects the distribution of the seasons,… but on account of the general superstition it must mark in the almanac the lucky and unlucky days, the best days for being married, for undertaking a journey, for making their dresses, for buying or building, for presenting petitions to the Emperor, and for many other cases of ordinary life. By this means the Government keeps the people within the limits of humble obedience; it is for this reason that the Emperors of China established the Academy of Astronomy." (Timk. I. 358.) The acceptance of the Imperial Almanac by a foreign Prince is considered an acknowledgment of vassalage to the Emperor.
It is a penal offence to issue a pirated or counterfeit edition of the Government Almanac. No one ventures to be without one, lest he become liable to the greatest misfortunes by undertaking the important measures on black-balled days.
The price varies now, according to Williams, from 1-1/2_d._ to 5_d._ a copy. The price in 1328 was 1 tsien or cash for the cheapest edition, and 1 liang or tael of silver for the édition de luxe; but as these prices were in paper-money it is extremely difficult to say, in the varying depreciation of that currency, what the price really amounted to.
[Illustration: Mongol Compendium Instrument seen in the Observatory Garden]
[Illustration: Mongol Armillary Sphere in the Observatory Garden]
["The Calendars for the use of the people, published by Imperial command, are of two kinds. The first, Wan-nien-shu, the Calendar of Ten Thousand Years, is an abridgment of the Calendar, comprising 397 years, viz. from 1624 to 2020. The second and more complete Calendar is the Annual Calendar, which, under the preceding dynasties, was named Li-je, Order of Days, and is now called Shih-hsien-shu, Book of Constant Conformity (with the Heavens). This name was given by the Emperor Shun-chih, in the first year of his reign (1644), on being presented by Father John Schall (Tang Jo-wang) with a new Calendar, calculated on the principles of European science. This Annual Calendar gives the following indications: (1°) The cyclical signs of the current year, of the months, and of all the days; (2°) the long and short months, as well as the intercalary month, as the case maybe; (3°) the designation of each day by the 5 elements, the 28 constellations, and the 12 happy presages; (4°) the day and hour of the new moon, of the full moon, and of the two dichotomies, Shang-hsien and Hsia-hsien; (5°) the day and hour for the positions of the sun in the 24 zodiacal signs, calculated for the various capitals of China as well as for Manchuria, Mongolia, and the tributary Kingdoms; (6°) the hour of sunrise and sunset and the length of day and night for the principal days of the month in the several capitals; (7°) various superstitious indications purporting to point out what days and hours are auspicious or not for such or such affairs in different places. Those superstitious indications are stated to have been introduced into the Calendar under the Yüan dynasty." (P. Hoang, Chinese Calendar, pp. 2-3.)—H. C.]
We may note that in Polo's time one of the principal officers of the Mathematical Board was Gaisue, a native of Folin or the Byzantine Empire, who was also in charge of the medical department of the Court. Regarding the Observatory, see note at p. 378, supra.
And I am indebted yet again to the generous zeal of Mr. Wylie of Shanghai, for the principal notes and extracts which will, I trust, satisfy others as well as myself that the instruments in the garden of the Observatory belong to the period of Marco Polo's residence in China.[1]
The objections to the alleged age of these instruments were entirely based on an inspection of photographs. The opinion was given very strongly that no instrument of the kind, so perfect in theory and in execution, could have been even imagined in those days, and that nothing of such scientific quality could have been made except by the Jesuits. In fact it was asserted or implied that these instruments must have been made about the year 1700, and were therefore not earlier in age than those which stand on the terraced roof of the Observatory, and are well known to most of us from the representation in Duhalde and in many popular works.
The only authority that I could lay hand on was Lecomte, and what he says was not conclusive. I extract the most pertinent passages:
"It was on the terrace of the tower that the Chinese astronomers had set their instruments, and though few in number they occupied the whole area. But Father Verbiest, the Director of the Observatory, considering them useless for astronomical observation, persuaded the Emperor to let them be removed, to make way for several instruments of his own construction. The instruments set aside by the European astronomers are still in a hall adjoining the tower, buried in dust and oblivion; and we saw them only through a grated window. They appeared to us to be very large and well cast, in form approaching our astronomical circles; that is all that we could make out. There was, however, thrown into a back yard by itself, a celestial globe of bronze, of about 3 feet in diameter. Of this we were able to take a nearer view. Its form was somewhat oval; the divisions by no means exact, and the whole work coarse enough.
"Besides this in a lower hall they had established a gnomon…. This observatory, not worthy of much consideration for its ancient instruments, much less for its situation, its form, or its construction, is now enriched by several bronze instruments which Father Verbiest has placed there. These are large, well cast, adorned in every case with figures of dragons," etc. He then proceeds to describe them:
"(1). Armillary Zodiacal Sphere of 6 feet diameter. This sphere reposes on the heads of four dragons, the bodies of which after various convolutions come to rest upon the extremities of two brazen beams forming a cross, and thus bear the entire weight of the instrument. These dragons … are represented according to the notion the Chinese form of them, enveloped in clouds, covered above the horns with long hair, with a tufted beard on the lower jaw, flaming eyes, long sharp teeth, the gaping throat ever vomiting a torrent of fire. Four lion-cubs of the same material bear the ends of the cross beams, and the heads of these are raised or depressed by means of attached screws, according to what is required. The circles are divided on both exterior and interior surface into 360 degrees; each degree into 60 minutes by transverse lines, and the minutes into sections of 10 seconds each by the sight-edge[2] applied to them."
Of Verbiest's other instruments we need give only the names: (2) Equinoxial Sphere, 6 feet diameter. (3) Azimuthal Horizon, same diam. (4) Great Quadrant, of 6 feet radius. (5) Sextant of about 8 feet radius. (6) Celestial Globe of 6 feet diameter.
As Lecomte gives no details of the old instruments which he saw through a grating, and as the description of this zodiacal sphere (No. 1) corresponds in some of its main features with that represented in the photograph, I could not but recognize the possibility that this instrument of Verbiest's had for some reason or other been removed from the Terrace, and that the photograph might therefore possibly not be a representation of one of the ancient instruments displaced by him.[3]
The question having been raised it was very desirable to settle it, and I applied to Mr. Wylie for information, as I had received the photographs from him, and knew that he had been Mr. Thomson's companion and helper in the matter.
"Let me assure you," he writes (21st August, 1874), "the Jesuits had nothing to do with the manufacture of the so-called Mongol instruments; and whoever made them, they were certainly on the Peking Observatory before Loyola was born. They are not made for the astronomical system introduced by the Jesuits, but are altogether conformable to the system introduced by Kúblái's astronomer Ko Show-king…. I will mention one thing which is quite decisive as to the Jesuits. The circle is divided into 365-1/4 degrees, each degree into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. The Jesuits always used the sexagesimal division. Lecomte speaks of the imperfection of the division on the Jesuit-made instruments; but those on the Mongol instruments are immeasurably coarser.
"I understand it is not the ornamentation your friend objects to?[4] If it is, I would observe that there is no evidence of progress in the decorative and ornamental arts during the Ming Dynasty; and even in the Jesuit instruments that part of the work is purely Chinese, excepting in one instrument, which I am persuaded must have been made in Europe.
"I have a Chinese work called Luh-King-t'oo-Kaou, 'Illustrations and Investigations of the Six Classics.' This was written in A.D. 1131-1162, and revised and printed in 1165-1174. It contains a representation of an armillary sphere, which appears to me to be much the same as the sphere in question. There is a solid horizon fixed to a graduated outer circle. Inside the latter is a meridian circle, at right angles to which is a graduated colure; then the equator, apparently a double ring, and the ecliptic; also two diametric bars. The cut is rudely executed, but it certainly shows that some one imagined something more perfect. The instrument stands on a cross frame, with 4 dragon supporters and a prop in the centre.[5]
"It should be remembered that under the Mongol Dynasty the Chinese had much intercourse with Central Asia; and among others Yelewchootsae, as confidential minister and astronomer, followed Chinghiz in his Western campaign, held intercourse with the astronomers of Samarkand, and on his return laid some astronomical inventions before the Emperor.
"I append a notice of the Observatory taken from a popular description of Peking, by which it will be seen that the construction of these instruments is attributed to Ko Show-king, one of the most renowned astronomers of China. He was the chief astronomer under Kúblái Kaan" [to whom he was presented in 1262; he was born in 1231.—H. C.]
"It must be remembered that there was a special vitality among the Chinese under the Yuen with regard to the arts and sciences, and the Emperor had the choice of artizans and men of science from all countries. From the age of the Yuen till the arrival of the Jesuits, we hear nothing of any new instruments having been made; and it is well known that astronomy was never in a lower condition than under the Ming."[6]
Mr. Wylie then draws attention to the account given by Trigault of the instruments that Matteo Ricci saw at Nanking, when he went (in the year 1599) to pay a visit to some of the literati of that city. He transcribes the account from the French Hist. de l'Expédition Chrestienne en la Chine, 1618. But as I have the Latin, which is the original and is more lucid, by me, I will translate from that.[7]
"Not only at Peking, but in this capital also (Nanking) there is a College of Chinese Mathematicians, and this one certainly is more distinguished by the vastness of its buildings than by the skill of its professors. They have little talent and less learning, and do nothing beyond the preparation of the almanacs on the rules of calculation made by the ancients; and when it chances that events do not agree with their calculation they assert that what they had calculated was the regular course of things, but that the aberrant conduct of the stars was a prognostic from heaven of something going to happen on the earth. This something they make out according to their fancy, and so spread a veil over their own blunders. These gentlemen did not much trust Father Matteo, fearing, no doubt, lest he should put them to shame; but when at last they were freed from this apprehension they came and amicably visited the Father in hope of learning something from him. And when he went to return their visit he saw something that really was new and beyond his expectation.
"There is a high hill at one side of the city, but still within the walls. On the top of the hill there is an ample terrace, capitally adapted for astronomical observation, and surrounded by magnificent buildings which form the residence of the Professors…. On this terrace are to be seen astronomical instruments of cast-metal, well worthy of inspection whether for size or for beauty; and we certainly have never seen or read of anything in Europe like them. For nearly 250 years they have stood thus exposed to the rain, the snow, and all other atmospheric inclemencies, and yet they have lost absolutely nothing of their original lustre. And lest I should be accused of raising expectations which I do not justify, I will do my best in a digression, probably not unwelcome, to bring them before the eyes of my readers.
"The larger of these instruments were four in number. First we inspected a great globe [A], graduated with meridians and parallels; we estimated that three men would hardly be able to embrace its girth…. A second instrument was a great sphere [B ], not less in diameter than that measure of the outstretched arms which is commonly called a geometric pace. It had a horizon and poles; instead of circles it was provided with certain double hoops (armillae), the void space between the pair serving the purpose of the circles of our spheres. All these were divided into 365 degrees and some odd minutes. There was no globe to represent the earth in the centre, but there was a certain tube, bored like a gun-barrel, which could readily be turned about and fixed to any azimuth or any altitude so as to observe any particular star through the tube, just as we do with our vane-sights;[8]—not at all a despicable device! The third machine was a gnomon [C], the height of which was twice the diameter of the former instrument, erected on a very large and long slab of marble, on the northern side of the terrace. The stone slab had a channel cut round the margin, to be filled with water in order to determine whether the slab was level or not, and the style was set vertical as in hour-dials.[9] We may suppose this gnomon to have been erected that by its aid the shadow at the solstices and equinoxes might be precisely noted, for in that view both the slab and the style were graduated. The fourth and last instrument, and the largest of all, was one consisting as it were of three or four huge astrolabes in juxtaposition [D]; each of them having a diameter of such a geometrical pace as I have specified. The fiducial line, or Alhidada, as it is called, was not lacking, nor yet the Dioptra.[10] Of these astrolabes, one having a tilted position in the direction of the south, represented the equator; a second, which stood crosswise on the first, in a north and south plane, the Father took for a meridian; but it could be turned round on its axis; a third stood in the meridian plane with its axis perpendicular, and seemed to stand for a vertical circle; but this also could be turned round so as to show any vertical whatever. Moreover all these were graduated, and the degrees marked by prominent studs of iron, so that in the night the graduation could be read by the touch without a light. All this compound astrolabe instrument was erected on a level marble platform with channels round it for levelling. On each of these instruments explanations of everything were given in Chinese characters; and there were also engraved the 24 zodiacal constellations which answer to our 12 signs, 2 to each.[11] There was, however, one error common to all the instruments, viz. that, in all, the elevation of the Pole was assumed to be 36°. Now there can be no question about the fact that the city of Nanking lies in lat. 32-1/4°; whence it would seem probable that these instruments were made for another locality, and had been erected at Nanking, without reference to its position, by some one ill versed in mathematical science.[12]
[Illustration: Observatory Terrace]
[Illustration: Observatory Instruments of the Jesuits.]
"Some years afterwards Father Matteo saw similar instruments at Peking, or rather the same instruments, so exactly alike were they, insomuch that they had unquestionably been made by the same artist. And indeed it is known that they were cast at the period when the Tartars were dominant in China; and we may without rashness conjecture that they were the work of some foreigner acquainted with our studies. But it is time to have done with these instruments."—(Lib. IV. cap. 5.)
In this interesting description it will be seen that the Armillary Sphere [B ] agrees entirely with that represented in illustration facing p. 450. And the second of his photographs in my possession, but not, I believe, yet published, answers perfectly to the curious description of the 4th instrument [D]. Indeed, I should scarcely have been able to translate that description intelligibly but for the aid of the photograph before me. It shows the three astrolabes or graduated circles with travelling indexes arranged exactly as described, and pivoted on a complex frame of bronze; (1) circle in the plane of the equator for measuring right ascensions; (2) circle with its axis vertical to the plane of the last, for measuring declinations: (3) circle with vertical axis, for zenith distances? The Gnomon [A] was seen by Mr. Wylie in one of the lower rooms of the Observatory (see below). Of the Globe we do not now hear; and that mentioned by Lecomte among the ancient instruments was inferior to what Ricci describes at Peking.
I now transcribe Mr. Wylie's translation of an extract from a Popular Description of Peking:
"The observatory is on an elevated stage on the city wall, in the south-east corner of the (Tartar) city, and was built in the year (A.D. 1279). In the centre was the Tze-wei[13] Palace, inside of which were a pair of scrolls, and a cross inscription, by the imperial hand. Formerly it contained the Hwan-t'ien-e [B ] 'Armillary Sphere'; the Keen-e [D?] 'Transit Instrument' (?); the Tung-kew [A] 'Brass Globe'; and the Leang-t'ien-ch'ih, 'Sector,' which were constructed by Ko Show-king under the Yuen Dynasty.
