NOTE.
The first of the two Arabic manuscripts of which I have spoken, page 85, is numbered 786. It seems to have been composed around the year 1620, by a lawyer, the chaik Merèï, son of Yousef the Hanbalite.
It is a kind of chronicle in the manner of the Orientals, which traces in succession, but without coherence of speech, the salient events of the reigns of the princes, their accession to the throne, their wars, their pious foundations, their death and some features of their character. The author leads the series from the first Kaliphs, under which the conquest of Egypt was made, to the Turkish Pasha who in his time was viceroy of the Sultan of Constantinople there. A detailed extract of this work would be both foreign to my subject and too long. It will suffice for me to give the main results which are - that, since the invasion of Amrou, lieutenant of Kaliph Omar, Egypt was ruled by the viceroys of the Kaliphs, his successors, whose seat was first in Damascus, then in Baghdad. — That theMaimoun ) having made up a guard of Turkmen slaves, this soldiery ended up invading all the military posts of the empire, and the government of the provinces. — That a son of these slave soldiers, named Ahmed-Ben-Touloun, made itself independent in Egypt around 872, and formed an empire which extended from Rahbe, near Moussel, to Barbary. Haras d'Ahmed) —That after 30 years, Egypt returned to the Kaliphs, who were not more careful. — That in 934, a soldier of fortune, named Akchid, declared himself again independent, and maintained until 400,000 men. — That at his death, a black slave, called Kafour, seized the scepter and reigned with a transcendent talent. — That after him, in 968, the descendants of Fatima and Ali, recognized for caliphs in Barbary, seized Egypt, where they reigned under the name of Fatimites. — That one of them founded in 969 the city of current Kaire. — That this family reigned until 1200 in a suite of princes who, according to Merei's remark, they were all mad or stupid. — Under them, Egypt fell into a pit of calamities, pestilences and famines, one of which lasted 7 years. The author on this occasion identifies famines and pestilences, and finds 21 from 635 until 1440.
The kaliphs of Egypt, like those of Baghdad, having formed a guard of foreigners, like them became its victims. Selah-el-din, Kurdish extraction, vizier of the last Fatimite, deposes his master, and founded the so-called Aioub dynasty, named after his father. — It was he who had the well with snail staircase, called Josef well. His army was mainly made up of horsemen named in Serrâdjin Arabic, whose crusaders made their word Saracens. This dynasty reigned 85 years under 10 sultans.
The army, then composed of Mamlouks Turkmans, having killed the last Aioubite, a Turkman, named Ibek, seizes the scepter, and establishes the dynasty of the Turkman Mamlouks. — Under the short reign of the son of Ibek, Holagou-Kan and his Moguls destroy Baghdad and the Kaliphate in 1258. — The tenth Turkman sultan, Qalaoun, having formed a guard of 12,000 Cherkass Mamlouks, bought in the markets of Asia, this militia becomes the mistress, elects the princes, deposits them, strangles them, etc. — A chief of this body, named Barqouq, is elected and opens the dynasty of the Cherkass Mamlouks; he left in currency 25,000,000 14,000,000 tournaments and in meubles.-23 Eof this dynasty was attacked by Selim II, who, having killed him in a battle fought near Aleppo, pursued his successor Toumâmbek in Egypt, in whom ended the first empire of the Mamlouks. — Summarizing the series of these princes, he is found that 48 sultans, including 24 Turkmans and 24 Tcherkasses, reigned only 263 years: that of the 24 Turkmans, 11 were assassinated and 6 deposed: only on the 24 Cherkassus, 6 were assassinated and 11 deposed, and many of them reigned only a few months: that all these princes knew only to make war, to plunder, to ravage, and then to make pious foundations of mosques, d schools, etc.: that under the 11 th race turkmane, it was the time to divert the Nile to the Red sea, the foot of Mount Mokattam, and that the costs were evaluated 2,250,000 fr. Finally, Merèi gives the series of pashas, which is of little interest, and ends with the principles of Muslim government, which are purely despotism by divine right.
The second manuscript, number 695, is a mirror or picture of the empire of the Mamluks, the sultans of Egypt, composed by Kalil, son of Shahin El Zaher, vizier of Sultan Malek-el acheraf (8 th of tcherkasse dynasty).
This work, of a genre of which I know of no example among the Arabs, is a sort of statistic of the empire of the Mamlouks, at the time of the writer; one would say, on reading it, that he described the court of Louis XIV. The table of chapters alone will give an idea capable of making it appreciated, and I will add to it some of the details which have seemed to me the most curious and the most instructive.
After a very emphatic preface, according to Moslem usage, after having attested that there is only one God, that Mohammed is his only prophet, Châhin describes the eminent qualities which must compose the character of every mortal to whom the feather of fate has traced a glorious career on its indelible tables; he warns that having first made a large book, he then found it wiser to reduce it and make it very small (which is worthy of imitation), and he proceeds to the methodical table of chapters.
Chapter I st. Titles which assure Egypt the superiority over the other empires of the earth. — Of its places of devotion and pilgrimage. — Of its marvelous monuments, both ancient and modern. — Of its limits. — Of its cities. From Its Frontiers. — From the provinces and countries where its domination extends.
Chapter II. Of Sovereign Power. — Of Qualities Necessary To A Sultan. — Of His Duties. — Gala Days and public ceremonies. — Uniform clothes of each class of officers attached to the Sultan.
Chapter III. Of the commander of the faithful; of his rank; of his state. — Of the great qâdis (judges) to whom belongs to bind and to loose. — Of the imâms. — People of the law and particular qâdis.
Chapter IV. Of the vizier, at the same time prime minister and superintendent of finances of the house of the sultan. — Of the treasury of the sultan and of its administrators. — Of the secretaries of state, having the department of the chamber and of the dispatches. — Of the inspector general of the armies. — From the speaker (or great advocate) of the divan (council).— From the first master of the mouth (butler) of the sultan, having the administration of the private treasury and of the domain, and generally of all offices established for financial administration.
