Part 2 of 2
Another section of the Volkisch Observer that quoted Hausen's Protocols book treated other dastardly means that the "wise men of Zion" used in their drive for world domination. For instance, Jews supposedly only placed bureaucrats with "slavish abilities" in leading positions. These officials could thus be used as "pawns" in the hands of Jewish "schooled and talented advisors, who have been brought up from youth for rule over the entire world." Moreover, the Jews allegedly "alone" controlled "the rule of money," which they upheld through artificial poverty: "Hunger provides the financial power with ... the rights to the workers .... We move the masses through need and the envy and hatred that arise from it and eliminate those who are in our way with their help." When the time was ripe, the Jews were to switch over from cunning and deceit to brutal force: "Our empire ... must establish a reign of terror ... in order to force blind and unconditional obedience." [111] The Volkisch Observer took the warnings contained in the Protocols very seriously.
The Volkisch Observer received severe criticism for printing parts of the Protocols. A June 1920 article in the newspaper noted that Jews vehemently denied the authenticity of the Protocols. Admitting that the origins of the Protocols remained suspicious, the piece followed Hausen's tactics, claiming:
Even if the accounts are not historical in the sense of this term, the history books of Jewish authors as well as serious and impartial German researchers prove nothing else than that the contents of the controversial book are a true to life ... reflection of Jewish lust for power, avarice, and spirit of subversion. [112]
The Protocols were a vicious forgery, but they expressed the fears that anti-Semites felt when faced with rapid societal flux in the form of increasing democratization and industrialization. Since they spoke so well to the insecurities of former privileged groups who feared that they were slipping down the social ladder, the Protocols possessed an intense immediacy for many far rightists. By presenting a dastardly meta-historical enemy of all peoples, the Jew, the Protocols clearly explained the turmoil and upheavals of the modern world that so upset radical right Germans and Russians in particular.
Hitler's most important early mentors, the volkisch publicist Dietrich Eckart and his White emigre colleague Alfred Rosenberg, both attended meetings of the Thule Society in Munich as guests, and they became aware of Hausen's translation of the Protocols in late 1919, even before sections of it appeared in the Volkisch Observer. [113] They were outraged at what they read, the former more than the latter. Through his collaboration with Eckart and Rosenberg beginning in late 1919, Hitler received his most sustained volkisch indoctrination as well as his introduction to apocalyptic and anti-Semitic White emigre thought, which warned in the vein of the Protocols that a sinister international Jewish conspiracy controlled both finance capitalism and Bolshevism as tools to achieve world rule.
Eckart has been largely overlooked in the historical literature. The only work in English that examines his career in any detail is a doctoral dissertation, Ralph Engelmann's Dietrich Eckart and the Genesis of Nazism. [114] The only non-National Socialist German book that concentrates on Eckart's anti-Semitic ideology is Margarete Plewnia's Auf dem Weg zu Hitler: Der "volkische" Publizist Dietrich Eckart (On the Wey to Hitler: The "Volkisch" Publicist Dietrich Eckart). [115]
The Protocols significantly shaped Eckart's outlook, and Eckart's role in influencing Hitler's anti-Bolshevik, anti-Semitic ideas in league with Rosenberg warrants greater attention.