"In (1673) the old instruments having stood the wear of long past years, had become almost useless, and six new instruments were made by imperial authority. These were the T'ien-t'ee 'Celestial Globe' (6); Chih-taoue 'Equinoctial Sphere' (2); Hwang-taoue 'Zodiacal Sphere' (1); Te-p'ing kinge 'Azimuthal Horizon' (3); Te-p'ing weie 'Altitude Instrument' (4); Ke-yene 'Sextant' (5). These were placed in the Observatory, and to the present day are respectfully used. The old instruments were at the same time removed, and deposited at the foot of the stage. In (1715) the Te-ping King-wei-e 'Azimuth and Altitude Instrument' was made;[14] and in 1744 the Ke-hang-foo-chin-e (literally 'Sphere and Tube instrument for sweeping the heavens'). All these were placed on the Observatory stage.
"There is a wind-index-pole called the 'Fair-wind-pennon,' on which is an iron disk marked out in 28 points, corresponding in number to the 28 constellations."[15]
+ Mr. Wylie justly observes that the evidence is all in accord, and it leaves, I think, no reasonable room for doubt that the instruments now in the Observatory garden at Peking are those which were cast aside by Father Verbiest[16] in 1673 (or 1668); which Father Ricci saw at Peking at the beginning of the century, and of which he has described the duplicates at Nanking; and which had come down from the time of the Mongols, or, more precisely, of Kúblái Khan.
Ricci speaks of their age as nearly 250 years in 1599; Verbiest as nearly 300 years in 1668. But these estimates evidently point to the termination of the Mongol Dynasty (1368), to which the Chinese would naturally refer their oral chronology. We have seen that Kúblái's reign was the era of flourishing astronomy, and that the instruments are referred to his astronomer Ko Shéu-king; nor does there seem any ground for questioning this. In fact, it being once established that the instruments existed when the Jesuits entered China, all the objections fall to the ground.
We may observe that the number of the ancient instruments mentioned in the popular Chinese account agrees with the number of important instruments described by Ricci, and the titles of three at least out of the four seem to indicate the same instruments. The catalogue of the new instruments of 1673 (or 1668) given in the native work also agrees exactly with that given by Lecomte.[17] And in reference to my question as to the possibility that one of Verbiest's instruments might have been removed from the terrace to the garden, it is now hardly worth while to repeat Mr. Wylie's assurance that there is no ground whatever for such a supposition. The instruments represented by Lecomte are all still on the terrace, only their positions have been somewhat altered to make room for the two added in last century.
Probably, says Mr. Wylie, more might have been added from Chinese works, especially the biography of Ko Shéu-king. But my kind correspondent was unable to travel beyond the books on his own shelves. Nor was it needful.
It will have been seen that, beautiful as the art and casting of these instruments is, it would be a mistake to suppose that they are entitled to equally high rank in scientific accuracy. Mr. Wylie mentioned the question that had been started to Freiherr von Gumpach, who was for some years Professor of Astronomy in the Peking College. Whilst entirely rejecting the doubts that had been raised as to the age of the Mongol instruments, he said that he had seen those of Tycho Brahe, and the former are quite unworthy to be compared with Tycho's in scientific accuracy.
The doubts expressed have been useful in drawing attention to these remarkable reliques of the era of Kúblái's reign, and of Marco Polo's residence in Cathay, though I fear they are answerable for having added some pages to a work that required no enlargement!
[Mr. Wylie sent a most valuable paper on The Mongol Astronomical Instruments at Peking to the Congress of Orientalists held at St. Petersburg, which was reprinted at Shanghai in 1897 in Chinese
Researches. Some of the astronomical instruments have been removed to Potsdam by the Germans since the siege of the foreign Legations at Peking in 1900.—H. C.]
On these auguries, and on diviners and fortune-tellers, see Semedo, p. 118 seqq.; Kidd, p. 313 (also for preceding references, Mid. Kingdom, II. 152; Gaubil, 136).
NOTE 2.— + The real cycle of the Mongols, which was also that of the Chinese, runs: 1. Rat; 2. Ox; 3. Tiger; 4. Hare; 5. Dragon; 6. Serpent; 7. Horse; 8. Sheep; 9. Ape; 10. Cock; 11. Dog; 12. Swine. But as such a cycle [12 earthly branches, Ti-chih] is too short to avoid confusion, it is combined with a co-efficient cycle of ten epithets [celestial Stems, T'ien-kan] in such wise as to produce a 60-year cycle of compound names before the same shall recur. These co-efficient epithets are found in four different forms: (1) From the Elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water, attaching to each a masculine and feminine attribute so as to make ten epithets. (2) From the Colours: Blue, Red, Yellow, White, Black, similarly treated. (3) By terms without meaning in Mongol, directly adopted or imitated from the Chinese, Ga, Yi, Bing, Ting, etc. (4) By the five Cardinal Points: East, South, Middle, West, North. Thus 1864 was the first year of a 60-year cycle:—
1864 = (Masc.) Wood-Rat Year = (Masc.) Blue-Rat Year.
1865 = (Fem.) Wood-Ox Year = (Fem.) Blue-Ox Year.
1866 = (Masc.) Fire-Tiger Year = (Masc.) Red-Tiger Year.
1867 = (Fem.) Fire-Hare Year = (Fem.) Red-Hare Year.
1923 = (Fem.) Water-Swine Year = (Fem.) Black-Swine Year.
And then a new cycle commences just as before.
This Calendar was carried by the Mongols into all their dominions, and it would appear to have long survived them in Persia. Thus a document issued in favour of Sir John Chardin by the Shaikh-ul-Islám of Ispahan, bears the strange date for a Mahomedan luminary of "The year of the Swine." The Hindus also had a 60-year cycle, but with them each year had an independent name.
The Mongols borrowed their system from the Chinese, who attribute its invention to the Emperor Hwang-ti, and its initiation to the 61st year of his reign, corresponding to B.C. 2637. ["It was Ta-nao, Minister to the Emperor Hwang-ti, who, by command of his Sovereign, devised the sexagenary cycle. Hwang-ti began to reign 2697 B.C., and the 61st year of his reign was taken for the first cyclical sign." P. Hoang, Chinese Calendar; p. 11.—H. C.] The characters representing what we have called the ten coefficient epithets are called by the Chinese the "Heavenly Stems"; those equivalent to the twelve animal symbols are the "Earthly Branches," and they are applied in their combinations not to years only, but to cycles of months, days, and hours, such hours being equal to two of ours. Thus every year, month, day, and hour will have two appropriate characters, and the four pairs belonging to the time of any man's birth constitute what the Chinese call the "Eight Characters" of his age, to which constant reference is made in some of their systems of fortune-telling, and in the selection of propitious days for the transaction of business. To this system the text alludes. A curious account of the principles of prognostication on such a basis will be found in Doolittle's Social Life of the Chinese (p. 579 seqq.; on the Calendar, see Schmidt's Preface to S. Setzen; Pallas, Sammlungen, II. 228 seqq.; Prinsep's Essays, Useful Tables, 146.)
["Kubilai Khan established in Peking two astronomical boards and two observatories. One of them was a Chinese Observatory (sze t'ien t'ai), the other a Mohammedan Observatory (hui hui sze t'ien t'ai), each with its particular astronomical and chronological systems, its particular astrology and instruments. The first astronomical and calendar system was compiled for the Mongols by Ye-liu Ch'u-ts'ai, who was in Chingis Khan's service, not only as a high counsellor, but also as an astronomer and astrologer. After having been convinced of the obsoleteness and incorrectness of the astronomical calculations in the Ta ming li (the name of the calendar system of the Kin Dynasty), he thought out at the time he was at Samarcand a new system, valid not only for China, but also for the countries conquered by the Mongols in Western Asia, and named it in memory of Chingis Khan's expedition Si ching keng wu yüan li, i.e., 'Astronomical Calendar beginning with the year Keng wu, compiled during the war in the west.' Keng-wu was the year 1210 of our era. Ye-liu Ch'u-ts'ai chose this year, and the moment of the winter solstice, for the beginning of his period; because, according to his calculations, it coincided with the beginning of a new astronomical or planetary period. He took also into consideration, that since the year 1211 Chingis Khan's glory had spread over the whole world. Ye-liu Ch'u-ts'ai's calendar was not adopted in China, but the system of it is explained in the Yuen-shi, in the section on Astronomy and the Calendar.
"In the year 1267, the Mohammedans presented to Kubilai their astronomical calendar (wan nien li, i.e.), the calendar of ten thousand years. By taking this denomination in its literal sense, we may conclude that the Mahommedans brought to China the ancient Persian system, founded on the period of 10,000 years. The compilers of the Yuen-shi seem not to have had access to documents relating to this system, for they give no details about it. Finally by order of Kubilai the astronomers Hui-Heng and Ko Show-King composed a new calculation under the name of Shou-shi-li which came into use from the year 1280. It is thoroughly explained in the Yuen-shi. Notwithstanding the fame this system generally enjoyed, its blemishes came soon to light. In the sixth month of 1302 an eclipse of the sun happened, and the calculation of the astronomer proved to be erroneous (it seems the calculation had anticipated the real time). The astronomers of the Ming Dynasty explained the errors in the Shou-shi-li by the circumstance, that in that calculation the period for one degree of precession of the equinox was taken too long (eighty-one years). But they were themselves hardly able to overcome these difficulties." (Palladius, pp. 51-53.)—H. C.]
_______________
Notes:
[1] Besides the works quoted in the text I have only been able to consult Gaubil's notices, as abstracted in Lalande; and the Introductory Remarks to Mr. J. Williams's Observations of Comets … extracted from the Chinese Annals, London, 1871.
[2] Pinnula. The French pinnule is properly a sight-vane at the end of a traversing bar. The transverse lines imply that minutes were read by the system of our diagonal scales; and these I understand to have been subdivided still further by aid of a divided edge attached to the sight-vane; qu. a Vernier?
[3] Verbiest himself speaks of the displaced instruments thus … "ut nova instrumenta astronomica facienda mihi imponeret, quae scilicet more Europaeo affabre facta, et in specula Astroptica Pekinensi collocata, aeternam Imperii Tartarici memoriam apud posteritatem servarent, prioribus instrumentis Sinicis rudioris Minervae, quae jam a trecentis proxime annis speculam occupabant, inde amotis. Imperator statim annuit illorum postulatis. et totius rei curam, publico diplomate mihi imposuit. Ego itaque intra quadriennis spatium sex diversi generis instrumenta confeci." This is from an account of the Observatory written by Verbiest himself, and printed at Peking in 1668 (Liber Organicus Astronomiae Europaeae apud Sinas Restitutae, etc.). My friend Mr. D. Hanbury made the extract from a copy of this rare book in the London Institution Library. An enlarged edition was published in Europe. (Dillingen, 1687.)
[4] On the contrary, he considered the photographs interesting, as showing to how late a period the art of fine casting had endured.
[5] This ancient instrument is probably the same that is engraved in Pauthier's Chine Ancienne under the title of "The Sphere of the Emperor Shun" (B.C. 2255!).
[6] After the death of Kúblái astronomy fell into neglect, and when Hongwu, the first Ming sovereign, took the throne (1368) the subject was almost forgotten. Nor was there any revival till the time of Ching. The latter was a prince who in 1573 associated himself with the astronomer Hing-yun-lu to reform the state of astronomy. (Gaubil.)
What Ricci has recorded (in Trigautius) of the dense ignorance of the Chinese literati in astronomical matters is entirely consistent with the preceding statements.
[7] I had entirely forgotten to look at Trigault till Mr. Wylie sent me the extract. The copy I use (De Christianá Expeditione apud Sinas … Auct. Nicolao Trigautio) is of Lugdun. 1616. The first edition was published at August. Vindelicorum (Augsburg) in 1615: the French, at Lyons, in 1616.
[8] "Pinnulis."
[9] "Et stilus eo modo quo in horologiis ad perpendiculum collocatus."
[10] The Alidada is the traversing index bar which carries the dioptra, pinnules, or sight-vanes. The word is found in some older English Dictionaries, and in France and Italy is still applied to the traversing index of a plane table or of a sextant. Littré derives it from (Ar.) 'adád, enumeration; but it is really from a quite different word, al-idádat [Arabic] "a door-post," which is found in this sense in an Arabic treatise on the Astrolabe. (See Dozy and Engelmann, p. 140.)
[11] This is an error of Ricci's, as Mr. Wylie observes, or of his reporter.
The Chinese divide their year into 24 portions of 15 days each. Of these 24 divisions twelve called Kung mark the twelve places in which the sun and moon come into conjunction, and are thus in some degree analogous to our 12 signs of the Zodiac. The names of these Kung are entirely different from those of our sign, though since the 17th century the Western Zodiac, with paraphrased names, has been introduced in some of their books. But besides that, they divide the heavens into 28 stellar spaces. The correspondence of this division to the Hindu system of the 28 Lunar Mansions, called Nakshatras, has given rise to much discussion. The Chinese sieu or stellar spaces are excessively unequal, varying from 24° in equatorial extent down to 24'. (Williams, op. cit.) [See P. Hoang, supra p. 449.]
[12] Mr. Wylie is inclined to distrust the accuracy of this remark, as the only city nearly on the 36th parallel is P'ing-yang fu.
But we have noted in regard to this (Polo's Pianfu, vol. ii. p. 17) that a college for the education of Mongol youth was instituted here, by the great minister Yeliu Chutsai, whose devotion to astronomy Mr. Wylie has noticed above. In fact, two colleges were established by him, one at Yenking, i.e. Peking, the other at P'ing-yang; and astronomy is specified as one of the studies to be pursued at these. (See D'Ohsson, II. 71-72, quoting De Mailla.) It seems highly probable that the two sets of instruments were originally intended for these two institutions, and that one set was carried to Nanking, when the Ming set their capital there in 1368.
[13] The 28 sieu or stellar spaces, above spoken of, do not extend to the Pole; they are indeed very unequal in extent on the meridian as well as on the equator. And the area in the northern sky not embraced in them is divided into three large spaces called Yuen or enclosures, of which the field of circumpolar stars (or circle of perpetual apparition) forms one which is called Tze-Wei. (Williams.)
The southern circumpolar stars form a fourth space, beyond the 28 sieu. Ibid.
[14] "This was obviously made in France. There is nothing Chinese about it, either in construction or ornament. It is very different from all the others." (Note by Mr. Wylie.)