Chapter V. Of the children of the reigning sultan, and of the princes of the royal blood. — Of the regent. — Of the vicar of the empire. — Of the master of the stables (or constable). - Of the emirs commanding 1,000 Mamlouks. — Of the emirs of war music, commanding 40 Mamlouks; and lower emirs, commanding 20, 10 and 5 Mamlouks.
Chapter VI. Grand officers of the crown, and generally of all those who fulfill public and particular functions with the sultan. — Kavani officers and Khasseki officers, drawn from the freed Mamlouks, and doing in the palace the office of chamberlains and guards of the corps. — Of their services and of the garrison places in which they are established. — Of the dovecotes assigned to the maintenance of the messenger pigeons. — Of the transport of snow from Syria to Egypt, and of the royal posts established throughout the country. empire.
Chapter VII. Of the houses of the princesses, and of the sub-steward of the harems. — Of the eunuchs and free servants, doing the service of the seraglio. — Of the furniture storage of the crown. — Of the hall of arms. — Of the sultan's stores. "Of the two great royal granaries, and of all that relates to this administration, as much for the entry as for the exit of the grain.
Chapter VIII. Palace officers. — From the kitchen.—Stables. — Falconry. — Sultan's hunting parties, and places used for storing nets and housing birders for hunting aquatic birds.
Chapter IX. Inspectors of the land, charged with building and repairing bridges, digging canals, raising dikes and causeways, and presiding over all public works during the rising and diminishing waters of the Nile. — Governors of the provinces of Egypt. — Particular commanders. — People in place in towns and villages, and of the regime established for the collection of taxes.
Chapter X. Viceroys in charge of the government of the eight provinces of Syria. — Grand qadis. — Emirs. — Administrators and other officers employed in the capitals of these provinces. — Of the number of giundis and halqâ who are there in garrison, and particular commanders of the towns and castles spread throughout this empire.
Chapter XI. Arab emirs and sheiks. — Turkmen and curd emirs, in the service of the state. — Military expeditions. — Flying camps. — Of the conquest of Yemen, Diarbekr and the island of Cypra, during the reign of Sultan Malek-el-Acheraf.
Chapter XII. Collection of some historical facts which it is appropriate for each one to know and to meditate, to draw from them principles of conduct. This chapter ends with a few pieces of moral poetry, composed by Malek-el-Kiâmel, sovereign prince of the fortress of Heifa; and by a response from Malek-el-Acheraf to Mirza-Chah-Rok (son of Tamerlan.)
Chapter I st. Section V. Limits of Egypt. —In the south, the boundaries of Egypt start from the shores of the Sea of Qolzum (Red Sea), near the town of Aidab, and embracing the land of the Haribs of Nubia, which begins at the Great Cataract, behind Mt. Djenadel, they extend to the mountains of Aden and the rocks of Habeche (Abissinie). To the east, its landmarks are the Red Sea, whose coast is arid and full of rocks. From Suez, this coast widens towards the east. Its greatest width is from the Gorandel pond to the Tih. There is the border of Syria.
To the north, it is bounded by the sea, from the towns of Zàqat, Refah and Amedj, better known under the name of el-Arich, border of Syria on the Gulf of Gaze.
To the west, it includes the territory of Alexandria, the country of Loïounet and el-Amidain, up to Acabé inclusively (formerly Catabathmus magnus, or the great descent); there, turning away and tightening the two Oases, the line approaches Said (upper Egypt), to join the southern borders.
The Nile takes its source at the foot of the mountains of the Moon. — During 60 days of march, it flows in inhabited countries. — For 10 others, in sterile lands. — Arrived in Nubia, it flows 60 days, then it spends 120 days in deserts; finally, it enters fertile land as far as the sea, where it flows through the two mouths of Damietta and Rosette.
Section VII. From Kaire and its suburbs. —The new Kaire (Masr-el-Qâhera) is 12 miles (or 4 leagues) long, from Târ-el-nabi, to Sebààt-oudjouh. This space includes the old Kaire ( Masr-el-Qadim ), and 7 large suburbs. The author goes into long details of colleges, mosques, palaces, parks, and he compares each suburb to a great city of the empire; one is equivalent to Aleppo; another, in Alexandria; a third, in Hems; a fourth, in Acre: and it concludes 700,000 souls of population (which seems to me the origin of the opinion which has subsisted since; but times are very changed.)
Old Kaire is the port of Upper Egypt. Under Sultan Nadjm-el-din, there were 1,800 boats.
Section IX. Division of Egypt. —Egypt is divided into 14 provinces: 7 in the south, and 7 in the north. Each province has 360 villages and several towns.
Miniet is the general name for the ports and approaches to the Nile.
Monfalout, territory detached from the province of Ousiout, with 30 villages, made of superb indigo (in 1442). The tribute of this province is deposited there, which amounts to 1,150,000 ardeb of grains (the ardeb of 192 pounds.)
3 days west of Ousiout, through a sandy and stony desert, is el-Ouah (oasis), so named from its capital.
Another middle oasis has 2 villages, called el-Qasr, and el-Hindan.
A third oasis, closer to upper Egypt, is called Dakilé (interior), and has 2 villages whose inhabitants live on barley, corn and dates.
Section XI. From the city of Alexandria. —Alexandria is the most frequented port for foreigners; the Frankish nations have consuls there, distinguished people, who serve as hostages to the Sultan. When one of these nations does wrong to Islamism, one takes to part its representative, and one obliges it to repair the evil. — The customs return 1,000 dinars. Outside the city can be seen the famous column called el-Saouâri, or the main mast. (Abulfeda said the same thing; and it is this word Saouâri that some have taken for Severus, emperor.) I heard that a person had found a way to climb on it and sit on his marquee.