Eckart enjoyed moderate influence as a publicist. He had worked as a journalist in Berlin before co-publishing a nationalist wartime newspaper in Munich, Unser Vaterland (Our Fatherland), which had opposed defeatist elements in Germany. He had solicited articles for this paper from the volkisch theorist Houston Stewart Chamberlain. [116] In December 1918, Eckart used funds from the Thule Society to launch an attack against Jewish left-wing revolutionary forces in Germany by founding the right-wing political newspaper In Plain German. [117] He sent 2,500 copies throughout Germany in accordance with an address list that he had drawn up. [118]
Eckart propounded volkisch ideology in the pages of In Plain German. He called upon the Germans to negate Jewish world-affirmation. In formulating his views, he borrowed from the volkisch theories of Arthur Schopenhauer, Richard Wagner, and Chamberlain, in which the primarily world-denying Germans needed to transcend the corrupting influence of the materialistic and world-affirming Jews. [119] Eckart argued that the "true German ... lives between the two worlds" of world-affirmation and world-negation. [120] On the other hand: "World-affirmation ... shows itself totally pure in the Jewish people, without any addition of world-negation." [121] Hitler echoed Eckart's reasoning in a November 1922 speech. He asserted, "The purely earthly is Jewish; among us it is an inner distortion ... The struggle between both poles has been going on for a long time already." [122]
Eckart met Rosenberg through the Thule Society in late 1918. [123] The two men soon became close collaborators. Rosenberg offered his services to Eckart by asking: "Can you use a fighter against Jerusalem?" Eckart responded, "Certainly!" [124] When Eckart repeatedly sank into periods of lethargy in 1919 and 1920, Rosenberg ran In Plain German for considerable stretches at a time. [125] Eckart greatly valued Rosenberg. He referred to him in an early edition of In Plain German as his "tireless friend." [126] Eckart and Rosenberg began corresponding with Hausen at some point, but he maintained a rather condescending attitude towards them. He noted: "Both have thoroughly attached themselves to the Jewish/Masonic question, but both are newcomers in it after all." [127]
When Hitler met Eckart and Rosenberg in late 1919, he was an obscure agitator for the fledgling Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (German Worker's Party), a subsidiary organization of the Thule Society and the forerunner of the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Worker's Party, or NSDAP), which was founded in February 1920. [128] According to Eckart's secretary, Hitler met Eckart in a small Munich pub in the fall of 1919. [129] Rosenberg later recalled meeting Hitler in the company of Eckart in a small Munich bar in the fall of 1919 as well. At the time of their meeting, Hitler already knew of the writings of both Eckart and Rosenberg in In Plain German. [130]
Hitler and Eckart quickly developed a relationship of mutual respect, and Hitler and Rosenberg soon admired each other as well. Hitler electrified Eckart with his persuasive power and intensity so that Eckart remarked early on: "That is Germany's coming man, of whom the world will one day speak." The two men began meeting with each other regularly. [131] Hitler later praised Eckart in glowing terms. He dedicated his autobiographical work Mein Kampf (My Struggle) in part to "that man, one of the best, who devoted his life to the awakening of his, our people, in his writings and his thoughts and finally in his deeds: Dietrich Eckart." [132]The Fuhrer asserted in January 1942 that Eckart had shone for him "like the polar star." [133] Like Eckart, Rosenberg was extremely impressed with Hitler early on. [134] He joined the German Worker's Party as one of its earliest members. [135] Hitler valued Rosenberg's views greatly, once remarking that Rosenberg was the only man whose ideas he would always listen to. [136]Eckart and Rosenberg helped to synthesize volkisch-redemptive views of German spiritual and racial superiority with conspiratorial-apocalyptic White emigre conceptions of international Jewry as a malevolent force that strove for world domination through dastardly means. In so doing, they greatly influenced early National Socialist ideology. From November 1919 until the summer of 1920, the scope of Hitler's anti-Semitic arguments broadened considerably. Hitler's increasingly virulent anti-Semitism can largely be attributed to his early ideological apprenticeship under Eckart and Rosenberg, both of whom the The Protocols of the Elders of Zion influenced. [137]
The precise manner in which Hitler became aware of the Protocols remains unknown, but Eckart most likely introduced them to him in late 1919. Eckart first dealt with the Protocols in an October 10, 1919 edition of In Plain German. He cited what a Protestant British publication printed in Jerusalem had mistakenly termed a "publicity leaflet" proclaiming "Jewish world rule" that the "Jewish lodge 'The Wise Men of Zion'" had distributed in Imperial Russia in 1911. Eckart claimed that the "wise men of Zion" had already announced the destruction of the German and Russian Empires in 1911. He noted that he had seen a map before the war with Germany truncated along the lines of the borders that it currently possessed according to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, while the Russian Empire had been labeled a "desert." He lamented that the "Jew Trotskii" presided over a "field of corpses" that had once been Imperial Russia. He bitterly remarked: "Oh, how wise you wise men from Zion are!" [138]
Eckart treated Hausen's translation of the Protocols in a December 1919 article in In Plain German, "The Midgard Serpent." He asserted that one read Hausen's work on the Protocols "again and again and yet does not get to the end of it since with almost every paragraph one lets the book fall as if paralyzed with unspeakable horror." He claimed that Hausen's translation of the Protocols and the "publicity leaflet" of the "Jewish lodge 'The Wise Men of Zion'" in Imperial Russia (which he had referred to in October) undoubtedly originated from the same source. Thus, he emphasized: "The Russian Jews already knew in advance of the collapse of the Tsarist Empire as well as the German monarchy in 1911 and just as surely already at that time announced Bolshevik chaos with Jewish world domination as background." Eckart then cited some sections of Hausen's Protocols translation, noting that these segments "suffice to attest to the authenticity of the entirety." [139]
In a November 1920 essay in In Plain German, '''Jewry uber alles'" ('"Jewry above Everything"'), Eckart demonstrated the intense impression that the Protocols had made on him by quoting a passage from them that had not appeared in his December 1919 article on the Protocols or in the Volkisch Observer. He reprinted the supposed words of Jewish conspirators: "The world ruler who will take the place of the currently existing governments has the duty to remove such societies even if he has to drown them in their own blood." For Eckart, this assertion represented a dire and legitimate warning of what the peoples of the world faced unless they took decisive anti-Semitic action.