[15] "There follows a minute description of the brass clepsydra, and the brass gnomon, which it is unnecessary to translate. I have seen both these instruments, in two of the lower rooms."—Id.
[16] [Ferdinand Verbiest, S.J., was born at Pitthens, near Courtrai; he arrived in China in 1659 and died at Peking on the 29th January, 1688.—H. C.]
[17] We have attached letters A, B, C, to indicate the correspondences of the ancient instruments, and cyphers 1, 2, 3, to indicate the correspondences of the modern instruments.
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Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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CHAPTER XXXIV. [CONCERNING THE RELIGION OF THE CATHAYANS;[NOTE 1] THEIR VIEWS AS TO THE SOUL; AND THEIR CUSTOMS.
As we have said before, these people are Idolaters, and as regards their gods, each has a tablet fixed high up on the wall of his chamber, on which is inscribed a name which represents the Most High and Heavenly God; and before this they pay daily worship, offering incense from a thurible, raising their hands aloft, and gnashing their teeth[NOTE 2] three times, praying Him to grant them health of mind and body; but of Him they ask nought else. And below on the ground there is a figure which they call Natigai, which is the god of things terrestrial. To him they give a wife and children, and they worship him in the same manner, with incense, and gnashing of teeth,[NOTE 2] and lifting up of hands; and of him they ask seasonable weather, and the fruits of the earth, children, and so forth.[NOTE 3]
Their view of the immortality of the soul is after this fashion. They believe that as soon as a man dies, his soul enters into another body, going from a good to a better, or from a bad to a worse, according as he hath conducted himself well or ill. That is to say, a poor man, if he have passed through life good and sober, shall be born again of a gentlewoman, and shall be a gentleman; and on a second occasion shall be born of a princess and shall be a prince, and so on, always rising, till he be absorbed into the Deity. But if he have borne himself ill, he who was the son of a gentleman shall be reborn as the son of a boor, and from a boor shall become a dog, always going down lower and lower.
The people have an ornate style of speech; they salute each other with a cheerful countenance, and with great politeness; they behave like gentlemen, and eat with great propriety.[NOTE 4] They show great respect to their parents; and should there be any son who offends his parents, or fails to minister to their necessities, there is a public office which has no other charge but that of punishing unnatural children, who are proved to have acted with ingratitude towards their parents.[NOTE 5]
Criminals of sundry kinds who have been imprisoned, are released at a time fixed by the Great Kaan (which occurs every three years), but on leaving prison they are branded on one cheek that they may be recognized.
The Great Kaan hath prohibited all gambling and sharping, things more prevalent there than in any other part of the world. In doing this, he said: "I have conquered you by force of arms, and all that you have is mine; if, therefore, you gamble away your property, it is in fact my property that you are gambling away." Not that he took anything from them however.
I must not omit to tell you of the orderly way in which the Kaan's Barons and others conduct themselves in coming to his presence. In the first place, within a half mile of the place where he is, out of reverence for his exalted majesty, everybody preserves a mien of the greatest meekness and quiet, so that no noise of shrill voices or loud talk shall be heard. And every one of the chiefs and nobles carries always with him a handsome little vessel to spit in whilst he remain in the Hall of Audience—for no one dares spit on the floor of the hall,—and when he hath spitten he covers it up and puts it aside.[NOTE 6] So also they all have certain handsome buskins of white leather, which they carry with them, and, when summoned by the sovereign, on arriving at the entrance to the hall, they put on these white buskins, and give their others in charge to the servants, in order that they may not foul the fine carpets of silk and gold and divers colours.]
NOTE 1.—Ramusio's heading has Tartars, but it is manifestly of the Cathayans or Chinese that the author speaks throughout this chapter.
NOTE 2.—"Sbattendo i denti." This is almost certainly, as Marsden has noticed, due to some error of transcription. Probably Battono i fronti, or something similar, was the true reading. [See following note, p. 461.—H. C.]
NOTE 3.—The latter part of this passage has, I doubt not, been more or less interpolated, seeing that it introduces again as a Chinese divinity the rude object of primitive Tartar worship, of which we have already heard in Bk. I. ch. liii. And regarding the former part of the passage, one cannot but have some doubt whether what was taken for the symbol of the Most High was not the ancestral tablet, which is usually placed in one of the inner rooms of the house, and before which worship is performed at fixed times, and according to certain established forms. Something, too, may have been known of the Emperor's worship of Heaven at the great circular temple at Peking, called T'ien-t'ân, or Altar of Heaven (see p. 459), where incensed offerings are made before a tablet, on which is inscribed the name Yuh-Hwang Shang-ti, which some interpret as "The Supreme Ruler of the Imperial Heavens," and regard as the nearest approach to pure Theism of which there is any indication in Chinese worship (See Doolittle, pp. 170, 625; and Lockhart in J. R. G. S., xxxvi. 142). This worship is mentioned by the Mahomedan narrator of Shah Rukh's embassy (1421): "Every year there are some days on which the Emperor eats no animal food…. He spends his time in an apartment which contains no idol, and says that he is worshipping the God of Heaven."[1] (Ind. Antiquary, II. 81.)
[Illustration: Great Temple of Heaven, Peking.]
The charge of irreligion against the Chinese is an old one, and is made by Hayton in nearly the same terms as it often is by modern missionaries: "And though these people have the acutest intelligence in all matters wherein material things are concerned, yet you shall never find among them any knowledge or perception of spiritual things." Yet it is a mistake to suppose that this insensibility has been so universal as it is often represented. To say nothing of the considerable numbers who have adhered faithfully to the Roman Catholic Church, the large number of Mahomedans in China, of whom many must have been proselytes, indicates an interest in religion; and that Buddhism itself was in China once a spiritual power of no small energy will, I think, be plain to any one who reads the very interesting extracts in Schott's essay on Buddhism in Upper Asia and China. (Berlin Acad. of Sciences, 1846.) These seem to be so little known that I will translate two or three of them. "In the years Yuan-yeu of the Sung (A.D. 1086-1093), a pious matron with her two servants lived entirely to the Land of Enlightenment. One of the maids said one day to her companion: 'To-night I shall pass over to the Realm of Amita.' The same night a balsamic odour filled the house, and the maid died without any preceding illness. On the following day the surviving maid said to the lady: 'Yesterday my deceased companion appeared to me in a dream, and said to me: "Thanks to the persevering exhortations of our mistress, I am become a partaker of Paradise, and my blessedness is past all expression in words."' The matron replied: 'If she will appear to me also then I will believe what you say.' Next night the deceased really appeared to her, and saluted her with respect. The lady asked: 'May I, for once, visit the Land of Enlightenment?' 'Yea,' answered the Blessed Soul, 'thou hast but to follow thy handmaiden.' The lady followed her (in her dream), and soon perceived a lake of immeasurable expanse, overspread with innumerable red and white lotus flowers, of various sizes, some blooming, some fading. She asked what those flowers might signify? The maiden replied: 'These are all human beings on the earth whose thoughts are turned to the Land of Enlightenment. The very first longing after the Paradise of Amita produces a flower in the Celestial Lake, and this becomes daily larger and more glorious, as the self-improvement of the person whom it represents advances; in the contrary case, it loses in glory and fades away.'[2] The matron desired to know the name of an enlightened one who reposed on one of the flowers, clad in a waving and wondrously glistening raiment. Her whilom maiden answered: 'That is Yangkie.' Then asked she the name of another, and was answered: 'That is Mahu.' The lady then said: 'At what place shall I hereafter come into existence?' Then the Blessed Soul led her a space further, and showed her a hill that gleamed with gold and azure. 'Here,' said she, 'is your future abode. You will belong to the first order of the blessed.' When the matron awoke she sent to enquire for Yangkie and Mahu. The first was already departed; the other still alive and well. And thus the lady learned that the soul of one who advances in holiness and never turns back, may be already a dweller in the Land of Enlightenment, even though the body still sojourn in this transitory world" (pp. 55-56).
What a singular counterpart the striking conclusion here forms to Dante's tremendous assault on a still living villain,—or enemy!
Again: "I knew a man who during his life had killed many living beings, and was at last struck with an apoplexy. The sorrows in store for his sin-laden soul pained me to the heart; I visited him, and exhorted him to call on the Amita; but he obstinately refused, and spoke only of indifferent matters. His illness clouded his understanding; in consequence of his misdeeds he had become hardened. What was before such a man when once his eyes were closed? Wherefore let men be converted while there is yet time! In this life the night followeth the day, and the winter followeth the summer; that, all men are aware of. But that life is followed by death, no man will consider. Oh, what blindness and obduracy is this!" (p. 93).
Again: "Hoang-ta-tie, of T'ancheu (Changshu-fu in Honan), who lived under the Sung, followed the craft of a blacksmith. Whenever he was at his work he used to call without intermission on the name of Amita Buddha. One day he handed to his neighbours the following verses of his own composing to be spread about:—
Thereupon he died. But his verses spread all over Honan, and many learned to call upon Buddha" (103).
Once more: "In my own town there lived a physician by name Chang-yan-ming. He was a man who never took payment for his treatment from any one in poor or indifferent circumstances; nay, he would often make presents to such persons of money or corn to lighten their lot. If a rich man would have his advice and paid him a fee, he never looked to see whether it were much or little. If a patient lay so dangerously ill that Yanming despaired of his recovery, he would still give him good medicine to comfort his heart, but never took payment for it. I knew this man for many a year, and I never heard the word Money pass his lips! One day a fire broke out in the town, and laid the whole of the houses in ashes; only that of the physician was spared. His sons and grandsons reached high dignities" (p. 110).
Of such as this physician the apostle said: "Of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons; But in every nation he that feareth Him, and worketh righteousness, is accepted with Him."
["By the 'Most High and Heavenly God,' worshipped by the Chinese, as Marco Polo reports, evidently the Chinese T'ien, 'Heaven' is meant, Lao t'ien ye in the common language. Regarding 'the God of things terrestrial,' whose figure the Chinese, according to M. Polo, 'placed below on the ground,' there can also be no doubt that he understands the T'u-ti, the local 'Lar' of the Chinese, to which they present sacrifices on the floor, near the wall under the table.
"M. Polo reports, that the Chinese worship their God offering incense, raising their hands aloft, and gnashing their teeth. Of course he means that they placed the hands together, or held kindled joss-stick bundles in their hands, according to the Chinese custom. The statement of M. Polo sbattendo i denti is very remarkable. It seems to me, that very few of the Chinese are aware of the fact, that this custom still exists among the Taouists. In the rituals of the Taouists the K'ow-ch'i (Ko'w = 'to knock against,'ch'i = 'teeth') is prescribed as a comminatory and propitiatory act. It is effected by the four upper and lower foreteeth. The Taouists are obliged before the service begins to perform a certain number of 'K'ow-ch'i, turning their heads alternately to the left and to the right, in order to drive away mundane thoughts and aggressions of bad spirits. The K'ow-ch'i repeated three times is called ming fa ku in Chinese, i.e. 'to beat the spiritual drum.' The ritual says, that it is heard by the Most High Ruler, who is moved by it to grace.
"M. Polo observed this custom among the lay heathen. Indeed, it appears from a small treatise, written in China more than a hundred years before M. Polo, that at the time the Chinese author wrote, all devout men, entering a temple, used to perform the K'ow-ch'i, and considered it an expression of veneration and devotion to the idols. Thus this custom had been preserved to the time of M. Polo, who did not fail to mention this strange peculiarity in the exterior observances of the Chinese. As regards the present time it seems to me, that this custom is not known among the people, and even with respect to the Taouists it is only performed on certain occasions, and not in all Taouist temples." (Palladius, pp. 53-54.)—H. C.]
NOTE 4.—"True politeness cannot of course be taught by rules merely, but a great degree of urbanity and kindness is everywhere shown, whether owing to the naturally placable disposition of the people, or to the effects of their early instruction in the forms of politeness." (Mid. Kingdom, II. 68.) As regards the "ornate style of speech," a well-bred Chinaman never says I or You, but for the former "the little person," "the disciple," "the inferior," and so on; and for the latter, "the learned man," "the master," or even "the emperor." These phrases, however, are not confined to China, most of them having exact parallels in Hindustani courtesy. On this subject and the courteous disposition of the Chinese, see Fontaney, in Lett. Edif. VII. 287 seqq.; also XI. 287 seqq.; Semedo, 36; Lecomte, II. 48 seqq. There are, however, strong differences of opinion expressed on this subject; there is, apparently, much more genuine courtesy in the north than in the south.
NOTE 5.—"Filial piety is the fundamental principle of the Chinese polity." (Amiot, V. 129.) "In cases of extreme unfilial conduct, parents sometimes accuse their children before the magistrate, and demand his official aid in controlling or punishing them; but such instances are comparatively rare…. If the parent require his son to be publicly whipped by the command of the magistrate, the latter is obliged to order the infliction of the whipping…. If after punishment the son remain undutiful and disobedient, and his parents demand it at the hands of the magistrate, the latter must, with the consent of the maternal uncles of the son, cause him to be taken out to the high wall in front of the yamun, and have him there publicly whipped to death." (Doolittle, 102-103.)
NOTE 6.—[Mr. Rockhill writes to me that pocket-spitoons are still used in China.—H. C.]
_______________
Notes:
[1] "In the worship carried on here the Emperor acts as a high priest. HE only worships; and no subject, however high in rank, can join in the adoration." (Lockhart.) The actual temple dates from 1420-1430; but the Institution is very ancient, and I think there is evidence that such a structure existed under the Mongols, probably only restored by the Ming. [It was built during the 18th year of the reign of the third Ming Emperor Yung Loh (1403-1425); it was entirely restored during the 18th year of K'ien Lung; it was struck by lightning and burnt down in 1889; it is being re-built.—H. C.]
[2] In 1871 I saw in Bond Street an exhibition of (so-called) "spirit" drawings, i.e. drawings alleged to be executed by a "medium" under extraneous and invisible guidance. A number of these extraordinary productions (for extraordinary they were undoubtedly) professed to represent the "Spiritual Flowers" of such and such persons; and the explanation of this as presented in the catalogue was in substance exactly that given in the text. It is highly improbable that the artist had any cognizance of Schott's Essay, and the coincidence was assuredly very striking.
END OF VOL I.
[Illustration: MARCO POLO'S ITINERARIES No. IV (Book I, Chapter 36 to end & chief part of Book II.)]
[Illustration: PLAN OF SHANGTU From an Eye Sketch by Dr. S W Bushell 1872]
[Illustration: Archway erected under the Mongol Dynasty at Kiu Yung Kwan, N.W. of Peking.[1]]
_______________
Notes:
[1] On the walls of this archway is engraved the inscription in six characters, of which a representation accompanies ch. xv. of Prologue, note 1.