Chapter IV. Of the vizier or grand minister. —The vizier is a minister who has preeminence over all the great officers. — He is of divine institution. Aaron was the vizier of Moses.
The vizier watches over all parts of the government, all the agents of the administration; he establishes and deposits them; punishes and rewards them.
He keeps the state revenue and expenditure register; he increases its income, not by tyranny, but by wisdom and economy.
The income of the empire consists of fixed income, casual income, and seigneurial rights over cultivators. Fixed income is the cash tax on productive land; customs, 10 percent in kind, on import and export trade; the tribute of the conquered peoples, the poll tax of non-Muslims known as karadje; monopoly farms, known as paltes; tithes on the fruits of the earth; the charges on factories and shops, and 5 th part of legal plunder.
The casual earnings are 20 th on the collateral inheritances; the fines; the price of blood spilled; extraordinary taxes and investitures; the right of windfall; shipwrecks; the treasures discovered; the tithe on grazing and passing herds, and not on domestic animals.
The seignorial rights on the cultivators are: 1. right of survey; 2. the right to share land bequeathed to various coheirs; 3. right to increase land and pastures by the effect of the Nile; 4. right of demarcation, or property limits; 5. right on the water machines, raised on the Nile for watering.
Here are the legal revenues: they are raised according to fixed uses, and they have a useful destination for the state, so that the Sultan is only the depositary.
Just as the vizier supervises the officers, the sultan must supervise the vizier; and the vizier advise the sultan, warn him and even take him back.
Section II. The royal treasury is a department responsible for a host of revenue large and small.
1. Rights on the border of Egypt towards Syria.
2. Entrance fees on everything that enters Kaire and Egypt, except on what is attributed to the private treasury.
3. Bargain on the estates of foreigners.
4. Regies and farms of Kaire, such as butcher's shops, leathers, oil and sugar mills; rights on the entry of edibles.
Rights to the natrons of Terrâné.
Monfalout right.
Investiture rights and royalties from leased fiefdoms or protected countries.
Right of cleaning of the canals which must make several provinces.
Produces sugar cane and colqâz, cultivated on behalf of the sultan.
Produced from the sultan's farms and gardens, enriched by wheel wells.
Out of this income the treasury pays and defrayed:
1. Barley from the Sultan's stables.
2. Food for couriers' stables.
3. The palace table.
4. Repairs to royal houses.
5. Meat and all the cooking of the Sultan's Mamlouks; that of all his servant.
6. The maintenance of its offices.
7. Charity pensions assigned to the windfall.
8. The maintenance of the oxen of the smallholdings. — The transport of clovers and straws for the stables.
Under Sultan Barqoûq, all these costs amounted per month to 50,000 dinars or 7-pound sequins.
The treasury is governed by a chief and a number of subordinates. This department has for ushers and henchmen a company of Moors who carry orders and carry them out.
Section III. From the first secretary of state, head of dispatches and of the chancellery. "He is an important officer, who has all the confidence of the Sultan; he must know how to quote the Qoran, the anecdotes of kings, the sentences of wise men, the beautiful verses of poets, etc.
His art is to make the Sultan speak in all his writings with nobility, grandeur, wit, grace; he must make rhyming and pompous sentences; he sends the acts of alliance of the kaliphs and sultans; the installation of qâdis and governors, commissions for military benefits in favor of emirs and djondis, etc., and finally letters from the sultan.
These letters have a form full of art, according to the rank of the people. Those to subjects are called mokâtebât; those to foreigners, morâselât.
The highest title for foreigners is el maqâm, el àâli.
The lesser is el madjlas or megeles, el àâli.
For subjects, the highest title is el-maqarr, el-karim (your grace).
Then maqarr-el-àâli (excellence).
Then djenâb-el-kerim (magnificent courtyard).
Then djenâb-el-àâli (very high court); finally sadr-el-adjal (august presence); hadrat (simple presence).
Section VI. Private treasure. The private treasury is governed by a great officer who administers the lands allocated to the pay of the Sultan's Mamlouks, and several branches of income, the bulk of which is called the private treasury. These officers often acquired immense wealth.
From this department depend 160 villages, to which must be added several countries of protection and farms. The only villages of Menzalé and Faraskout, near Damietta, each return 30,000 dinars per year: more, the investiture rights provincial governors, field inspectors, town and village commanders, police commissioners. — Educated people assured me that all this treasure amounted to 400,000 dinars, and 300,000 ardebs of wheat, barley and beans.
The expense consists of the pay and maintenance of the Sultan's Mamlouks; barley for their horses; maintenance of the princesses and the harem; balance and maintenance of the entire palace service, etc.
Section VII. From the Domain. The domain is the Sultan's own income; He understands:
1. The Alexandria customs on the Frankish trade.
2. The rights on groceries from India.
3. The sale of muges and poutargues from Damiette.
4. The rights on the arts, crafts, cabarets, dancers and public girls.
5. Rights over brokers and interpreters.
6. Produces brickyards.
7. Camel farm for transport from Alexandria to Rosetta.
8. Customs of the goods of India, placed in el Tor.
9. Rights to Damietta on many objects, and among others on the sugar refinery.
10. The quint of the legal booty.
11. Farm of Lake Semanaoui and other ponds.
12. Rights over Foua, warehouse of the Franks when the Alexandria Canal was navigable, which ceased for 120 years (1320).
13. Rights on the lands of Broulos, Nesterouh, the port of Rosette.
14. Customs of Saïd (upper Egypt) on the Abissins who bring black slaves, gold dust, etc., and paltes (monopolies) of sené and breakage.
15. Rights of protected countries and countries leased to Arabs.
Produced from the many smallholdings and lands of the domain, watered by wheels.
The rent of Fondouq-el-Kerim, located in old Kaire.
Succession of all the great who, in Egypt, die without legitimate heirs.