Eckart upheld the Protocols as a genuine document. In his '''Jewry above Everything'" article, he noted that the "entire Jewish press" had labeled the Protocols a forgery, but he dismissed this as "the usual tactic of the Hebrews. That which one cannot refute, one chalks up as a forgery." Referring to the spread of the Protocols around the world, Eckart argued that despite Jewish protests, "In all peoples, in England, France, Greece, Romania, Poland, Hungary, and so on, the scales are beginning to fall from [people's] eyes: everywhere forces are stirring and engaging in the work of the liberation from humanity's mortal enemy." [140] Eckart thus sounded a call to arms for all anti-Semites of the world.
While Eckart unequivocally believed in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an authentic warning for Gentiles around the world, his White emigre colleague Rosenberg adopted a considerably more skeptical attitude towards the Protocols. Konrad Heiden argued in his 1944 book Der Fuhrer that Rosenberg received the Protocols from a mysterious stranger in Moscow in 1917. [141] Michael Hagemeister, a German expert on the Protocols, has stressed that Heiden's undocumented assertion that someone gave Rosenberg a copy of the Protocols in Moscow and that he then brought them to Germany belongs in the "realm of legend." [142] After Rosenberg became aware of the Protocols in postwar Munich, he maintained a far more critical attitude towards them than historians have often suggested. In his first major work, which was released early in 1920, Die Spur des Juden im Wandel der Zeiten (The Trail of the Jew through the Ages), he did not refer directly to the Protocols. [143]
Rosenberg examined the Protocols in his 1923 book Die Protokolle der Weisen von Zion und die judische Weltpolitik (The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and Jewish World Politics), which, according to the Volkisch Observer, was the first work to make a "critical" examination of the "problem of the 'Protocols.'" [144] In his work, Rosenberg remained more skeptical towards the Protocols than Eckart. He claimed that the Zionist author Asher Ginsburg could very well have written the Protocols, but no "conclusive" proof of this existed, so the question of the authorship of the Protocols remained "open." He further noted that no "juridicially conclusive proof" existed for the Protocols either as absolutely genuine or as a forgery.
In a manner similar to Hausen, the publisher of the first German version of the Protocols, Rosenberg noted that in any case, documents from "ancient times as well as from the most recent past" demonstrated "precisely the same sense" as the Protocols, from "the Talmud to the Frankforter Zeitung [Frankfort Times] and the Rote Fahne [Red Flag]." Rosenberg further asserted that the Protocols stated that which the "Jewish leaders of Bolshevism themselves openly describe as their plan." While he harbored doubts of the Protocols' authenticity, Rosenberg agreed with a central point of the Protocols: "First subversion, then dictatorship." [145] The belief that the Jews undermined existing state authorities to form a new Jewish-controlled international tyranny found wide credence among White emigre circles and in the ranks of the early National Socialists.