As we have said before, these people are Idolaters, and as regards their gods, each has a tablet fixed high up on the wall of his chamber, on which is inscribed a name which represents the Most High and Heavenly God; and before this they pay daily worship, offering incense from a thurible, raising their hands aloft, and gnashing their teeth[NOTE 2] three times, praying Him to grant them health of mind and body; but of Him they ask nought else. And below on the ground there is a figure which they call Natigai, which is the god of things terrestrial. To him they give a wife and children, and they worship him in the same manner, with incense, and gnashing of teeth,[NOTE 2] and lifting up of hands; and of him they ask seasonable weather, and the fruits of the earth, children, and so forth.[NOTE 3]
Their view of the immortality of the soul is after this fashion. They believe that as soon as a man dies, his soul enters into another body, going from a good to a better, or from a bad to a worse, according as he hath conducted himself well or ill. That is to say, a poor man, if he have passed through life good and sober, shall be born again of a gentlewoman, and shall be a gentleman; and on a second occasion shall be born of a princess and shall be a prince, and so on, always rising, till he be absorbed into the Deity. But if he have borne himself ill, he who was the son of a gentleman shall be reborn as the son of a boor, and from a boor shall become a dog, always going down lower and lower.
The people have an ornate style of speech; they salute each other with a cheerful countenance, and with great politeness; they behave like gentlemen, and eat with great propriety.[NOTE 4] They show great respect to their parents; and should there be any son who offends his parents, or fails to minister to their necessities, there is a public office which has no other charge but that of punishing unnatural children, who are proved to have acted with ingratitude towards their parents.[NOTE 5]
Criminals of sundry kinds who have been imprisoned, are released at a time fixed by the Great Kaan (which occurs every three years), but on leaving prison they are branded on one cheek that they may be recognized.
The Great Kaan hath prohibited all gambling and sharping, things more prevalent there than in any other part of the world. In doing this, he said: "I have conquered you by force of arms, and all that you have is mine; if, therefore, you gamble away your property, it is in fact my property that you are gambling away." Not that he took anything from them however.
I must not omit to tell you of the orderly way in which the Kaan's Barons and others conduct themselves in coming to his presence. In the first place, within a half mile of the place where he is, out of reverence for his exalted majesty, everybody preserves a mien of the greatest meekness and quiet, so that no noise of shrill voices or loud talk shall be heard. And every one of the chiefs and nobles carries always with him a handsome little vessel to spit in whilst he remain in the Hall of Audience—for no one dares spit on the floor of the hall,—and when he hath spitten he covers it up and puts it aside.[NOTE 6] So also they all have certain handsome buskins of white leather, which they carry with them, and, when summoned by the sovereign, on arriving at the entrance to the hall, they put on these white buskins, and give their others in charge to the servants, in order that they may not foul the fine carpets of silk and gold and divers colours.]
NOTE 1.—Ramusio's heading has Tartars, but it is manifestly of the Cathayans or Chinese that the author speaks throughout this chapter.
NOTE 2.—"Sbattendo i denti." This is almost certainly, as Marsden has noticed, due to some error of transcription. Probably Battono i fronti, or something similar, was the true reading. [See following note, p. 461.—H. C.]
NOTE 3.—The latter part of this passage has, I doubt not, been more or less interpolated, seeing that it introduces again as a Chinese divinity the rude object of primitive Tartar worship, of which we have already heard in Bk. I. ch. liii. And regarding the former part of the passage, one cannot but have some doubt whether what was taken for the symbol of the Most High was not the ancestral tablet, which is usually placed in one of the inner rooms of the house, and before which worship is performed at fixed times, and according to certain established forms. Something, too, may have been known of the Emperor's worship of Heaven at the great circular temple at Peking, called T'ien-t'ân, or Altar of Heaven (see p. 459), where incensed offerings are made before a tablet, on which is inscribed the name Yuh-Hwang Shang-ti, which some interpret as "The Supreme Ruler of the Imperial Heavens," and regard as the nearest approach to pure Theism of which there is any indication in Chinese worship (See Doolittle, pp. 170, 625; and Lockhart in J. R. G. S., xxxvi. 142). This worship is mentioned by the Mahomedan narrator of Shah Rukh's embassy (1421): "Every year there are some days on which the Emperor eats no animal food…. He spends his time in an apartment which contains no idol, and says that he is worshipping the God of Heaven."[1] (Ind. Antiquary, II. 81.)
[Illustration: Great Temple of Heaven, Peking.]
The charge of irreligion against the Chinese is an old one, and is made by Hayton in nearly the same terms as it often is by modern missionaries: "And though these people have the acutest intelligence in all matters wherein material things are concerned, yet you shall never find among them any knowledge or perception of spiritual things." Yet it is a mistake to suppose that this insensibility has been so universal as it is often represented. To say nothing of the considerable numbers who have adhered faithfully to the Roman Catholic Church, the large number of Mahomedans in China, of whom many must have been proselytes, indicates an interest in religion; and that Buddhism itself was in China once a spiritual power of no small energy will, I think, be plain to any one who reads the very interesting extracts in Schott's essay on Buddhism in Upper Asia and China. (Berlin Acad. of Sciences, 1846.) These seem to be so little known that I will translate two or three of them. "In the years Yuan-yeu of the Sung (A.D. 1086-1093), a pious matron with her two servants lived entirely to the Land of Enlightenment. One of the maids said one day to her companion: 'To-night I shall pass over to the Realm of Amita.' The same night a balsamic odour filled the house, and the maid died without any preceding illness. On the following day the surviving maid said to the lady: 'Yesterday my deceased companion appeared to me in a dream, and said to me: "Thanks to the persevering exhortations of our mistress, I am become a partaker of Paradise, and my blessedness is past all expression in words."' The matron replied: 'If she will appear to me also then I will believe what you say.' Next night the deceased really appeared to her, and saluted her with respect. The lady asked: 'May I, for once, visit the Land of Enlightenment?' 'Yea,' answered the Blessed Soul, 'thou hast but to follow thy handmaiden.' The lady followed her (in her dream), and soon perceived a lake of immeasurable expanse, overspread with innumerable red and white lotus flowers, of various sizes, some blooming, some fading. She asked what those flowers might signify? The maiden replied: 'These are all human beings on the earth whose thoughts are turned to the Land of Enlightenment. The very first longing after the Paradise of Amita produces a flower in the Celestial Lake, and this becomes daily larger and more glorious, as the self-improvement of the person whom it represents advances; in the contrary case, it loses in glory and fades away.'[2] The matron desired to know the name of an enlightened one who reposed on one of the flowers, clad in a waving and wondrously glistening raiment. Her whilom maiden answered: 'That is Yangkie.' Then asked she the name of another, and was answered: 'That is Mahu.' The lady then said: 'At what place shall I hereafter come into existence?' Then the Blessed Soul led her a space further, and showed her a hill that gleamed with gold and azure. 'Here,' said she, 'is your future abode. You will belong to the first order of the blessed.' When the matron awoke she sent to enquire for Yangkie and Mahu. The first was already departed; the other still alive and well. And thus the lady learned that the soul of one who advances in holiness and never turns back, may be already a dweller in the Land of Enlightenment, even though the body still sojourn in this transitory world" (pp. 55-56).
What a singular counterpart the striking conclusion here forms to Dante's tremendous assault on a still living villain,—or enemy!
—"che per sua opra
In anima in Cocito già si bagna,
Ed in corpo par vivo ancor di sopra."
—Infern. xxxiii. 155.
Again: "I knew a man who during his life had killed many living beings, and was at last struck with an apoplexy. The sorrows in store for his sin-laden soul pained me to the heart; I visited him, and exhorted him to call on the Amita; but he obstinately refused, and spoke only of indifferent matters. His illness clouded his understanding; in consequence of his misdeeds he had become hardened. What was before such a man when once his eyes were closed? Wherefore let men be converted while there is yet time! In this life the night followeth the day, and the winter followeth the summer; that, all men are aware of. But that life is followed by death, no man will consider. Oh, what blindness and obduracy is this!" (p. 93).
Again: "Hoang-ta-tie, of T'ancheu (Changshu-fu in Honan), who lived under the Sung, followed the craft of a blacksmith. Whenever he was at his work he used to call without intermission on the name of Amita Buddha. One day he handed to his neighbours the following verses of his own composing to be spread about:—
'Ding dong! The hammer-strokes fall long and fast,
Until the Iron turns to steel at last!
Now shall the long long Day of Rest begin,
The Land of Bliss Eternal calls me in.'
Thereupon he died. But his verses spread all over Honan, and many learned to call upon Buddha" (103).
Once more: "In my own town there lived a physician by name Chang-yan-ming. He was a man who never took payment for his treatment from any one in poor or indifferent circumstances; nay, he would often make presents to such persons of money or corn to lighten their lot. If a rich man would have his advice and paid him a fee, he never looked to see whether it were much or little. If a patient lay so dangerously ill that Yanming despaired of his recovery, he would still give him good medicine to comfort his heart, but never took payment for it. I knew this man for many a year, and I never heard the word Money pass his lips! One day a fire broke out in the town, and laid the whole of the houses in ashes; only that of the physician was spared. His sons and grandsons reached high dignities" (p. 110).
Of such as this physician the apostle said: "Of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons; But in every nation he that feareth Him, and worketh righteousness, is accepted with Him."
["By the 'Most High and Heavenly God,' worshipped by the Chinese, as Marco Polo reports, evidently the Chinese T'ien, 'Heaven' is meant, Lao t'ien ye in the common language. Regarding 'the God of things terrestrial,' whose figure the Chinese, according to M. Polo, 'placed below on the ground,' there can also be no doubt that he understands the T'u-ti, the local 'Lar' of the Chinese, to which they present sacrifices on the floor, near the wall under the table.
"M. Polo reports, that the Chinese worship their God offering incense, raising their hands aloft, and gnashing their teeth. Of course he means that they placed the hands together, or held kindled joss-stick bundles in their hands, according to the Chinese custom. The statement of M. Polo sbattendo i denti is very remarkable. It seems to me, that very few of the Chinese are aware of the fact, that this custom still exists among the Taouists. In the rituals of the Taouists the K'ow-ch'i (Ko'w = 'to knock against,'ch'i = 'teeth') is prescribed as a comminatory and propitiatory act. It is effected by the four upper and lower foreteeth. The Taouists are obliged before the service begins to perform a certain number of 'K'ow-ch'i, turning their heads alternately to the left and to the right, in order to drive away mundane thoughts and aggressions of bad spirits. The K'ow-ch'i repeated three times is called ming fa ku in Chinese, i.e. 'to beat the spiritual drum.' The ritual says, that it is heard by the Most High Ruler, who is moved by it to grace.
"M. Polo observed this custom among the lay heathen. Indeed, it appears from a small treatise, written in China more than a hundred years before M. Polo, that at the time the Chinese author wrote, all devout men, entering a temple, used to perform the K'ow-ch'i, and considered it an expression of veneration and devotion to the idols. Thus this custom had been preserved to the time of M. Polo, who did not fail to mention this strange peculiarity in the exterior observances of the Chinese. As regards the present time it seems to me, that this custom is not known among the people, and even with respect to the Taouists it is only performed on certain occasions, and not in all Taouist temples." (Palladius, pp. 53-54.)—H. C.]
NOTE 4.—"True politeness cannot of course be taught by rules merely, but a great degree of urbanity and kindness is everywhere shown, whether owing to the naturally placable disposition of the people, or to the effects of their early instruction in the forms of politeness." (Mid. Kingdom, II. 68.) As regards the "ornate style of speech," a well-bred Chinaman never says I or You, but for the former "the little person," "the disciple," "the inferior," and so on; and for the latter, "the learned man," "the master," or even "the emperor." These phrases, however, are not confined to China, most of them having exact parallels in Hindustani courtesy. On this subject and the courteous disposition of the Chinese, see Fontaney, in Lett. Edif. VII. 287 seqq.; also XI. 287 seqq.; Semedo, 36; Lecomte, II. 48 seqq. There are, however, strong differences of opinion expressed on this subject; there is, apparently, much more genuine courtesy in the north than in the south.
NOTE 5.—"Filial piety is the fundamental principle of the Chinese polity." (Amiot, V. 129.) "In cases of extreme unfilial conduct, parents sometimes accuse their children before the magistrate, and demand his official aid in controlling or punishing them; but such instances are comparatively rare…. If the parent require his son to be publicly whipped by the command of the magistrate, the latter is obliged to order the infliction of the whipping…. If after punishment the son remain undutiful and disobedient, and his parents demand it at the hands of the magistrate, the latter must, with the consent of the maternal uncles of the son, cause him to be taken out to the high wall in front of the yamun, and have him there publicly whipped to death." (Doolittle, 102-103.)
NOTE 6.—[Mr. Rockhill writes to me that pocket-spitoons are still used in China.—H. C.]
_______________
Notes:
[1] "In the worship carried on here the Emperor acts as a high priest. HE only worships; and no subject, however high in rank, can join in the adoration." (Lockhart.) The actual temple dates from 1420-1430; but the Institution is very ancient, and I think there is evidence that such a structure existed under the Mongols, probably only restored by the Ming. [It was built during the 18th year of the reign of the third Ming Emperor Yung Loh (1403-1425); it was entirely restored during the 18th year of K'ien Lung; it was struck by lightning and burnt down in 1889; it is being re-built.—H. C.]
[2] In 1871 I saw in Bond Street an exhibition of (so-called) "spirit" drawings, i.e. drawings alleged to be executed by a "medium" under extraneous and invisible guidance. A number of these extraordinary productions (for extraordinary they were undoubtedly) professed to represent the "Spiritual Flowers" of such and such persons; and the explanation of this as presented in the catalogue was in substance exactly that given in the text. It is highly improbable that the artist had any cognizance of Schott's Essay, and the coincidence was assuredly very striking.
END OF VOL I.
[Illustration: MARCO POLO'S ITINERARIES No. IV (Book I, Chapter 36 to end & chief part of Book II.)]
[Illustration: PLAN OF SHANGTU From an Eye Sketch by Dr. S W Bushell 1872]
[Illustration: Archway erected under the Mongol Dynasty at Kiu Yung Kwan, N.W. of Peking.[1]]
_______________
Notes:
[1] On the walls of this archway is engraved the inscription in six characters, of which a representation accompanies ch. xv. of Prologue, note 1.