Profits from the Mint.
Right of the city of Bairout.
Customs of Indian goods, transported to Bedr, Honain, Bouaib-el-aqabé.
Now here are the charges:
1. Ammunition of war for any expedition.
2. Expenses of the caravan and the feast of the sacrifice.
3. Distribution of victims to large and small officers.
4. Expenses of the Easter feast, the banquet and the celebrations.
5. Renewal of the harem wardrobe and furniture.
6th Idem, clothing of the Mamlouks.
7. Jacket honor the great officers, qadis, the emirs of 1 st class, the kâchefs. (In Bairam, all Muslims dress in new clothes, them and their house; this is called kesoué.)
8. Complete maintenance of the employees for the tax.
9. Supply of the harem and serai, in sweets, jams, sorbets, fruits, etc.
10. Presents to give to sovereigns.
11. Vest of honor (or annual caftan) to all people in place of the empire (in all Islamism places are only for the current year; the dressed pays a donation or price of slippers: the richest takes it away). Each of these jackets differs in shape, color, richness, according to the rank (in general the garment is very expensive, especially for pelisses.)
Section V. The great advocate of the council. —When for a major affair the sultan assembles the council (diouân), he summons the prince of believers, the 4 grand qâdis, the vizier, the emirs of 1,000 horsemen, and the constable.
Before the session, the Sultan explains his intentions to a confident and eloquent man, who is responsible for presenting the case and answering all objections. The Sultan is silent.
We imagined this officer, so that the sultan is never compromised, and that we can make objections freely, any error falling on the lawyer or rapporteur.
Chapter V. The children of the sultans are brought up with care in the harem. It is an old custom to shut up all those who exist on the accession of a prince. Malek-el-acheraf gave freedom to 40; but they died in the plague of the year 1429, which took up to 10,500 heads per day.
When a prince is a minor, there is a regent who is called nezâm-el-molk (the one who puts order in the kingdom). When the sultan is absent, there is a vicar nâïeb-el-molk.
The chief of the emirs, or àtabek-el-àsâker, is a kind of constable.
Emirs are divided into several classes.
Those of the 1 st have 100 Mamlouks, and order at 1,000: they should be 24.
Those in the 2 e have 40 Mamluks: they should be 40. The martial music played on the door of their hotels in the ASR (or time of 3 e prayer); it is composed of timpani, drums and clarinets. These latter instruments are of recent date.
The emirs of 3 th class should number 20: they each have 20 Mamluks.
The emirs of 4 th class should be 50, and 10 each have Mamluks.
Finally the 5 th and last class is of 30 emirs, who each have 5 Mamlouks for their procession.
Among these emirs, some have employment in the state, others have only their title and rank.
The army is divided into several corps. Karabal Couli, Tartar prince, having, several years ago, sent to ask for a tribute, under penalty of sending against Egypt 20 toumans of horsemen (200,000), the then sultan sent him for any response the following state of his troops:
1. The djendis el halqa, or escort of the sultan. - ( King's house. ) 24,000 riders.
2. Mamlouks of the Sultan. 10,000
Mamlouks of the emirs. 8,000
Gendarmes in Damascus. 12,000
Mamlouks of the emirs of Damascus. 3,000
Gendarmes in Aleppo. 6,000
Mamlouks of the emirs of Aleppo. 2,000
Gendarmes of Tripoli. 4,000
Mamlouks of the emirs. 1,000
Gendarmes of Safad. 1,000
Mamlouks of the emirs. 1,000
Garrisons in the castles of Syria, including the Mamlouks. 60,000
132,000 cavalieres.
Arab subjects.
Bâli-fadl tribe, children of Nouèïr. 24,000
Arabs of Hejaz. 24,000
Tribe of el-Aâli. 2,000
Arabs of Irâq. 2,000
—Of Yemen. 2,000
—De Djezire. 2,000
—From Metrouq. 1,000
—From Djarm. 1,000
—Beni-oqbé and Beni-mehdi. 1,000
—El-Omara. 1,000
—From Hindam. 1,000
—Aïd. 1,000
—Fezàrât. 1,000
—Mohârib. 1,000
—Qarîl. 1,000
—Qattâb. 1,000
—Of Egypt together. 3,000
—Haouâra. 24,000
Turkmans scattered in hordes or camps
on the lands of Syria and Diarbekr,
recorded in the number of 180,000
The Ochran (we do not know what it is,
if not other Turkmans) divided into
35 districts, each with 1,000 horsemen. 35,000
Kurds. 20,000
Militias of Egypt, at the rate of 33,000
villages and 2 cavaliers per village:
total 66,000
In all 526,000 riders.
Sultan's stores and granaries. —The Sultan has stores where all the products in kind of his customs are stored, pepper, cinnamon, groceries, sugars, timber.
It also has 2 attics which are wonders.
In one, named Chiouân, are stored grains, wheat, rice, wood, straw, etc., for the use of the palate.
In the other, called Hirâ, grains are deposited which are only touched in case of necessity; sometimes the exit is prohibited. This granary fills up and provides for food shortages. This is where the alms come from. In one year the profit from the sale amounted to 300,000 dinars (10 lb. 3 s.).
There were 26 pestilences and famines in Egypt in 800 years; sometimes 3 in 25 years; and this always in times of trouble and bad government.
Chapter IX. § 1 st. Inspectors of arable land, Kochâf el Torâb.-field inspectors are selected from the emirs of the 1 st class; they are sent every year at the beginning of spring, to all the provinces of Egypt, to have the necessary work carried out for the maintenance of the canals, the raising of dikes and causeways, and all that is related to the rising and falling waters of the Nile.