Hitler referred to the Protocols as evidence of Jewish plans for world rule. The first indication of Hitler's internalization of the sinister message of the Protocols came in his notes for an August 1921 speech:
Starvation as power -- (Russia) ... Starvation in the service of Jewry[.] "Wise Men of Zion[.]" Objection "not every Jew will know this," What the wise man comprehends intellectually the ordinary one does out of instinct... Starvation in Russia[:] charitably, 40 mill[ion] are dying. [146]
In an oration a few days later, he cited the Protocols as evidence of the age-old and continuing Jewish goal of "the extraction of rule, no matter through which means." [147] In an April 1923 speech, he stressed that the Jews sought "to extend their invisible state as a supreme dictatorial tyranny over the entire world." [148] This was the basic warning contained in the Protocols. Hitler again treated the theme of the Jewish use of starvation as a weapon in an August 1923 oration. He asserted, "In the books of the wise men of Zion it is written: 'Hunger must wear down the broad masses and drive them spinelessly into our arms!"' [149]
Finally, in Mein Kampf, Hitler stressed the crucial importance of the Protocols in both revealing and undermining diabolical Jewish plans for ruthless world domination:
To what an extent the whole existence of this people is based on a continuous lie is shown incomparably by the Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion, so infinitely hated by the Jews. They are based on a forgery, the Frankfurter Zeitung moans and screams once every week: the best proof that they are authentic. What many Jews may do unconsciously is here consciously exposed. And that is what matters. It is completely indifferent from what Jewish brain these disclosures originate; the important thing is that with positively terrifying certainty they reveal the nature and activity of the Jewish people and expose their inner contexts as well as their ultimate final aims. The best criticism applied to them, however, is reality. Anyone who examines the historical development of the last hundred years from the standpoint of this book will at once understand the screaming of the Jewish press. For once this book has become the property of a people, the Jewish menace may be considered as broken. [150]
In her seminal 1979 work The Origins of Totalitarianism, political theorist Hannah Arendt quoted Heinrich Himmler, the head of the Schutzstaffel (SS), as asserting, "We owe the art of government to the Jews," referring primarily to the Protocols, which "the Fuhrer [had] learned by heart." [151] While this is an exaggeration, the Protocols did provide terrifying visions of an all-encompassing Jewish world conspiracy. The warnings in the Protocols greatly influenced the ideology of the National Socialist movement. The Protocols went through thirty-three editions by the time Hitler came to power in 1933, and they became the most widely distributed work in the world after the Bible. [152]
CONCLUSIONThe 1918 Imperial German intervention in the Ukraine, the land "at the extremity," led to the transfer of extremist anti-Bolshevik and anti-Semitic White views to postwar volkisch German circles in Berlin and Munich, including the immediate milieu from which the National Socialist movement arose. Most notably, Lieutenant Piotr Shabelskii-Bork carried The Protocols of the Elders of Zion from the Ukraine to Berlin and then gave them to Ludwig Muller von Hausen, a volkisch publicist, for translation and publication in German. Hitler's early mentors Dietrich Eckart and Alfred Rosenberg internalized the warnings of looming Jewish world rule contained in the Protocols. The Protocols in turn influenced Hitler's Weltanschauung through their graphic portrayal of ruthless Jewish plans to take over the world through insidious means, notably starving resisting peoples. Hitler used the Protocols as a powerful weapon against what he perceived as the menace of international Jewry.
As well as facilitating the cross-cultural transfer of dangerous right-wing views, the German Ukrainian Intervention forged enduring pro-nationalist German sentiments among leading White officers who served under Germany's aegis in the Ukraine. Germany's occupation of the Ukraine began a process of right-wing German-White/White emigre collaboration, as it brought together men who shared common enemies: the Entente, the Bolsheviks, and the Jews. Several White officers who had played prominent roles in the Ukraine under German occupation went on to serve the National Socialist movement in Germany, notably General Vladimir Biskupskii, Colonel Ivan Poltavets-Ostranitsa, Colonel Fedor Vinberg, Lieutenant Shabelskii-Bork, Lieutenant Sergei Taboritskii, and Colonel Pavel Bermondt, later known as Bermondt-Avalov.
Germany's Ukrainian adventure set a precedent for further nationalist German-White anti-Bolshevik military cooperation, as German officers learned to value their White officer counterparts as loyal pro-Germans and anti-Bolsheviks. In particular, the German/White alliance established in and just outside the Ukraine in 1918 served as a precedent for the 1919 Latvian Intervention under the leadership of Bermondt-Avalov. In this campaign, German Freikorps (volunteer corps) fought shoulder to shoulder with White formations in an anti-Bolshevik crusade from which many future National Socialists emerged.