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Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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VOLUME II
[Illustration: "MARCVS POLVS VENETVS TOTIVS ORBIS ET INDIE PEREGRATOR PRIMVS" Copied by permission from a painting bearing the above inscription in the Gallery of Monsignore Padia in Rome]
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
BOOK SECOND—(Continued).
PART II. Journey to the West and South-West of Cathay.
XXXV.—HERE BEGINS THE DESCRIPTION OF THE INTERIOR OF CATHAY; AND FIRST OF THE RIVER PULISANGHIN
NOTES.—1. Marco's Route. 2. The Bridge Pul-i-sangin, or Lu-ku-k'iao.
XXXVI.—ACCOUNT OF THE CITY OF JUJU
NOTES.—1. The Silks called Sendals. 2. Chochau. 3. Bifurcation of Two Great Roads at this point.
XXXVII.—THE KINGDOM OF TAIANFU
NOTES.—1. Acbaluc. 2. T'ai-yuan fu. 3. Grape-wine of that place. 4. P'ing-yang fu.
XXXVIII.—CONCERNING THE CASTLE OF CAICHU. THE GOLDEN KING AND PRESTER JOHN
NOTES.—1. The Story and Portrait of the Roi d'Or. 2. Effeminacy reviving in every Chinese Dynasty.
XXXIX.—HOW PRESTER JOHN TREATED THE GOLDEN KING HIS PRISONER
XL.—CONCERNING THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN AND THE CITY OF CACHANFU
NOTES.—1. The Kará Muren. 2. Former growth of silk in Shan-si and Shen-si. 3. The akché or asper.
XLI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF KENJANFU
NOTES.—1. Morus alba. 2. Geography of the Route since Chapter XXXVIII. 3. Kenjanfu or Si-ngan fu; the Christian monument there. 4. Prince Mangala.
XLII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUNCUN, WHICH IS RIGHT WEARISOME TO TRAVEL THROUGH
NOTE.—The Mountain Road to Southern Shen-si.
XLIII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ACBALEC MANZI
NOTES.—1. Geography, and doubts about Acbalec. 2. Further Journey into Sze-ch'wan.
XLIV.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF SINDAFU
NOTES.—1. Ch'êng-tu fu. 2. The Great River or Kiang. 3. The word Comereque. 4. The Bridge-Tolls. 5. Correction of Text.
XLV.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF TEBET
NOTES.—1. The Part of Tibet and events referred to. 2. Noise of burning bamboos. 3. Road retains its desolate character. 4. Persistence of eccentric manners illustrated. 5. Name of the Musk animal.
XLVI.—FURTHER DISCOURSE CONCERNING TEBET
NOTES.—1. Explanatory. 2. "Or de Paliolle." 3. Cinnamon. 4. 5. Great Dogs, and Beyamini oxen.
XLVII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CAINDU
NOTES.—1. Explanation from Ramusio. 2. Pearls of Inland Waters. 3. Lax manners. 4. Exchange of Salt for Gold. 5. Salt currency. 6. Spiced Wine. 7. Plant like the Clove, spoken of by Polo. Tribes of this Tract.
XLVIII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN
NOTES.—1. Geography of the Route between Sindafu or Ch'êng-tu fu, and Carajan or Yun-nan. 2. Christians and Mahomedans in Yun-nan. 3. Wheat. 4. Cowries. 5. Brine-spring. 6. Parallel.
XLIX.—CONCERNING A FURTHER PART OF THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN
NOTES.—1. City of Talifu. 2. Gold. 3. Crocodiles. 4. Yun-nan horses and riders. Arms of the Aboriginal Tribes. 5. Strange superstition and parallels.
L.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ZARDANDAN
NOTES.—1. Carajan and Zardandan. 2. The Gold-Teeth. 3. Male Indolence. 4. The Couvade. (See App. L. 8.) 5. Abundance of Gold. Relation of Gold to Silver. 6. Worship of the Ancestor. 7. Unhealthiness of the climate. 8. Tallies. 9.-12. Medicine-men or Devil-dancers; extraordinary identity of practice in various regions.
LI.—WHEREIN IS RELATED HOW THE KING OF MIEN AND BANGALA VOWED VENGEANCE AGAINST THE GREAT KAAN
NOTES.—1. Chronology. 2. Mien or Burma. Why the King may have been called King of Bengal also. 3. Numbers alleged to have been carried on elephants.
LII.—OF THE BATTLE THAT WAS FOUGHT BY THE GREAT KAAN'S HOST AND HIS SENESCHAL AGAINST THE KING OF MIEN
NOTES.—1. Nasruddin. 2. Cyrus's Camels. 3. Chinese Account of the Action. General Correspondence of the Chinese and Burmese Chronologies.
LIII.—OF THE GREAT DESCENT THAT LEADS TOWARDS THE KINGDOM OF MIEN
NOTES.—1. Market-days. 2. Geographical difficulties.
LIV.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF MIEN, AND THE TWO TOWERS THAT ARE THEREIN, ONE OF GOLD, AND THE OTHER OF SILVER
NOTES.—1. Amien. 2. Chinese Account of the Invasion of Burma. Comparison with Burmese Annals. The City intended. The Pagodas. 3. Wild Oxen.
LV.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF BANGALA
NOTES.—1. Polo's view of Bengal; and details of his account illustrated. 2. Great Cattle.
LVI.—DISCOURSES OF THE PROVINCE OF CAUGIGU
NOTE.—A Part of Laos. Papesifu. Chinese Geographical Etymologies.
LVII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ANIN
NOTES.—1. The Name. Probable identification of territory. 2. Textual.
LVIII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF COLOMAN
NOTES.—1. The Name. The Kolo-man. 2. Natural defences of Kwei-chau.
LIX.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUIJU
NOTES.—1. Kwei-chau. Phungan-lu. 2. Grass-cloth. 3. Tigers. 4. Great Dogs. 5. Silk. 6. Geographical Review of the Route since Chapter LV. 7. Return to Juju.
[Illustration: "MARCVS POLVS VENETVS TOTIVS ORBIS ET INDIE PEREGRATOR PRIMVS" Copied by permission from a painting bearing the above inscription in the Gallery of Monsignore Padia in Rome]
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
BOOK SECOND—(Continued).
PART II. Journey to the West and South-West of Cathay.
XXXV.—HERE BEGINS THE DESCRIPTION OF THE INTERIOR OF CATHAY; AND FIRST OF THE RIVER PULISANGHIN
NOTES.—1. Marco's Route. 2. The Bridge Pul-i-sangin, or Lu-ku-k'iao.
XXXVI.—ACCOUNT OF THE CITY OF JUJU
NOTES.—1. The Silks called Sendals. 2. Chochau. 3. Bifurcation of Two Great Roads at this point.
XXXVII.—THE KINGDOM OF TAIANFU
NOTES.—1. Acbaluc. 2. T'ai-yuan fu. 3. Grape-wine of that place. 4. P'ing-yang fu.
XXXVIII.—CONCERNING THE CASTLE OF CAICHU. THE GOLDEN KING AND PRESTER JOHN
NOTES.—1. The Story and Portrait of the Roi d'Or. 2. Effeminacy reviving in every Chinese Dynasty.
XXXIX.—HOW PRESTER JOHN TREATED THE GOLDEN KING HIS PRISONER
XL.—CONCERNING THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN AND THE CITY OF CACHANFU
NOTES.—1. The Kará Muren. 2. Former growth of silk in Shan-si and Shen-si. 3. The akché or asper.
XLI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF KENJANFU
NOTES.—1. Morus alba. 2. Geography of the Route since Chapter XXXVIII. 3. Kenjanfu or Si-ngan fu; the Christian monument there. 4. Prince Mangala.
XLII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUNCUN, WHICH IS RIGHT WEARISOME TO TRAVEL THROUGH
NOTE.—The Mountain Road to Southern Shen-si.
XLIII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ACBALEC MANZI
NOTES.—1. Geography, and doubts about Acbalec. 2. Further Journey into Sze-ch'wan.
XLIV.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF SINDAFU
NOTES.—1. Ch'êng-tu fu. 2. The Great River or Kiang. 3. The word Comereque. 4. The Bridge-Tolls. 5. Correction of Text.
XLV.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF TEBET
NOTES.—1. The Part of Tibet and events referred to. 2. Noise of burning bamboos. 3. Road retains its desolate character. 4. Persistence of eccentric manners illustrated. 5. Name of the Musk animal.
XLVI.—FURTHER DISCOURSE CONCERNING TEBET
NOTES.—1. Explanatory. 2. "Or de Paliolle." 3. Cinnamon. 4. 5. Great Dogs, and Beyamini oxen.
XLVII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CAINDU
NOTES.—1. Explanation from Ramusio. 2. Pearls of Inland Waters. 3. Lax manners. 4. Exchange of Salt for Gold. 5. Salt currency. 6. Spiced Wine. 7. Plant like the Clove, spoken of by Polo. Tribes of this Tract.
XLVIII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN
NOTES.—1. Geography of the Route between Sindafu or Ch'êng-tu fu, and Carajan or Yun-nan. 2. Christians and Mahomedans in Yun-nan. 3. Wheat. 4. Cowries. 5. Brine-spring. 6. Parallel.
XLIX.—CONCERNING A FURTHER PART OF THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN
NOTES.—1. City of Talifu. 2. Gold. 3. Crocodiles. 4. Yun-nan horses and riders. Arms of the Aboriginal Tribes. 5. Strange superstition and parallels.
L.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ZARDANDAN
NOTES.—1. Carajan and Zardandan. 2. The Gold-Teeth. 3. Male Indolence. 4. The Couvade. (See App. L. 8.) 5. Abundance of Gold. Relation of Gold to Silver. 6. Worship of the Ancestor. 7. Unhealthiness of the climate. 8. Tallies. 9.-12. Medicine-men or Devil-dancers; extraordinary identity of practice in various regions.
LI.—WHEREIN IS RELATED HOW THE KING OF MIEN AND BANGALA VOWED VENGEANCE AGAINST THE GREAT KAAN
NOTES.—1. Chronology. 2. Mien or Burma. Why the King may have been called King of Bengal also. 3. Numbers alleged to have been carried on elephants.
LII.—OF THE BATTLE THAT WAS FOUGHT BY THE GREAT KAAN'S HOST AND HIS SENESCHAL AGAINST THE KING OF MIEN
NOTES.—1. Nasruddin. 2. Cyrus's Camels. 3. Chinese Account of the Action. General Correspondence of the Chinese and Burmese Chronologies.
LIII.—OF THE GREAT DESCENT THAT LEADS TOWARDS THE KINGDOM OF MIEN
NOTES.—1. Market-days. 2. Geographical difficulties.
LIV.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF MIEN, AND THE TWO TOWERS THAT ARE THEREIN, ONE OF GOLD, AND THE OTHER OF SILVER
NOTES.—1. Amien. 2. Chinese Account of the Invasion of Burma. Comparison with Burmese Annals. The City intended. The Pagodas. 3. Wild Oxen.
LV.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF BANGALA
NOTES.—1. Polo's view of Bengal; and details of his account illustrated. 2. Great Cattle.
LVI.—DISCOURSES OF THE PROVINCE OF CAUGIGU
NOTE.—A Part of Laos. Papesifu. Chinese Geographical Etymologies.
LVII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ANIN
NOTES.—1. The Name. Probable identification of territory. 2. Textual.
LVIII.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF COLOMAN
NOTES.—1. The Name. The Kolo-man. 2. Natural defences of Kwei-chau.
LIX.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUIJU
NOTES.—1. Kwei-chau. Phungan-lu. 2. Grass-cloth. 3. Tigers. 4. Great Dogs. 5. Silk. 6. Geographical Review of the Route since Chapter LV. 7. Return to Juju.
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BOOK SECOND. (Continued.)
PART III. Journey Southward through Eastern Provinces of Cathay and Manzi.
LX.—CONCERNING THE CITIES OF CACANFU AND CHANGLU
NOTES.—1. Pauthier's Identifications. 2. Changlu. The Burning of the Dead ascribed to the Chinese.
LXI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF CHINANGLI, AND THAT OF TADINFU, AND THE REBELLION OF LITAN
NOTES.—1. T'si-nan fu. 2. Silk of Shan-tung. 3. Title Sangon. 4. Agul and Mangkutai. 5. History of Litan's Revolt.
LXII.—CONCERNING THE NOBLE CITY OF SINJUMATU
NOTE.—The City intended. The Great Canal.
LXIII.—CONCERNING THE CITIES OF LINJU AND PIJU
NOTES.—1. Linju. 2. Piju.
LXIV.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF SIJU, AND THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN
NOTES.—1. Siju. 2. The Hwang-Ho and its changes. 3. Entrance to Manzi; that name for Southern China.
LXV.—HOW THE GREAT KAAN CONQUERED THE PROVINCE OF MANZI
NOTES.—1. Meaning and application of the title Faghfur. 2. Chinese self-devotion. 3. Bayan the Great Captain. 4. His lines of Operation. 5. The Juggling Prophecy. 6. The Fall of the Sung Dynasty. 7. Exposure of Infants, and Foundling Hospitals.
LXVI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF COIGANJU
NOTE.—Hwai-ngan fu.
LXVII.—OF THE CITIES OF PAUKIN AND CAYU
NOTE.—Pao-yng and Kao-yu.
LXVIII.—OF THE CITIES OF TIJU, TINJU, AND YANJU
NOTES.—1. Cities between the Canal and the Sea. 2. Yang-chau. 3. Marco Polo's Employment at this City.
LXIX.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF NANGHIN
NOTE.—Ngan-king.
LXX.—CONCERNING THE VERY NOBLE CITY OF SAIANFU, AND HOW ITS CAPTURE WAS EFFECTED
NOTES.—1. and 2. Various Readings. 3. Digression on the Military Engines of the Middle Ages. 4. Mangonels of Coeur de Lion. 5. Difficulties connected with Polo's Account of this Siege.
LXXI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF SINJU AND THE GREAT RIVER KIAN
NOTES.—1. I-chin hien. 2. The Great Kiang. 3. Vast amount of tonnage on Chinese Waters. 4. Size of River Vessels. 5. Bamboo Tow-lines. 6. Picturesque Island Monasteries.
LXXII.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIJU
NOTES.—1. Kwa-chau. 2. The Grand Canal and Rice-Transport. 3. The Golden Island.
LXXIII.—OF THE CITY OF CHINGHIANFU
NOTE.—Chin-kiang fu. Mar Sarghis, the Christian Governor.