The department of the royal treasury is responsible, on the fees it collects, to dig some public canals, which facilitate the flow of water. But all that relates to the dikes and causeways necessary for the solidity of the bridges, must be done by chores and contributions distributed on each village, because of the extent and the fertility of its territory. When the Nile begins to overflow, one cannot be too careful about the conservation of the dikes, causeways and bridges, until the land is sufficiently watered; for if they were carried away, the waters, flowing forthwith, would leave entire countries without watering.
When the Nile decreases, on the contrary, it is necessary to facilitate the flow, in order to sow the land in time.
As for the bridges established for the local utility of certain villages, it is up to the owners of property to maintain them. The inspectors have nothing to do with it.
§ II. Kasks, or Inspectors of the Provinces. — The governors, known as kasks, of Egypt, were formerly 3 in number.
One commanded from the confines of Gizah exclusively to Genadel. He appointed 7 emirs, who administered under his immediate orders the 7 southern provinces (Heptanomis and Thebais).
The second ruled the northern part (Delta), also having under him 7 emirs.
The third ruled the province of Gizah only. This was sometimes an emir of the 1 st class, head of 1,000 horsemen, like the first two; sometimes an emir of war music.
For some time now three coworkers have been established for the south; one at Faïoum, the other at the lower Saïd, the third at the upper Saïd. Likewise, the north was divided into 3 kachefliks. One contains the eastern provinces (Charqié); the other that of the west (Garbîe); the third, Béhiré, or Lake Province, which has always been a private government.
But, if I may say my opinion, these provisions are less favorable to good order.
By dividing the places, one attenuated the power and the influence which, formerly united in a few hands, allowed the commanders to deploy this apparatus and this magnificence always so imposing to the multitude.
Above, when a kaskf from Saïd or from the north was making his rounds, calm preceded his steps, and his retinue of 1,000 cavalry caused a circulation of species which revived commerce and agriculture.
Among the subordinate emirs, a few are still appointed by the kasks; but the great number fell with the appointment of the administrator of the private treasury (oustadar), who sells these places and paralyzes the power of the coworkers.
§ III. Officials in each village and tax collection. —In each city and main village there is a qâdi, a tax collector for the royal treasury, another for the private treasury, another for the estate; plus, a royal commissioner of navigation (of the Nile), an officer military for the police, a successful farmer, a canal inspector, and trustees or old mayors.
Formerly the tax was only levied in kind, now and for a long time everything has been leased out, and the adjudicating farmers of the villages keep such an opulent house state, that many petty rulers of Asia live with less splendor..
The farmers of Menzalé and Faraskour, each return to the estate 36,000 dinars[153].
The other villages, several of which return 12 to 20,000 dinars, are also leased for sums which do not vary.[154].
The lands assigned to the prerogative of the djendis are divided by kirats; and each kirat is valued at 1,000 dinars, approximately 11,000 pounds.
Chapter X. Administration of the provinces.
1. Province of Damascus.
2. Karak.
3. Halab (Aleppo.)
4. Tarâbolos (Tripoli.)
5. Homs (Hems.)
6. Safad.
7. Gazzah (Gaze.)
The first and most important province of Syria is that of Damascus.
His viceroy (kafil) has an apparatus equal to the sultan he represents. He has at his discretion all the civil and military places of his government.
The great military officers Emir generalissimo of the troops, the head of the gatekeepers, 12 emirs of 1 st class emirs 20 2 e class, emirs and 60 to 10 and 5 Mamluks.
The court of justice is composed of 4 great qadis of the 4 orthodox schools or sects, and each of them appoints substitutes in Damascus and in the other cities of the province, to judge in civil and criminal matters.
The great plume officers (mobâcherin) are the secretary despatches, the great inspector of the army, the oustadar or head of the private treasury, that of the domain, that of the royal treasury, and the vizier.
The executive agents (arbâb-el-ouazaïef) are 2 inspectors titled kachefs making their rounds in turn; the emirs of the generalities, the commanders of places, the grand marshal of the houses, the tribune of the army, etc., almost as in Kaire.
The castle of Damascus is entrusted to the lieutenant of the sultan and to 7 officer-porters (capidjis).
As for the garrison djendis in the province, they should number 12,000, including 2,000 near the viceroy; the remainder near the emirs, by squadron of 500 men and not of 1000 men, as in Egypt.
Karak holds the second rank in the province. One writes to one's viceroy on red paper, because one of Selâheldin's successors, having given his 3 children his empire, namely: to one Egypt; on the other, Syria, from Bisan to Diarbekr; to 3 e the rest of Syria and Karak, the label of these sultans spent their viceroys.
For some time now Karak has only had two capidjis as governor; for court, that 2 qadis; for garrison, only a few Mamlouks and Babrites (people of the navy), with an Arab prince who commands all the tribes of the spring.
The 5 other governments are administered on the same plan as that of Damascus, but with less pomp and expense: that of Hama was therefore ruined.
There are forts and castles which have particular emirs. Their garrison is made up of a lieutenant of the sultan, a corps of freedmen-babrites, a round chief, a tribune of the army, some Mamlouks of the sultan, gatekeepers, and a few soldiers. of the country who stand guard.
The author does not know whether he should regard Malatié as a castle or as the capital of a province. It was there that Doqmaq commanded, of whom Malek-el-acheraf sultan was slave (master of the vizier author).
Chapter XI. Emirs and chaiks, Arabs, Turkmans and Kurds.—The Arabs spread over the lands of Egypt and Syria are divided into tribes, each of which has its emir. This emir has under him chaiks responsible for maintaining order and levying contributions which they are farmers, each in their respective district.
§ I. Military expeditions. —We distinguish two kinds of expeditions (tedjarid), one against the foreigner, the other against the rebel subject. In either case, the army is made up of horsemen and archers on foot, in numbers capable of crushing the enemy who dares to compete.
We make flying camps, either to reinforce a place, or to keep a post, to observe an enemy, etc.
The invariable order of the camps is that the superior's tent is always posted behind that of his subordinate, so that the sultan's is at the tail of all the others.