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Notes:1 MR report to the BSMA from January 14, 1918, BHSAM, BsMA 33, number 97676, 116.
2 Leon Trotsky, My Life: The Rise and Fall of a Dictator (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1930), 312.
3 DB report from March 6, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 198, opis 9, delo 4474, reel I, 48.
4 Protocol of an RK conference on February 5, 1918, BAB, 43, number 2448/4, 111, 130.
5 Wlodzimierz Medrzecki, "Bayerische Truppenteile in der Ukraine im Jahr 1918," Bayern und Osteuropa: Au; der Geschichte der Beziehungen Bayerns, Frankens und Schwabens mit Russland, der Ukraine, und Weissrussland, ed. Hermann Beyer-Thoma (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2000), 441.
6 DB report from March 6, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 198, opis 9, dela 4474, reel I, 47.
7 Ivan Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 1, delo 105b, 9.
8 Pavel Skoropadskii, Erinnerungen von Pavlo Skoropadsky aufgeschrieben in Bertin in der Zeit von Januar bis Mai 1918, trans. Helene Ott-Skoropadskii (Berlin, 1918), IZG, Ms 584, 51, 102, 113, 116.
9 Walther Nicolai, Tagebuch (Diary), March 6, 1918, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 1414, opis I, delo 16, 77.
10 Letter from Max Hoffmann to his wife from August 15, 1918, BA/MF, Nachlass 37, number 2, 231.
11 Wilhelm Groener report from March 23, 1918, BA/MF, Nachlass 46, number 172, 4.
12 Interrogation of Ambassador Herbert von Dirksen from October 1945, The National Archives, Records of the Department of State, Special Interrogation Mission to Germany, 1945-46, IZG, number 679, roll I, 411.
13 Wilhelm Groener report from March 23, 1918, BA/MF, Nachlass 46, number 172, 6.
14 Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 105b, 9.
15 DB report from August 11, 1933, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 7, opis I, delo 954, reel 5, 355.
16 RKUoO report from July 26, 1926, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 1, delo 101, 5.
17 Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 105b, 9.
18 SGOD report from December 22, 1928, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 308, opis 7, delo 265, 5.
19 Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 105b, 9.
20 RKUoO report from July 26, 1926, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 1, delo 101, 6.
21 Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 1, delo 105b, 9; 1926 memorandum on behalf of Poltavets-Ostranitsa; RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 772, opis I, delo 105b, 7.
22 Proclamation from Skoropadskii from April 20, 1918, BA/MF, Nachlass 46, number 172, 57.
23 1926 memorandum on behalf of Poltavets-Ostranitsa, RKUo0, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond772, Opis 1, delo 105b, 7.
24 Letter from Poltavets-Ostranitsa to Adolf Hitler from March 25, 1929, PKAH, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 1355, opis I, delo 3, 57; Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUo0, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 105b, 9.
25 Skoropadskii, Erinnerungen, 173.
26 Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 105b, 9.
27 Skoropadskii, Erinnerungen, 222.
28 DB report from March 6, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 198, opis 9, delo 4474, reel 1, 47; interrogation of Ambassador Herbert von Dirksen from October 1945, The National Archives, IZG, number 679, roll I, 412.
29 Letter from Erich von Ludendorff to the Reichskanzler, June 9, 1918, BNMF, Nachlass 46, number 173, 35-37.
30 OHLHGE report from June 14, 1918, BA/MF, Nachlass 46, number 173, 60.
31 LGPO report to the RKUoO from July 20, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 3, delo 8ta, 19, 24.
32 Translation of Vladimir Biskupskii's September 7, 1939 comments, APA, BAB, NS 43, number 35, 49.
33 LGPO report to the RKUoO from July 20, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 3, delo 81a, 19, 24, 35; DB report from May 22, 1936, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 7, opis 4, delo 168, reel 1, 1.
34 LGPO reports to the RKUoO from November 28 and December 24, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 96, 48, 57.
35 MMFT report to the DB from December 24, 1923, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 7, opis 2, delo 2575, reel 2, 134.
36 Spisak chlenov Russkogo Sobraniia s prilozkeniem istoricheskogo ocherky sobraniia (Saint Petersburg: Tip. Spb. Gradonachalstva, 1906), 52; RKUoO report from June 17, 1922, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 3, delo 539, 21a, 21V.