LXXIV.—OF THE CITY OF CHINGINJU AND THE SLAUGHTER OF CERTAIN ALANS THERE
NOTES.—1. Chang-chau. 2. Employment of Alans in the Mongol Service. 3. The Chang-chau Massacre. Mongol Cruelties.
LXXV.—OF THE NOBLE CITY OF SUJU
NOTES.—1. Su-chau. 2. Bridges of that part of China. 3. Rhubarb; its mention here seems erroneous. 4. The Cities of Heaven and Earth. Ancient incised Plan of Su-chau. 5. Hu-chau, Wu-kiang and Kya-hing.
LXXVI.—DESCRIPTION OF THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY, WHICH IS THE CAPITAL OF THE WHOLE COUNTRY OF MANZI
NOTES.—1. King-szé now Hang-chau. 2. The circuit ascribed to the City; the Bridges. 3. Hereditary Trades. 4. The Si-hu or Western Lake. 5. Dressiness of the People. 6. Charitable Establishments. 7. Paved roads. 8. Hot and Cold Baths. 9. Kanpu, and the Hang-chau Estuary. 10. The Nine Provinces of Manzi. 11. The Kaan's Garrisons in Manzi. 12. Mourning costume. 13. 14. Tickets recording inmates of houses.
LXXVII.—[FURTHER PARTICULARS CONCERNING THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY.]
(From Ramusio only.)
NOTES.—1. Remarks on these supplementary details. 2. Tides in the Hang-chau Estuary. 3. Want of a good Survey of Hang-chau. The Squares. 4. Marco ignores pork. 5. Great Pears: Peaches. 6. Textual. 7. Chinese use of Pepper. 8. Chinese claims to a character for Good Faith. 9. Pleasure-parties on the Lake. 10. Chinese Carriages. 11. The Sung Emperor. 12. The Sung Palace. Extracts regarding this Great City from other mediaeval writers, European and Asiatic. Martini's Description.
LXXVIII.—TREATING OF THE YEARLY REVENUE THAT THE GREAT KAAN HATH FROM KINSAY
NOTES.—1. Textual. 2. Calculations as to the values spoken of.
LXXIX.—OF THE CITY OF TANPIJU AND OTHERS
NOTES.—1. Route from Hang-chau southward. 2. Bamboos. 3. Identification of places. Chang-shan the key to the route.
LXXX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF FUJU
NOTES.—1. "Fruit like Saffron." 2. 3. Cannibalism ascribed to Mountain Tribes on this route. 4 Kien-ning fu. 5. Galingale. 6. Fleecy Fowls. 7. Details of the Journey in Fo-kien and various readings. 8. Unken. Introduction of Sugar-refining into China.
LXXXI.—CONCERNING THE GREATNESS OF THE CITY OF FUJU
NOTES.—1. The name Chonka, applied to Fo-kien here. Cayton or Zayton. 2. Objections that have been made to identity of Fuju and Fu-chau. 3. The Min River.
LXXXII.—OF THE CITY AND GREAT HAVEN OF ZAYTON
NOTES.—1. The Camphor Laurel. 2. The Port of Zayton or T'swan-chau; Recent objections to this identity. Probable origin of the word Satin. 3. Chinese Consumption of Pepper. 4. Artists in Tattooing. 5. Position of the Porcelain manufacture spoken of. Notions regarding the Great River of China. 6. Fo-kien dialects and variety of spoken language in China. 7. From Ramusio.
PART III. Journey Southward through Eastern Provinces of Cathay and Manzi.
LX.—CONCERNING THE CITIES OF CACANFU AND CHANGLU
NOTES.—1. Pauthier's Identifications. 2. Changlu. The Burning of the Dead ascribed to the Chinese.
LXI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF CHINANGLI, AND THAT OF TADINFU, AND THE REBELLION OF LITAN
NOTES.—1. T'si-nan fu. 2. Silk of Shan-tung. 3. Title Sangon. 4. Agul and Mangkutai. 5. History of Litan's Revolt.
LXII.—CONCERNING THE NOBLE CITY OF SINJUMATU
NOTE.—The City intended. The Great Canal.
LXIII.—CONCERNING THE CITIES OF LINJU AND PIJU
NOTES.—1. Linju. 2. Piju.
LXIV.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF SIJU, AND THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN
NOTES.—1. Siju. 2. The Hwang-Ho and its changes. 3. Entrance to Manzi; that name for Southern China.
LXV.—HOW THE GREAT KAAN CONQUERED THE PROVINCE OF MANZI
NOTES.—1. Meaning and application of the title Faghfur. 2. Chinese self-devotion. 3. Bayan the Great Captain. 4. His lines of Operation. 5. The Juggling Prophecy. 6. The Fall of the Sung Dynasty. 7. Exposure of Infants, and Foundling Hospitals.
LXVI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF COIGANJU
NOTE.—Hwai-ngan fu.
LXVII.—OF THE CITIES OF PAUKIN AND CAYU
NOTE.—Pao-yng and Kao-yu.
LXVIII.—OF THE CITIES OF TIJU, TINJU, AND YANJU
NOTES.—1. Cities between the Canal and the Sea. 2. Yang-chau. 3. Marco Polo's Employment at this City.
LXIX.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF NANGHIN
NOTE.—Ngan-king.
LXX.—CONCERNING THE VERY NOBLE CITY OF SAIANFU, AND HOW ITS CAPTURE WAS EFFECTED
NOTES.—1. and 2. Various Readings. 3. Digression on the Military Engines of the Middle Ages. 4. Mangonels of Coeur de Lion. 5. Difficulties connected with Polo's Account of this Siege.
LXXI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF SINJU AND THE GREAT RIVER KIAN
NOTES.—1. I-chin hien. 2. The Great Kiang. 3. Vast amount of tonnage on Chinese Waters. 4. Size of River Vessels. 5. Bamboo Tow-lines. 6. Picturesque Island Monasteries.
LXXII.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIJU
NOTES.—1. Kwa-chau. 2. The Grand Canal and Rice-Transport. 3. The Golden Island.
LXXIII.—OF THE CITY OF CHINGHIANFU
NOTE.—Chin-kiang fu. Mar Sarghis, the Christian Governor.
LXXIV.—OF THE CITY OF CHINGINJU AND THE SLAUGHTER OF CERTAIN ALANS THERE
NOTES.—1. Chang-chau. 2. Employment of Alans in the Mongol Service. 3. The Chang-chau Massacre. Mongol Cruelties.
LXXV.—OF THE NOBLE CITY OF SUJU
NOTES.—1. Su-chau. 2. Bridges of that part of China. 3. Rhubarb; its mention here seems erroneous. 4. The Cities of Heaven and Earth. Ancient incised Plan of Su-chau. 5. Hu-chau, Wu-kiang and Kya-hing.
LXXVI.—DESCRIPTION OF THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY, WHICH IS THE CAPITAL OF THE WHOLE COUNTRY OF MANZI
NOTES.—1. King-szé now Hang-chau. 2. The circuit ascribed to the City; the Bridges. 3. Hereditary Trades. 4. The Si-hu or Western Lake. 5. Dressiness of the People. 6. Charitable Establishments. 7. Paved roads. 8. Hot and Cold Baths. 9. Kanpu, and the Hang-chau Estuary. 10. The Nine Provinces of Manzi. 11. The Kaan's Garrisons in Manzi. 12. Mourning costume. 13. 14. Tickets recording inmates of houses.
LXXVII.—[FURTHER PARTICULARS CONCERNING THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY.]
(From Ramusio only.)
NOTES.—1. Remarks on these supplementary details. 2. Tides in the Hang-chau Estuary. 3. Want of a good Survey of Hang-chau. The Squares. 4. Marco ignores pork. 5. Great Pears: Peaches. 6. Textual. 7. Chinese use of Pepper. 8. Chinese claims to a character for Good Faith. 9. Pleasure-parties on the Lake. 10. Chinese Carriages. 11. The Sung Emperor. 12. The Sung Palace. Extracts regarding this Great City from other mediaeval writers, European and Asiatic. Martini's Description.
LXXVIII.—TREATING OF THE YEARLY REVENUE THAT THE GREAT KAAN HATH FROM KINSAY
NOTES.—1. Textual. 2. Calculations as to the values spoken of.
LXXIX.—OF THE CITY OF TANPIJU AND OTHERS
NOTES.—1. Route from Hang-chau southward. 2. Bamboos. 3. Identification of places. Chang-shan the key to the route.
LXXX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF FUJU
NOTES.—1. "Fruit like Saffron." 2. 3. Cannibalism ascribed to Mountain Tribes on this route. 4 Kien-ning fu. 5. Galingale. 6. Fleecy Fowls. 7. Details of the Journey in Fo-kien and various readings. 8. Unken. Introduction of Sugar-refining into China.
LXXXI.—CONCERNING THE GREATNESS OF THE CITY OF FUJU
NOTES.—1. The name Chonka, applied to Fo-kien here. Cayton or Zayton. 2. Objections that have been made to identity of Fuju and Fu-chau. 3. The Min River.
LXXXII.—OF THE CITY AND GREAT HAVEN OF ZAYTON
NOTES.—1. The Camphor Laurel. 2. The Port of Zayton or T'swan-chau; Recent objections to this identity. Probable origin of the word Satin. 3. Chinese Consumption of Pepper. 4. Artists in Tattooing. 5. Position of the Porcelain manufacture spoken of. Notions regarding the Great River of China. 6. Fo-kien dialects and variety of spoken language in China. 7. From Ramusio.
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BOOK THIRD. Japan, the Archipelago, Southern India, and the Coasts and Islands of the
Indian Sea.
I.—OF THE MERCHANT SHIPS OF MANZI THAT SAIL UPON THE INDIAN SEAS
NOTES.—1. Pine Timber. 2. Rudder and Masts. 3. Watertight Compartments. 4. Chinese substitute for Pitch. 5. Oars used by Junks. 6. Descriptions of Chinese Junks from other Mediaeval Writers.
II.—DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND OF CHIPANGU, AND THE GREAT KAAN'S DESPATCH OF A HOST AGAINST IT.
NOTES.—1. Chipangu or Japan. 2. Abundance of Gold. 3. The Golden Palace. 4. Japanese Pearls. Red Pearls.
III.—WHAT FURTHER CAME OF THE GREAT KAAN'S EXPEDITION AGAINST CHIPANGU
NOTES.—1. Kúblái's attempts against Japan. Japanese Narrative of the Expedition here spoken of. (See App. L. 9.) 2. Species of Torture. 3. Devices to procure Invulnerability.
IV.—CONCERNING THE FASHION OF THE IDOLS
NOTES.—1. Many-limbed Idols. 2. The Philippines and Moluccas. 3. The name Chin or China. 4. The Gulf of Cheinan.
V.—OF THE GREAT COUNTRY CALLED CHAMBA
NOTES.—1. Champa, and Kúblái's dealings with it. (See App. L. 10). 2. Chronology. 3. Eagle-wood and Ebony. Polo's use of Persian words.
VI.—CONCERNING THE GREAT ISLAND OF JAVA
NOTE.—Java; its supposed vast extent. Kúblái's expedition against it and failure.
VII.—WHEREIN THE ISLES OF SONDUR AND CONDUR ARE SPOKEN OF; AND THE KINGDOM OF LOCAC
NOTES.—1. Textual. 2. Pulo Condore. 3. The Kingdom of Locac, Southern Siam.
VIII.—OF THE ISLAND CALLED PENTAM, AND THE CITY MALAIUR
NOTES.—1. Bintang. 2. The Straits of Singapore. 3. Remarks on the Malay Chronology. Malaiur probably Palembang.
IX.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF JAVA THE LESS. THE KINGDOMS OF FERLEC AND BASMA
NOTES.—1. The Island of Sumatra: application of the term Java. 2. Products of Sumatra. The six kingdoms. 3. Ferlec or Parlák. The Battas. 4. Basma, Pacem, or Pasei. 5. The Elephant and the Rhinoceros. The Legend of Monoceros and the Virgin. 6. Black Falcon.
X.—THE KINGDOMS OF SAMARA AND DAGROIAN
NOTES.—1. Samara, Sumatra Proper. 2. The Tramontaine and the Mestre. 3. The Malay Toddy-Palm. 4. Dagroian. 5. Alleged custom of eating dead relatives.
XI.—OF THE KINGDOMS OF LAMBRI AND FANSUR
NOTES.—1. Lambri. 2. Hairy and Tailed Men. 3. Fansur and Camphor Fansuri. Sumatran Camphor. 4. The Sago-Palm. 5. Remarks on Polo's Sumatran Kingdoms.
XII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF NECUVERAN
NOTE.—Gauenispola, and the Nicobar Islands.
XIII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ANGAMANAIN
NOTE.—The Andaman Islands.
XIV.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SEILAN
NOTES.—1. Chinese Chart. 2. Exaggeration of Dimensions. The Name. 3. Sovereigns then ruling Ceylon. 4. Brazil Wood and Cinnamon. 5. The Great Ruby.
XV.—THE SAME CONTINUED. THE HISTORY OF SAGAMONI BORCAN AND THE BEGINNING OF IDOLATRY
NOTES.—1. Adam's Peak, and the Foot thereon. 2. The Story of Sakya-Muni Buddha. The History of Saints Barlaam and Josaphat; a Christianised version thereof. 3. High Estimate of Buddha's Character. 4. Curious Parallel Passages. 5. Pilgrimages to the Peak. 6. The Pátra of Buddha, and the Tooth-Relic. 7. Miraculous endowments of the Pátra; it is the Holy Grail of Buddhism.
XVI.—CONCERNING THE GREAT PROVINCE OF MAABAR, WHICH IS CALLED INDIA THE GREATER, AND IS ON THE MAINLAND
NOTES.—1. Ma'bar, its definition, and notes on its Mediaeval History. 2. The Pearl Fishery.
XVII.—CONTINUES TO SPEAK OF THE PROVINCE OF MAABAR
NOTES.—1. Costume. 2. Hindu Royal Necklace. 3. Hindu use of the Rosary. 4. The Saggio. 5. Companions in Death; the word Amok. 6. Accumulated Wealth of Southern India at this time. 7. Horse Importation from the Persian Gulf. 8. Religious Suicides. 9. Suttees. 10. Worship of the Ox. The Govis. 11. Verbal. 12. The Thomacides. 13. Ill-success of Horse-breeding in S. India. 14. Curious Mode of Arrest for Debt. 15. The Rainy Seasons. 16. Omens of the Hindus. 17. Strange treatment of Horses. 18. The Devadásis. 19. Textual.