(Here follow 2 articles on the conquest of Yemen by order of Malek-el-acheraf, and of the island of Cypre, which followed it shortly after. In all these facts we only see butcheries of men, without reason, and without instruction for the reader).
Chapter XII. It contains, in 3 sections, historical anecdotes and Arab maxims which can be summed up to say, 1. that the princes are overthrown by those they raise; 2. that fatality governs everything, and that we must be patient and resigned; 3. that inconstancy and bad faith are the basis of the human heart. And the conclusion is a letter from Malek-el-acheraf to Châh Rok, son of Timour (Tamerlan), in which the Egyptian sultan responds with gross insults to the Tatar sultan.
Ouqâfs, or Foundations in Egypt. — The Ommiad and Abbasid kaliphs often gave alms; but they took the sums out of their treasury; and it does not appear to me that they have ever allocated land in perpetuity.
In Egypt it was Malek el-Sahel, 16 th qualaounide, which affected the first two villages maintenance Mahmals founded by Bibars.
Today the land rents in favor of Mekke and Medina are so multiplied in Turkey, that, without the waste management, these 2 cities would be the richest in the world. The reason is that we often bequeath our property to these cities to keep it in usufruct to its race, while preserving it from the greed of the government. On the other hand, the princes and the rich make pious and expiative bequests to the ministers of the rich and poor in these cities. Egypt alone is burdened with it, according to Mohammad-ben-eshâq, namely, 6 great main legacies, called dechîchet-el-kobra, or large semolina.
1. The legacy of Djaqmaq, 10 th Sultan circus.
2. The legacy of Qâiet-baï[155], 17 e circus.
3. De Tenâm, rich emirs of the time of the Tcherkasses.
4. De Kâouend, rich emirs of the time of the Tcherkasses.
5. From Selim 1 st.
6. From Soliman his son.
The lands affected by these bequests are, namely:
For the first, 6 villages in the Kalioûb.
For the second, 5 villages in Monoûf.
For the third, 6 villages and an island in Garbié.
For the fourth, 9 villages in Daq-Halié, near Charqîé.
For the fifth, 2 villages in the Béhairé.
For the sixth, 5 villages in the Foua district.
7. In that of Djizah, 3 villages.
8. In the Faïoum, 2 villages.
9. In the Behensaoûîé, 7 villages.
10. In the Saïd, 7 villages: total, 52 villages and the island.
In a common year, the product of all these lands, in wheat, barley, beans, lentils, chickpeas, rice, is 48,880 ardeb (the ardeb weighing 192 pounds).
The same lands give more in pecuniary royalties 70 scholarships (87,000 fr.).
To this sum are added other parts of land rents, founded in various places by sultans, pashas, individuals, as much on land as on houses and shops; this is called el sourer. These alms amount, according to Mohammad-ben-ezhâq, to 164 scholarships (205,000 fr.). But the account details only offer 141.
To which must be added similar legacies made in Natolia (Roum-ili), Aleppo, Damascus, and all the other Muslim countries; which constitutes an enormous wealth for Mekke and Medina.
Soliman has also founded 80 camels for poor people who want to make the pilgrimage.
Doves of message pigeons. These dovecotes are established in towers built at intervals over the whole extent of the empire, with the intention of watching over public safety and tranquility.
It was in Moussel that we began to use pigeons to carry letters[156]. When the Fatmites invaded Egypt, they established these air posts there, and they attached such a keen interest to them, that they assigned funds of their own to a special authority for this purpose. Among the registers of this office was one in which were classified the breeds of pigeons recognized as the cleanest. The virtuous Madj-el-dîn Abd-el-Dâher composed on this subject a curious book, entitled Tamâîm-el-Hàmâïm, Amulets of the pigeons.
For a long time the dovecotes of Saïd have been destroyed as a result of the disturbances which have ruined the country; but those of lower Egypt remain (in 1450), and here is the state as well as for Syria.
NB The distances were added by the translator, according to d'Anville and according to his own knowledge.
§ I st. Correspondence between Kaire and Alexandria.
COLOMBIERS.
Castle of the Mountain (in Kaire) 0
Monouf-el-ouliâ 39
Damanhour-el-ouâhech 45
Skanderié (Alexandria) 36
120 miles.
§ II. From Kaire to Damietta.
Castle of the Mountain 0
Tower of Beni òbaid 36
Echmoun-el-rommân 36
Doumiât 30
102 miles.
§ III. From Kaire to Gazzah.
From Kaire to Bilbais 27
From Bilbais to Saléhié 27
From Saléhié to Qâtia 42
From Qâtia to Ouarrâdé 48
From Ouarrâdé to Gazzé[157] 81
225 miles.
§ IV. From Gazzé to Jerusalem, 1 dovecote 81
in Nablous, 1 dovecote 36
117 miles.
From Gazzé to Habroun 30
in Sâfié, on a stream of that name 45
in Karak 48
123 miles.
§ V. From Gazzé to Safad.
in El-qods (Jerusalem) 48
in Djenîn 30
in Bisan 24
in Safad 24
126 miles.
§ VI. From Gazzé to Damascus, 7 dovecotes.
From Gazzé to Jerusalem, 1 dovecote 48
in Genin 30
in Bisân 24
in Tâfés. 30
in el-Sânemain 24
in Damascus. 30
186 miles.
From Damascus to Balbek, 1 dovecote 48 miles.
From Damascus to Halab, 7 dovecotes.
in Damascus, 1 dovecote.
to Cara. 45
in Hems. 36
in Hama 24
in Màrra. 30
in Kan-tounâm. 30
in Halab. 28
193 miles.
From Halab to Behesna, 4 dovecotes.
in Halab.
at el-Biré, on the east bank of the Euphrates. 66
in Qalàt-el-Roum. 27
in Behesna. 45
138 miles.