37 LGPO report from June 3, 1921, GSAPKB, Repositur 77, title 1813, number 2, 7; LGPO report to the RKUoO from November 28, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 96, 49.
38 Telegram from HGE/1a to OKO from July 1918, BA/MF, Nachlass 46, number 173, 115.
39 Letter from Pavel Bermondt-Avalov to Wolfgang Kapp from November 9, 1919, GSAPKB, Repositur 92, number 815, 88.
40 Bermondt-Avalov, Im Kampf gegen den Bolschewismus: Erinnerungen von General Furst Awaloff, Oberbefehlshaber der Deutsch-Russischen Westarmee im Baltikum (Hamburg: Von J. J. Augustin, 1925), 45.
41 Letter from Baron von Delingshausen to the RKUoO from January 18, 1922, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 3, delo 71, 88.
42 Letter to the editorial staff of Volia Rossii from February 28, 1921, ATsVO, GARF, fond 5893, opis I, delo 201, 87.
43 LGPO report to the RKUoO from September 9, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 772, opis 3, delo 71, 16, 17.
44 Bermondt-Avalov, Im Kampfgegen den Bolschewismus, 45.
45 ATsVO report from August 1921, GARF, fond 5893, opis I, delo 39, 4.
46 Michael Hagemeister, "Die 'Protokolle der Weisen von Zion' und der Basler Zionistenkongress von 1897," Der Traum von Israel: Die Ursprunge des modernen Zionismus, ed. Heiko Haumann (Weinheim: Beltz Athenaum Verlag, 1998), 259; Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1981), 61, 62.
47 Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, 83-87.
48 Hagemeister, "Der Mythos der 'Protokolle dec Weisen von Zion,'" Verschworungstheorien: Anthropologische Konstanten - historische Varianten, eds. Ute Caumanns and Matthias Niendorf (Osnabruck: Fibre Verlag, 2001), 97; Hagemeister, "Vladimir Solov'ev: Reconciler and Polemicist," Eastern Christian Studies 2: Selected Papers of the International Vladimir Solov'ev Conference held at the University of Nijmegen, the Netherlands, in September 1998 (Leuven: Peeters, 2000), 288.
49 Hagemeister, "Der Mythos der 'Protokolle der Weisen von Zion," 96, 99.
50 Hagemeister, "Vladimir Solov'ev," 293.
51 Robert Williams, Culture in Exile: Russian Emigres in Germany, 1881-1941 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), 76.
52 Vsevelikoe Voisko Donskoe, Embassy in Berlin reports from July), 1918 and another time in 1918, GARF, fond 1261, opis I, delo 40, 2, 27; letter from Georgii Leuchtenbergskii to Piotr Krasnov from August 22, 1918, GARF, fond 1261, delo 40, 24, 25.
53 DB report from May 22, 1936, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 7, opls 4, delo 168, reel I, I.
54 Skoropadskii, Erinnerungen, 346, 348, 351, 378.
55 Piotr Shabelskii-Bork, "Ober Mein Leben," March 1926, GSAPKB, Repositur 84a, number 14953, 103-105.
56 Henri Rollin, L 'Apocalypse de notre temps: Les dessous de In propagande allemande d'apres des documents inedits (Paris: Gallimard, 1939), 480, 481.
57 "Wer waren die Morder des Zaren?” Volkischer Beobachter. September 9, 1920, 2.
58 DB report from March 6, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 198, opis 9, delo 4474, reel I, 48; Fedor Vinberg's March 30, 1922 testimony, BHSAM, BSMI 22, number 71624, fiche 4, I.
59 Bermondt-Avalov, Im Kampf gegen den Bolschewismus, 47.
60 LGPO report to the RKUoO from July 20, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 772, opis 3, delo 81a, 35.
61 Vinberg's March 30, 1922 testimony, BHSAM, BSMI 22, number 71624, fiche 4, 1.
62 Letter from Sergei Taboritskii to Mrs. Shabelskii-Bork from March 18, 1926, GSAPKB, Repositur 84a, number 14953, 78, 79.