XVIII.—DISCOURSING OF THE PLACE WHERE LIETH THE BODY OF ST. THOMAS THE APOSTLE; AND OF THE MIRACLES THEREOF
NOTES.—1. Mailapúr. 2. The word Avarian. 3. Miraculous Earth. 4. The Traditions of St. Thomas in India. The ancient Church at his Tomb; the ancient Cross preserved on St. Thomas's Mount. 5. White Devils. 6. The Yak's Tail.
XIX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MUTFILI
NOTES.—1. Motapallé. The Widow Queen of Telingana. 2. The Diamond Mines, and the Legend of the Diamond Gathering. 3. Buckram.
XX.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF LAR WHENCE THE BRAHMANS COME
NOTES.—1. Abraiaman. The Country of Lar. Hindu Character. 2. The Kingdom of Soli or Chola. 3. Lucky and Unlucky Days and Hours. The Canonical Hours of the Church. 4. Omens. 5. Jogis. The Ox-emblem. 6. Verbal. 7. Recurrence of Human Eccentricities.
XXI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIL
NOTES.—1. Káyal; its true position. Kolkhoi identified. 2. The King Ashar or As-char. 3. Correa, Note. 4. Betel-chewing. 5. Duels.
XXII.—OF THE KINGDOM OF COILUM
NOTES.—1. Coilum, Coilon, Kaulam, Columbum, Quilon. Ancient Christian Churches. 2. Brazil Wood: notes on the name. 3. Columbine Ginger and other kinds. 4. Indigo. 5. Black Lions. 6. Marriage Customs.
XXIII.—OF THE COUNTRY CALLED COMARI
NOTES.—1. Cape Comorin. 2. The word Gat-paul.
XXIV.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM ELI
NOTES.—1. Mount D'Ely, and the City of Hili-Marawi. 2. Textual. 3. Produce. 4. Piratical custom. 5. Wooden Anchors.
XXV.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MELIBAR
NOTES.—1. Dislocation of Polo's Indian Geography. The name of Malabar. 2. Verbal. 3. Pirates. 4. Cassia: Turbit: Cubebs. 5. Cessation of direct Chinese trade with Malabar.
XXVI.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF GOZURAT
NOTES.—1. Topographical Confusion. 2. Tamarina. 3. Tall Cotton Trees. 4. Embroidered Leather-work.
XXVII.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF TANA
NOTES.—1. Tana, and the Konkan. 2. Incense of Western India.
XXVIII.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF CAMBAET
NOTE.—Cambay.
XXIX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF SEMENAT
NOTE.—Somnath, and the so-called Gates of Somnath.
XXX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF KESMACORAN
NOTES.—1. Kij-Mekrán. Limit of India. 2. Recapitulation of Polo's Indian Kingdoms.
XXXI.—DISCOURSETH OF THE TWO ISLANDS CALLED MALE AND FEMALE, AND WHY THEY ARE SO CALLED
NOTE.—The Legend and its diffusion.
XXXII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SCOTRA
NOTES.—1. Whales of the Indian Seas. 2. Socotra and its former Christianity. 3. Piracy at Socotra. 4. Sorcerers.
XXXIII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF MADEIGASCAR
NOTES.—1. Madagascar; some confusion here with Magadoxo. 2. Sandalwood. 3. Whale-killing. The Capidoglio or Sperm-Whale. 4. The Currents towards the South. 5. The Rukh (and see Appendix L. 11). 6. More on the dimensions assigned thereto. 7. Hippopotamus Teeth.
XXXIV.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ZANGHIBAR. A WORD ON INDIA IN GENERAL
NOTES.—1. Zangibar; Negroes. 2. Ethiopian Sheep. 3. Giraffes. 4. Ivory trade. 5. Error about Elephant-taming. 6. Number of Islands assigned to the Indian Sea. 7. The Three Indies, and various distributions thereof. Polo's Indian Geography.
XXXV.—TREATING OF THE GREAT PROVINCE OF ABASH, WHICH IS MIDDLE INDIA, AND IS ON THE MAINLAND
NOTES.—1. Habash or Abyssinia. Application of the name India to it. 2. Fire Baptism ascribed to the Abyssinian Christians. 3. Polo's idea of the position of Aden. 4. Taming of the African Elephant for War. 5. Marco's Story of the Abyssinian Invasion of the Mahomedan Low-Country, and Review of Abyssinian Chronology in connection therewith. 6. Textual.
XXXVI.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ADEN
NOTES.—1. The Trade to Alexandria from India viâ Aden. 2. "Roncins à deux selles." 3. The Sultan of Aden. The City and its Great Tanks. 4. The Loss of Acre.
XXXVII.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF ESHER
NOTES.—1. Shihr. 2. Frankincense. 3. Four-horned Sheep. 4. Cattle fed on Fish. 5. Parallel passage.
XXXVIII.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF DUFAR
NOTES.—1. Dhofar. 2. Notes on Frankincense.
XXXIX.—CONCERNING THE GULF OF CALATU, AND THE CITY SO CALLED
NOTES.—1. Kalhát. 2. "En fra terre." 3. Maskat.
XL.—RETURNS TO THE CITY OF HORMOS WHEREOF WE SPOKE FORMERLY
NOTES.—1. Polo's distances and bearings in these latter chapters. 2. Persian Bád-gírs or wind-catching chimneys. 3. Island of Kish.
Indian Sea.
I.—OF THE MERCHANT SHIPS OF MANZI THAT SAIL UPON THE INDIAN SEAS
NOTES.—1. Pine Timber. 2. Rudder and Masts. 3. Watertight Compartments. 4. Chinese substitute for Pitch. 5. Oars used by Junks. 6. Descriptions of Chinese Junks from other Mediaeval Writers.
II.—DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND OF CHIPANGU, AND THE GREAT KAAN'S DESPATCH OF A HOST AGAINST IT.
NOTES.—1. Chipangu or Japan. 2. Abundance of Gold. 3. The Golden Palace. 4. Japanese Pearls. Red Pearls.
III.—WHAT FURTHER CAME OF THE GREAT KAAN'S EXPEDITION AGAINST CHIPANGU
NOTES.—1. Kúblái's attempts against Japan. Japanese Narrative of the Expedition here spoken of. (See App. L. 9.) 2. Species of Torture. 3. Devices to procure Invulnerability.
IV.—CONCERNING THE FASHION OF THE IDOLS
NOTES.—1. Many-limbed Idols. 2. The Philippines and Moluccas. 3. The name Chin or China. 4. The Gulf of Cheinan.
V.—OF THE GREAT COUNTRY CALLED CHAMBA
NOTES.—1. Champa, and Kúblái's dealings with it. (See App. L. 10). 2. Chronology. 3. Eagle-wood and Ebony. Polo's use of Persian words.
VI.—CONCERNING THE GREAT ISLAND OF JAVA
NOTE.—Java; its supposed vast extent. Kúblái's expedition against it and failure.
VII.—WHEREIN THE ISLES OF SONDUR AND CONDUR ARE SPOKEN OF; AND THE KINGDOM OF LOCAC
NOTES.—1. Textual. 2. Pulo Condore. 3. The Kingdom of Locac, Southern Siam.
VIII.—OF THE ISLAND CALLED PENTAM, AND THE CITY MALAIUR
NOTES.—1. Bintang. 2. The Straits of Singapore. 3. Remarks on the Malay Chronology. Malaiur probably Palembang.
IX.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF JAVA THE LESS. THE KINGDOMS OF FERLEC AND BASMA
NOTES.—1. The Island of Sumatra: application of the term Java. 2. Products of Sumatra. The six kingdoms. 3. Ferlec or Parlák. The Battas. 4. Basma, Pacem, or Pasei. 5. The Elephant and the Rhinoceros. The Legend of Monoceros and the Virgin. 6. Black Falcon.
X.—THE KINGDOMS OF SAMARA AND DAGROIAN
NOTES.—1. Samara, Sumatra Proper. 2. The Tramontaine and the Mestre. 3. The Malay Toddy-Palm. 4. Dagroian. 5. Alleged custom of eating dead relatives.
XI.—OF THE KINGDOMS OF LAMBRI AND FANSUR
NOTES.—1. Lambri. 2. Hairy and Tailed Men. 3. Fansur and Camphor Fansuri. Sumatran Camphor. 4. The Sago-Palm. 5. Remarks on Polo's Sumatran Kingdoms.
XII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF NECUVERAN
NOTE.—Gauenispola, and the Nicobar Islands.
XIII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ANGAMANAIN
NOTE.—The Andaman Islands.
XIV.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SEILAN
NOTES.—1. Chinese Chart. 2. Exaggeration of Dimensions. The Name. 3. Sovereigns then ruling Ceylon. 4. Brazil Wood and Cinnamon. 5. The Great Ruby.
XV.—THE SAME CONTINUED. THE HISTORY OF SAGAMONI BORCAN AND THE BEGINNING OF IDOLATRY
NOTES.—1. Adam's Peak, and the Foot thereon. 2. The Story of Sakya-Muni Buddha. The History of Saints Barlaam and Josaphat; a Christianised version thereof. 3. High Estimate of Buddha's Character. 4. Curious Parallel Passages. 5. Pilgrimages to the Peak. 6. The Pátra of Buddha, and the Tooth-Relic. 7. Miraculous endowments of the Pátra; it is the Holy Grail of Buddhism.
XVI.—CONCERNING THE GREAT PROVINCE OF MAABAR, WHICH IS CALLED INDIA THE GREATER, AND IS ON THE MAINLAND
NOTES.—1. Ma'bar, its definition, and notes on its Mediaeval History. 2. The Pearl Fishery.
XVII.—CONTINUES TO SPEAK OF THE PROVINCE OF MAABAR
NOTES.—1. Costume. 2. Hindu Royal Necklace. 3. Hindu use of the Rosary. 4. The Saggio. 5. Companions in Death; the word Amok. 6. Accumulated Wealth of Southern India at this time. 7. Horse Importation from the Persian Gulf. 8. Religious Suicides. 9. Suttees. 10. Worship of the Ox. The Govis. 11. Verbal. 12. The Thomacides. 13. Ill-success of Horse-breeding in S. India. 14. Curious Mode of Arrest for Debt. 15. The Rainy Seasons. 16. Omens of the Hindus. 17. Strange treatment of Horses. 18. The Devadásis. 19. Textual.
XVIII.—DISCOURSING OF THE PLACE WHERE LIETH THE BODY OF ST. THOMAS THE APOSTLE; AND OF THE MIRACLES THEREOF
NOTES.—1. Mailapúr. 2. The word Avarian. 3. Miraculous Earth. 4. The Traditions of St. Thomas in India. The ancient Church at his Tomb; the ancient Cross preserved on St. Thomas's Mount. 5. White Devils. 6. The Yak's Tail.
XIX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MUTFILI
NOTES.—1. Motapallé. The Widow Queen of Telingana. 2. The Diamond Mines, and the Legend of the Diamond Gathering. 3. Buckram.
XX.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF LAR WHENCE THE BRAHMANS COME
NOTES.—1. Abraiaman. The Country of Lar. Hindu Character. 2. The Kingdom of Soli or Chola. 3. Lucky and Unlucky Days and Hours. The Canonical Hours of the Church. 4. Omens. 5. Jogis. The Ox-emblem. 6. Verbal. 7. Recurrence of Human Eccentricities.
XXI.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIL
NOTES.—1. Káyal; its true position. Kolkhoi identified. 2. The King Ashar or As-char. 3. Correa, Note. 4. Betel-chewing. 5. Duels.
XXII.—OF THE KINGDOM OF COILUM
NOTES.—1. Coilum, Coilon, Kaulam, Columbum, Quilon. Ancient Christian Churches. 2. Brazil Wood: notes on the name. 3. Columbine Ginger and other kinds. 4. Indigo. 5. Black Lions. 6. Marriage Customs.
XXIII.—OF THE COUNTRY CALLED COMARI
NOTES.—1. Cape Comorin. 2. The word Gat-paul.
XXIV.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM ELI
NOTES.—1. Mount D'Ely, and the City of Hili-Marawi. 2. Textual. 3. Produce. 4. Piratical custom. 5. Wooden Anchors.
XXV.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MELIBAR
NOTES.—1. Dislocation of Polo's Indian Geography. The name of Malabar. 2. Verbal. 3. Pirates. 4. Cassia: Turbit: Cubebs. 5. Cessation of direct Chinese trade with Malabar.
XXVI.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF GOZURAT
NOTES.—1. Topographical Confusion. 2. Tamarina. 3. Tall Cotton Trees. 4. Embroidered Leather-work.
XXVII.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF TANA
NOTES.—1. Tana, and the Konkan. 2. Incense of Western India.
XXVIII.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF CAMBAET
NOTE.—Cambay.
XXIX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF SEMENAT
NOTE.—Somnath, and the so-called Gates of Somnath.
XXX.—CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF KESMACORAN
NOTES.—1. Kij-Mekrán. Limit of India. 2. Recapitulation of Polo's Indian Kingdoms.
XXXI.—DISCOURSETH OF THE TWO ISLANDS CALLED MALE AND FEMALE, AND WHY THEY ARE SO CALLED
NOTE.—The Legend and its diffusion.
XXXII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SCOTRA
NOTES.—1. Whales of the Indian Seas. 2. Socotra and its former Christianity. 3. Piracy at Socotra. 4. Sorcerers.
XXXIII.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF MADEIGASCAR
NOTES.—1. Madagascar; some confusion here with Magadoxo. 2. Sandalwood. 3. Whale-killing. The Capidoglio or Sperm-Whale. 4. The Currents towards the South. 5. The Rukh (and see Appendix L. 11). 6. More on the dimensions assigned thereto. 7. Hippopotamus Teeth.
XXXIV.—CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ZANGHIBAR. A WORD ON INDIA IN GENERAL
NOTES.—1. Zangibar; Negroes. 2. Ethiopian Sheep. 3. Giraffes. 4. Ivory trade. 5. Error about Elephant-taming. 6. Number of Islands assigned to the Indian Sea. 7. The Three Indies, and various distributions thereof. Polo's Indian Geography.
XXXV.—TREATING OF THE GREAT PROVINCE OF ABASH, WHICH IS MIDDLE INDIA, AND IS ON THE MAINLAND
NOTES.—1. Habash or Abyssinia. Application of the name India to it. 2. Fire Baptism ascribed to the Abyssinian Christians. 3. Polo's idea of the position of Aden. 4. Taming of the African Elephant for War. 5. Marco's Story of the Abyssinian Invasion of the Mahomedan Low-Country, and Review of Abyssinian Chronology in connection therewith. 6. Textual.