From Halab to Rahâbé, 4 dovecotes.
in Halab.
in Qàbâqib. 75
in Tadmour (Palmyra). 75
at el-Rahâbé. 108
258 miles.
From Damascus to Tarâbolos (Tripoli), 5 dovecotes.
in Damascus[158]
in Saida. 63
in Bairout 24
at Terbelé. 30
in Tarâbolos. 24
141 miles.
Such are the dovecotes maintained in the empire for the speed of dispatches. Each loft has its director and watchmen, who take turns waiting for the arrival of the pigeons: there are also servants and mules at each loft for the respective exchange of pigeons. The total expense does not stop being considerable.
Snow transport, and hedjin relays for this purpose.
Before Sultan Barqouq, the snow came from Damascus to Kaire by boats which left from Saïd and Bairout for Damiet, where smaller boats relayed them to Boulâq. There, camels transported it to the castle, where it was deposited in cisterns. Under Barquq, and for him it was shipped by hedjines (camel riders) which he made 70 starts since 1 st June to 30 November.... one every 54 hours.
Every 2 days he leaves Damascus with 5 loaded hedjines, guided by an expert man and by a courier carrying orders to the relay. In each relay we maintain 6 hedjines.
The relays are as follows:
From Damascus to el-Sânemain. 30
at Tafés. 24
at Erbed. 18
in Djenîn. 36
in Qàqoun. 18
in Loudd. 18
at Gazzé. 36
180 miles.
in el-Arich. 57
in Ouarrâdé. 24
in Moutailem. 24
in Qâtiê. 24
in Salèhié 42
in Bilbeis 24
at Kaire castle 27
222 miles.
Horse posts, say barîd.
The government established posts on the main roads of the empire, here they are:
(You should know that by barîd (race) we mean a space of 2 to 4 leagues (a relay).
The league is 3 miles; the mile of 3,000 cubits, measure of el-Hachîm, one of the first Arab tribes.
The cubit is 24 fingers; the finger of 6 barley grains across; and the grain of 6 horsehair from the tail of a mule.
Route from Kaire to Saïd.
From Kaire to Gizah, crossing the Nile 15
in Bernecht 15
in Minîet-el-Qâïd 18
in Ouena 18
in Siâtem 18
in Dehrout 15
in Iqlosena 18
to Minîet Ebukasib 18
in Achmounain 15
in Dehrout-el-Cherif 12
to Menhi 12
in Manfalout 12
in Ousiout 13
to Tima 21
in Maragat 12
in Belensoun 12
in Djirdgé 12
in Belienet 15
to Hou 21
in Qôm-el-Ahmar 12
in Derenbe 15
in Kous, crossing the Nile 12
from Kous to Hedjré 15
in Edoua 15
at Esna, double post 24
385 miles.
There the relays end. To go further, horses are rented from private individuals.
From Esna we go to Aïdab on the Red Sea, warehouse of Yemen and Habach (Abissinie).
From Kaire to Scanderié, there are two routes; one by the Delta in the middle of the villages, the other by the desert to the left of the river;
By the Delta, there is Kaire 0
in Kalioub 9
in Monouf 18
in Mohallet-el-Marhoum 24
in N'hararîé 24
in Turkmânié 24
in Scanderié 24
123 miles.
By the desert or dry path, there is Kaire in Djaziret-el-Qît 18
in Ouardan 12
in Terrâné 12
in Zàouiet-el-Mobarek 12
in Damanhour 21
in Louqîn 18
in Skanderié 24
117 miles.
From Kaire to Doumiât.
From Kaire to Kalioub. 9
in Bilbais 18
in Salehîé 24
to Sadîé 12
in Bainounet 12
in Achmoun-el-Roumman 12
in Faraskour 21
in Doumiât 9
117 miles.
From Kaire to Gazzé.
From Kaire to Sâdié above 63
in Gorâbi 18
in Qâtié 12
in Màân 12
in Motâilem 12
in Seouâdé 12
in Ouarrâdé 12
in Bir-el-Qâdi 12
in el-Arich 12
in Karrîobé 12
in Sâàqa 12
to Refah 9
in Salqa 12
in Gazzé 12
222 miles.
From Gazzé to Karak.
From Gazzé to Belaqis 12
in Habroun 18
in Djenba 12
in Zouair 18
in Safié 15
in Kafar 24
in Karak 21
120 miles.
From Karak to Choubak, the northern end of Arabia Pétrée, there are only 3 relays for about 90.
From Gazzé to Damascus.
From Gazzé to Djenîn 12
in Bait-Derâs 12
to Loudd 12
in el-Oudjaâ 6
in dash 6
in Qâqoun 6
in Fâmié 9
in Djenin (in Safad) 9
in Hettin 6
in Zerîn 6
in àïn-Djalout 6
in Bisan 6
in Erbed 12
in Tâfes 18
in Râs-el-Mâ 12
in el-Sânemain 12
in Gàbâgib 12
in Kesoué 9
in Damascus 9
180 miles.
From Damascus to el-Biré on the Euphrates.
From Damascus to Kousair in the north 9
in Qatifé, to the east 12
in Efterâq, to the north 6
in Kastel 9
in Qara 9
in Gasoulé 12
in Semsin 12
in Hems 12
in Rousten 12
in Hama 12
in Latmîn 9
in Djerabolos 9
in Marra 12
at Ebad 12
in Emâr 12
in Kinesrin 9
in Halab 12
to el-Bab 30
in Bait-Beré 30
in el-Biré 15
255 miles.
From Damascus to Djabar, boulevard of the empire on the Euphrates.
From Damascus to Homs; see above 81
From Homs east to Masnà 24
in Qarnain 18
in el-Baida 24
in Tadmour 24
in Kerbe 24
to Sakné 18
in Qabqab 18
in Kaouamel 24
in Rahàbé 24
in Djabar 110
389 miles.
From Damascus to Safad.