63 Vinberg's March 30, 1922 testimony, BHSAM, BSMI 22, number 71624, fiche 4, 1.
64 Gestapo report from May 2, 1934, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 501, opis 3, delo 496a, 44.
65 Skoropadskii, Erinnerungen, I, 2.
66 Poltavets-Ostranitsa's 1926 curriculum vitae, RKUoO, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis I, delo 105b, 9.
67 Shabelskii-Bork, "Uber Mein Leben," GSAPKB, Repositur 84a, number 14953, 109.
68 MMFT report to the DB from December 24, 1923, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 7, opis 2, delo 2575, reel 2, 134.
69 Letter from Taboritskii to Mrs. Shabelskii-Bork from March 18, 1926, GSAPKB, Repositur 84a, number 14953, 81; LGPO report to the RKUoO from September 9, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 3, delo 71, 17.
70 Bermondt-Avalov, Im Kampfgegen den Bolschewismus, 488.
71 Vinberg's March 30, 1922 testimony, BHSAM, BSMI 22, number 71624, fiche 4, 2, 25.
72 DB report from March 6, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 198, opis 9, delo 4474, reel I, 47.
73 A. V. Smolin, Beloe dvizhenie na Severo-Zapade Ross 1918-1920 (Saint Petersburg, Dmitrii Bulanin, 1999), 335.
74 Interrogation of Ambassador Herbert von Dirksen from October 1945, The National Archives, IZG, number 679, roll I, 415.
75 Vinberg's March 30, 1922 testimony, BHSAM, BSMI 22, number 71624, fiche 4, 4, 25.
76 Gestapo report from April 13, 1935. RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 501, opis 3, delo 496a, 208.
77 Vinberg's March 30, 1922 testimony, BHSAM, BSMI 22, number 71624, fiche 3, 92; fiche 4, 2, 5.
78 Letter from Ludwig von Knorring to the RMI from September 20, 1921, BAB, 1501, number 14139, 47; L. K. Skarenkov, "Eine Chronik def russischen Emigration in Deutschland: Die Materialien des General Aleksej A. von Lampe," Russische Emigration in Deutschland 1918 bis 1941: Leben im europaischen Burgerkrieg, ed. Karl Schlogel (Berlin: Akademie, 1995), 48.
79 Schlogel, "Russische Emigration in Deutschland 1918-1941: Fragen und Thesen," Russische Emigration in Deutschland, 11; RMI report from December 15, 1921, BAB, 1501, number 14139, 58.
80 Vinberg's March 30, 1922 testimony, BHSAM, BSMI 22, number 71624, fiche 4, 2, 4, 5, 25.
81 Shabelskii-Bork, “Uber Mein Leben," GSAPKB, Repositur 84a, number 14953, 110.
82 Rollin, L'Apocalypse de notre temps, 153.
83 Dietrich Eckart, "Die Schlacht auf den Katalaunischen Feldern," Auf gut deutsch: Wochenschrift fur Ordnung und Recht, February 20, 1920.
84 Rafael Ganelin, "Rossiiskoe chernosotenstvo i germanskii natsional-sotsializm," Natsionalnaia pravaia prezhde i teper, lstoriko-sotsiologicheskie ocherki, chast I: Rossiia i russkoe zarubezhe (Saint Petersburg: Institut Sotsiologii rossiiskoi akademii nauk, 1992), 137.
85 DB report from March 6, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 198, opis 9, delo 4474, reel 1, 48.
86 Handwritten note from Muller von Hausen in Cyrillic letters, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis 2, delo 131, 200.
87 "Satanisten des XX. Jahrhunderts," translated article from November 5, 1919 edition of Prizyv in Hausen's possession, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 577, opis I, delo 541, 3.
88 "Liubopytnyi Dokument," Prizyv, February 6, 1920, 2, in Hausen's possession, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis 1, delo 541.
89 Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, 119-121, 139.
90 "Ein judisches Geheimdokument," Volkischer Beobachter, February 25, 1920, 1.
91 Hagemeister, "Die 'Protokolle der Weisen von Zion,'" 261.
92 Gestapo report from April 13, 1935, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 501, opis 3, delo 496a, 208.
93 Letter from Hausen to Carl Marz from March 26, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis I, delo 853, 32.
94 Vinberg, Der Kreuzesweg Russlands: Teil I: Die Ursachen des Ubels, trans. K. von Jarmersted (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1922), 28, 35.