XXXVI.—CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ADEN
NOTES.—1. The Trade to Alexandria from India viâ Aden. 2. "Roncins à deux selles." 3. The Sultan of Aden. The City and its Great Tanks. 4. The Loss of Acre.
XXXVII.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF ESHER
NOTES.—1. Shihr. 2. Frankincense. 3. Four-horned Sheep. 4. Cattle fed on Fish. 5. Parallel passage.
XXXVIII.—CONCERNING THE CITY OF DUFAR
NOTES.—1. Dhofar. 2. Notes on Frankincense.
XXXIX.—CONCERNING THE GULF OF CALATU, AND THE CITY SO CALLED
NOTES.—1. Kalhát. 2. "En fra terre." 3. Maskat.
XL.—RETURNS TO THE CITY OF HORMOS WHEREOF WE SPOKE FORMERLY
NOTES.—1. Polo's distances and bearings in these latter chapters. 2. Persian Bád-gírs or wind-catching chimneys. 3. Island of Kish.
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Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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BOOK FOURTH. Wars among the Tartar Princes, and some Account of the Northern Countries.
I.—CONCERNING GREAT TURKEY
NOTES.—1. Kaidu Khan. 2. His frontier towards the Great Kaan.
II.—OF CERTAIN BATTLES THAT WERE FOUGHT BY KING CAIDU AGAINST THE ARMIES OF HIS UNCLE THE GREAT KAAN
NOTES.—1. Textual. 2. "Araines." 3. Chronology in connection with the events described.
III.—[1]WHAT THE GREAT KAAN SAID TO THE MISCHIEF DONE BY CAIDU HIS NEPHEW
IV.—OF THE EXPLOITS OF KING CAIDU'S VALIANT DAUGHTER
NOTE.—Her name explained. Remarks on the story.
V.—HOW ABAGA SENT HIS SON ARGON IN COMMAND AGAINST KING CAIDU (Extract and
Substance.)
NOTES.—1. Government of the Khorasan frontier. 2. The Historical Events.
VI.—HOW ARGON AFTER THE BATTLE HEARD THAT HIS FATHER WAS DEAD AND WENT TO ASSUME THE SOVEREIGNTY AS WAS HIS RIGHT
NOTES.—1. Death of Abaka. 2. Textual. 3. Ahmad Tigudar.
VII.—[1]HOW ACOMAT SOLDAN SET OUT WITH HIS HOST AGAINST HIS NEPHEW WHO WAS COMING TO CLAIM THE THRONE THAT BELONGED TO HIM
VIII.—[1]HOW ARGON TOOK COUNSEL WITH HIS FOLLOWERS ABOUT ATTACKING HIS UNCLE ACOMAT SOLDAN
IX.—[1]HOW THE BARONS OF ARGON ANSWERED HIS ADDRESS
X.—[1]THE MESSAGE SENT BY ARGON TO ACOMAT
XI.—HOW ACOMAT REPLIED TO ARGON'S MESSAGE
XII.—OF THE BATTLE BETWEEN ARGON AND ACOMAT, AND THE CAPTIVITY OF ARGON
NOTES.—1. Verbal. 2. Historical.
XIII.—HOW ARGON WAS DELIVERED FROM PRISON
XIV.—HOW ARGON GOT THE SOVEREIGNTY AT LAST
XV.—[1]HOW ACOMAT WAS TAKEN PRISONER
XVI.—HOW ACOMAT WAS SLAIN BY ORDER OF HIS NEPHEW
XVII.—HOW ARGON WAS RECOGNISED AS SOVEREIGN
NOTES.—1. The historical circumstances and persons named in these chapters. 2. Arghún's accession and death.
XVIII.—HOW KIACATU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER ARGON'S DEATH
NOTE.—The reign and character of Kaikhátú.
XIX.—HOW BAIDU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER THE DEATH OF KIACATU
NOTES.—1. Baidu's alleged Christianity. 2. Gházán Khan.
XX.—CONCERNING KING CONCHI WHO RULES THE FAR NORTH
NOTES.—1. Kaunchi Khan. 2. Siberia. 3. Dog-sledges. 4. The animal here styled Erculin. The Vair. 5. Yugria.
XXI.—CONCERNING THE LAND OF DARKNESS
NOTES.—1. The Land of Darkness. 2. The Legend of the Mares and their Foals. 3. Dumb Trade with the People of the Darkness.
XXII.—DESCRIPTION OF ROSIA AND ITS PEOPLE. PROVINCE OF LAC
NOTES.—1. Old Accounts of Russia. Russian Silver and Rubles. 2. Lac, or Wallachia. 3. Oroech, Norway (?) or the Waraeg Country (?)
XXIII.—HE BEGINS TO SPEAK OF THE STRAITS OF CONSTANTINOPLE, BUT DECIDES TO LEAVE THAT MATTER
XXIV.—CONCERNING THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT AND THEIR LORDS
NOTES.—1. The Comanians; the Alans; Majar; Zic; the Goths of the Crimea; Gazaria. 2. The Khans of Kipchak or the Golden Horde; errors in Polo's list. Extent of their Empire.
XXV.—OF THE WAR THAT AROSE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA, AND THE BATTLES THAT THEY FOUGHT (Extracts and Substance.)
NOTES.—1. Verbal. 2. The Sea of Sarai. 3. The War here spoken of. Wassáf's rigmarole.
XXVI.—[1]HOW BARCA AND HIS ARMY ADVANCED TO MEET ALAU
XXVII.—[1]HOW ALAU ADDRESSED HIS FOLLOWERS
XXVIII.—[1]OF THE GREAT BATTLE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA
XXIX.—HOW TOTAMANGU WAS LORD OF THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT; AND AFTER HIM TOCTAI
NOTE.—Confusions in the Text. Historical circumstances connected with the Persons spoken of. Toctai and Noghai Khan. Symbolic Messages.
XXX.—[1]OF THE SECOND MESSAGE THAT TOCTAI SENT TO NOGAI
XXXI.—[1]HOW TOCTAI MARCHED AGAINST NOGAI
XXXII.—[1]HOW TOCTAI AND NOGAI ADDRESS THEIR PEOPLE, AND THE NEXT DAY JOIN BATTLE
XXXIII.—[1]THE VALIANT FEATS AND VICTORY OF KING NOGAI
XXXIV. AND LAST. CONCLUSION
_______________
Notes:
[1] Of chapters so marked nothing is given but the substance in brief.
I.—CONCERNING GREAT TURKEY
NOTES.—1. Kaidu Khan. 2. His frontier towards the Great Kaan.
II.—OF CERTAIN BATTLES THAT WERE FOUGHT BY KING CAIDU AGAINST THE ARMIES OF HIS UNCLE THE GREAT KAAN
NOTES.—1. Textual. 2. "Araines." 3. Chronology in connection with the events described.
III.—[1]WHAT THE GREAT KAAN SAID TO THE MISCHIEF DONE BY CAIDU HIS NEPHEW
IV.—OF THE EXPLOITS OF KING CAIDU'S VALIANT DAUGHTER
NOTE.—Her name explained. Remarks on the story.
V.—HOW ABAGA SENT HIS SON ARGON IN COMMAND AGAINST KING CAIDU (Extract and
Substance.)
NOTES.—1. Government of the Khorasan frontier. 2. The Historical Events.
VI.—HOW ARGON AFTER THE BATTLE HEARD THAT HIS FATHER WAS DEAD AND WENT TO ASSUME THE SOVEREIGNTY AS WAS HIS RIGHT
NOTES.—1. Death of Abaka. 2. Textual. 3. Ahmad Tigudar.
VII.—[1]HOW ACOMAT SOLDAN SET OUT WITH HIS HOST AGAINST HIS NEPHEW WHO WAS COMING TO CLAIM THE THRONE THAT BELONGED TO HIM
VIII.—[1]HOW ARGON TOOK COUNSEL WITH HIS FOLLOWERS ABOUT ATTACKING HIS UNCLE ACOMAT SOLDAN
IX.—[1]HOW THE BARONS OF ARGON ANSWERED HIS ADDRESS
X.—[1]THE MESSAGE SENT BY ARGON TO ACOMAT
XI.—HOW ACOMAT REPLIED TO ARGON'S MESSAGE
XII.—OF THE BATTLE BETWEEN ARGON AND ACOMAT, AND THE CAPTIVITY OF ARGON
NOTES.—1. Verbal. 2. Historical.
XIII.—HOW ARGON WAS DELIVERED FROM PRISON
XIV.—HOW ARGON GOT THE SOVEREIGNTY AT LAST
XV.—[1]HOW ACOMAT WAS TAKEN PRISONER
XVI.—HOW ACOMAT WAS SLAIN BY ORDER OF HIS NEPHEW
XVII.—HOW ARGON WAS RECOGNISED AS SOVEREIGN
NOTES.—1. The historical circumstances and persons named in these chapters. 2. Arghún's accession and death.
XVIII.—HOW KIACATU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER ARGON'S DEATH
NOTE.—The reign and character of Kaikhátú.
XIX.—HOW BAIDU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER THE DEATH OF KIACATU
NOTES.—1. Baidu's alleged Christianity. 2. Gházán Khan.
XX.—CONCERNING KING CONCHI WHO RULES THE FAR NORTH
NOTES.—1. Kaunchi Khan. 2. Siberia. 3. Dog-sledges. 4. The animal here styled Erculin. The Vair. 5. Yugria.
XXI.—CONCERNING THE LAND OF DARKNESS
NOTES.—1. The Land of Darkness. 2. The Legend of the Mares and their Foals. 3. Dumb Trade with the People of the Darkness.
XXII.—DESCRIPTION OF ROSIA AND ITS PEOPLE. PROVINCE OF LAC
NOTES.—1. Old Accounts of Russia. Russian Silver and Rubles. 2. Lac, or Wallachia. 3. Oroech, Norway (?) or the Waraeg Country (?)
XXIII.—HE BEGINS TO SPEAK OF THE STRAITS OF CONSTANTINOPLE, BUT DECIDES TO LEAVE THAT MATTER
XXIV.—CONCERNING THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT AND THEIR LORDS
NOTES.—1. The Comanians; the Alans; Majar; Zic; the Goths of the Crimea; Gazaria. 2. The Khans of Kipchak or the Golden Horde; errors in Polo's list. Extent of their Empire.
XXV.—OF THE WAR THAT AROSE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA, AND THE BATTLES THAT THEY FOUGHT (Extracts and Substance.)
NOTES.—1. Verbal. 2. The Sea of Sarai. 3. The War here spoken of. Wassáf's rigmarole.
XXVI.—[1]HOW BARCA AND HIS ARMY ADVANCED TO MEET ALAU
XXVII.—[1]HOW ALAU ADDRESSED HIS FOLLOWERS
XXVIII.—[1]OF THE GREAT BATTLE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA
XXIX.—HOW TOTAMANGU WAS LORD OF THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT; AND AFTER HIM TOCTAI
NOTE.—Confusions in the Text. Historical circumstances connected with the Persons spoken of. Toctai and Noghai Khan. Symbolic Messages.
XXX.—[1]OF THE SECOND MESSAGE THAT TOCTAI SENT TO NOGAI
XXXI.—[1]HOW TOCTAI MARCHED AGAINST NOGAI
XXXII.—[1]HOW TOCTAI AND NOGAI ADDRESS THEIR PEOPLE, AND THE NEXT DAY JOIN BATTLE
XXXIII.—[1]THE VALIANT FEATS AND VICTORY OF KING NOGAI
XXXIV. AND LAST. CONCLUSION
_______________
Notes:
[1] Of chapters so marked nothing is given but the substance in brief.
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Re: The Travels of Marco Polo, by Marco Polo and Rustichello
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APPENDICES.
A. Genealogy of the House of Chinghiz to the End of the Thirteenth Century
B. The Polo Families:—
(I.) Genealogy of the Family of Marco Polo the Traveller
(II.) The Polos of San Geremia
C. Calendar of Documents relating to Marco Polo and his Family
D. Comparative Specimens of the Different Recensions of Polo's Text
E. Preface to Pipino's Latin Version
F. Note of MSS. of Marco Polo's Book, so far as known:
General Distribution of MSS.
List of Miniatures in two of the finer MSS.
List of MSS. of Marco Polo's Book, so far as they are known
G. Diagram showing Filiation of Chief MSS. and Editions of Marco Polo
H. Bibliography:—
(I.) Principal Editions of Marco Polo's Book
(II.) Bibliography of Printed Editions
(III.) Titles of Sundry Books and Papers treating of Marco Polo and his Book
I. Titles of Works quoted by Abbreviated References in this Book
K. Values of Certain Moneys, Weights, and Measures occurring in this Book.
L. Supplementary Notes to the Book of Marco Polo 1. The Polos at Acre. 2. Sorcery in Kashmir. 3. PAONANO PAO. 4. Pamir. 5. Number of Pamirs. 6. Site of Pein. 7. Fire-arms. 8. La Couvade. 9. Alacan 10. Champa. 11. Ruck Quills. 12. A Spanish Marco Polo. 13. Sir John Mandeville.
INDEX
A. Genealogy of the House of Chinghiz to the End of the Thirteenth Century
B. The Polo Families:—
(I.) Genealogy of the Family of Marco Polo the Traveller
(II.) The Polos of San Geremia
C. Calendar of Documents relating to Marco Polo and his Family
D. Comparative Specimens of the Different Recensions of Polo's Text
E. Preface to Pipino's Latin Version
F. Note of MSS. of Marco Polo's Book, so far as known:
General Distribution of MSS.
List of Miniatures in two of the finer MSS.
List of MSS. of Marco Polo's Book, so far as they are known
G. Diagram showing Filiation of Chief MSS. and Editions of Marco Polo
H. Bibliography:—
(I.) Principal Editions of Marco Polo's Book
(II.) Bibliography of Printed Editions
(III.) Titles of Sundry Books and Papers treating of Marco Polo and his Book
I. Titles of Works quoted by Abbreviated References in this Book
K. Values of Certain Moneys, Weights, and Measures occurring in this Book.
L. Supplementary Notes to the Book of Marco Polo 1. The Polos at Acre. 2. Sorcery in Kashmir. 3. PAONANO PAO. 4. Pamir. 5. Number of Pamirs. 6. Site of Pein. 7. Fire-arms. 8. La Couvade. 9. Alacan 10. Champa. 11. Ruck Quills. 12. A Spanish Marco Polo. 13. Sir John Mandeville.
INDEX
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