From Damascus to Bouraid, north-west 12
in Qoulous 12
in Orainbé 18
in Nouran 12
to Djabb Yousef 18
in Safad 12
84 miles.
From Damascus to Bairout.
From Damascus to Kan-Maiseloun 12
in Harin, on the Qasmîe 18
to Saïd, through Lebanon 33
in Bairout 24
87 miles.
From Damascus to Balbek.
to Zebdani 15
in Boura 12
in Balbek 13
40 miles.
From Damascus to Tarâbolos.
From Damascus to Gazoubé. (See road to Halab) 55
in Qadis 18
in Aqmar 21
in el-Akra 18
in el-Arqâ 12
in Tarâbolos 15
139 miles.
From Damascus to Karak.
From Damascus to al-Qatibé 12
in Barâdié 18
in Bordj el-Abiad 18
in Hosbân 18
in Qanbes 24
in Dibiân 24
in Qâtè-el-Modjeb 24
in Safra 24
in Karak 24
186 miles.
From Halab to Behesna and Qaïsarié (Cézarée),
border of the empire in Armenia.
From Halab to el-Semoûqa 12
in Istidra 12
in Bait-el-Fâr 18
in Antab 12
in Dair-Koûn 9
in Qoûna 12
in Arban 12
in Behesna 9
in al-Qaïsarïé 120
216 miles.
Since the year 1412, the government has ceased to maintain relays from Behesna to Qaisarïé.
The author then deals with Syria in Sections XII and XIII, in an extensive and interesting manner, but which it would take too long to copy: it will suffice to say that he divides, with the Muslim geographers, Syria into 5 countries:
1. Palestine, from el-Ariche to Lajdoun, near the Qarmel.
2. Le Haurân, a varied country of plains and mountains, the capital of which is Tabarié.
3. The Goutâh (or hollow country) whose main cities are Damascus, Tripoli, Safad, Balbek.
4. The land of the Hems, where we see neither scorpions nor snakes.
5. The Kinesrin, whose capital is Halab, and for dependencies Antioch, Ama, Serbin, etc.
In the administration of the empire, Syria is divided into 6 provinces which take their names from their capitals.
The first is called Gaza province, a city located in a fertile plain. The district of Karak, also called Moab, is detached from it, and extends from Oula, in Arabia Petrea, to the Zizalé stream, which falls into the Jordan: it is a space of 20 days of camels (at 6 leagues a day). The country has many villages; but there is scarcity of water on the roads, and a great number of defiles between rocks where a single man can stop 100 horsemen. — Karak is one of the strongest citadels known; we never took it by force.
The second is called Safad province, and contains more than 1,200 villages. The city is situated very pleasantly on Lake Tabarié, and has an excellent fortress. Sour (Tire), which depends on it, is only a hamlet.
The third, known as the province of Damascus, is the richest in all kinds of productions and in villages. The author counts more than eighteen hundred, and omits those from various districts.
The fourth, known as the province of Tripoli, contains more than 3000 villages: Hesn-el-akrad, fortified castle, forms its limit to the east.
The fifth, known as Hama province, is rich in villages and strong castles: that of Hama was destroyed by Tamerlan.
The sixth, called the province of Halab, is very extensive and very rich. The castle of Halab is made by hand, (he means the mound that carries the castle).
From Halab depend Antioch on the Orontes; Djabar on the Euphrates; Rahbé south of Djabar, on the eastern bank of the same river; Located in Armenia, populated by Christians; Tarsous by the sea in front of Cypre; Bire on the Euphrates, where there is a bridge of boats and a very large number of castles and important towns which the author describes in detail. (So that at this time we cannot estimate Syria to have less than 20,000 towns and villages: and assuming them, one carrying the other, to contain 300 heads, that would be 6,000,000 inhabitants; state very different from the present, and I think very inferior to the old, in the time of Titus and Vespasian.
(I end this notice with some ideas from Vizier Châhin on the principles of sovereignty).
Chapter II. Section I re. - Sovereign power. Sovereign power is a ray of divinity. It is by a miraculous effect of the sacred character imprinted on the forehead of the despot ( sultan, absolute master ), that good order subsists, that revolt and license are punished, etc.
The aim of supreme power is the preservation of individuals and the increase of the public good through just government. The sultan must use with wisdom the saber which God has placed in his hands to defend the empire, to make religion flourish, and to ensure that divine and human laws are observed.
( Merèï, the lawyer historian quoted above, often repeats that the principles of the law are to make war against infidels. — That in conquered cities they should not be allowed to build or repair their temples. — That even they should be destroyed without exception).
At the same time that God orders the sultan to work for the happiness of the subjects, he orders the subjects to blindly obey the sultan, to carry out his orders without examination, because he is the depositary of the law of God and of the prophet.
The prophet received from God the universal empire of the world; his power, as regards the laws and the priesthood, has been transmitted to his successors from hand to hand until this day and to the Emir el-Moumenin, who gives the sultan the investiture of consent of great judges, doctors of the law, great crown officers and commanders of the army (which modifies the grace of God, almost as in Europe).
By this sanction the elected sovereign becomes the master of the state treasury, the generalissimo of the troops, the governor of the places, the administrator of all the affairs of the empire; and each must place his glory in obeying him.
Section II. Duties of the despot. - (This chapter is a real treatise on Christian morality. The sultan must be pious, practice acts of religion before the people; he must reject pride, presumption, avarice, lies; repress his anger, have a dignified, silent, imposing demeanor; to be patient, just, and in a word to have the good qualities of mind and heart which, in any kind of government, make up the art one of governing, as to the individual, but not as to the bases of the social contract.)
Section IV. Duties of subjects. —The duties of the subjects consist in the deep respect for the Sultan, in the blind execution of his orders, dedication to his service, good advice for his success.
The great point of government is that each class, each individual, stay within the limits assigned to them.