95 Vinberg, “Der wackere Zentralverein," Volkischer Beobachter, May 9, 1923, 3.
96 LGPO reports to the RKUoO from June 2 and August 8, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 3, delo 81a, 15; delo 539, 17. 20.
97 Letter from Hausen to Marz from March 26, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis I, delo 853, 33.
98 Iurii Kartsov, "Existiert die Schuldfrage uberhaupt?" Aufbau-Korrespondenz, October 4, 1922, 3; LGPO report to the RKUoO from June 2, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 772, opis 3, delo 81a,16.
99 Hagemeister, "Sergej Nilus und die 'Protokolle der Weisen von Zion,''' Jahrbuch fur Antisemitismusforschung der Technischen Universitat Berlin, ed. Wolfgang Benz (Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag, 1996), 137.
100 Kartsov's report to Hausen from April 30, 1920, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 577, opis 2, delo 9, 36.
101 Hagemeister, "Die 'Protokolle der Weisen von Zion,'" 262; Martin Sabrow, Der Rathenaumord: Rekonstruktion einer Verschworung gegen die Republik Von Weimar (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994), 45.
102 Rudolf von Sebottendorff, "Aus der Geschichte der Thule Gesellschaft," Thule-Bote, Gilbhart (October) 31, 1933, I, BSAM, SAM, number 7716, 9.
103 Detlev Rose, Die Thule Gesellschaft: Legende-Mythos- Wirklichkeit (Tubingen: Grabert-Verlag, 1994), 35.
104 Interview with Johann Hering on August 29, 1951, IZG, ZS 67, 2.
105 Sebottendorff, "Aus der Geschichte der Thule Gesellschaft," Thule-Bote, Gilbhart (October) 31, 1933, I, BSAM, SAM, number 7716, 9.
106 Sebottendorff, "Die Thule Gesellschaft," Thule-Bote, Gilbhart (October) 31, 1933, 2, BSAM, SAM, number 7716, 10.
107 Hausen's correspondence with the Volkischer Beobachter RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis I, delo 479.
108 Letter from Hanns Muller to Hausen from November 26, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis I, delo 479, 32.
109 Letter from Hausen to Muller from November 29, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis I, delo 479, 35.
110 Letter from Muller to Hausen from December 10, 1919, RGVA (TsKhIDK), fond 577, opis I, delo 479, 37.
111 "Die Geheimnisse der Weisen von Zion," Volkischer Beobachter, April 22, 1920, I.
112 "Die Geheimnisse der Weisen von Zion," Volkischer Beobachter, June 27, 1920, 2.
113 Rose, Die Thule Gesellschaft, 79.
114 Ralph Engelmann, Dietrich Eckart and the Genesis of Nazism, diss. Washington University (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1971).
115 Margarete Plewnia, Auf dem weg zu Hitler: Der "volkische" Publizist Dietrich Eckart (Bremen: Schunemann Universitatsverlag, 1970).
116 Geoffrey G. Field, Evangelist of Race: The Germanic Vision of Houston Stewart Chamberlain (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 390.
117 Werner Maser, Der Sturm auf die Republik: Fruhgeschichte der NSDAP (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags- Anstalt, 1973), 179; Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler, 29.
118 Alfred Rosenberg, Memoirs, KR, BAB, NS S, number 20, 2.
119 Eckart, "Das ist der Jude! Laienpredigt Uber Juden- und Christentum von Dietrich Eckart," Auf gut deutsch, [August/September], 1920, 44; Eckart, “In letzter Stunde," Auf gut deutsch, March 15, 1921, 7; Eckart, "Das Judentum in und ausser uns: Grundsatzliche Betrachtungen von Dietrich Eckart: 1," Auf gut deutsch, January 10, 1919, 14, 15.
120 Eckart, "Theorie und Praxis,” Auf gut deutsch, September 12, 1919, 2.
121 Eckart, "Das Judentum in und ausser uns: IV.," Auf gut deutsch, January 31, 1919, 15, 16.
122 "Positiver Antisemitismus," Volkischer Beobachter, November 4, 1922, I.
123 Maser, Der Sturm auf die Republik,181, 182.
124 Robert Cecil, The Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg and Nazi Ideology (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd., 1972), 24.
125 Rosenberg, Memoirs, KR, BAB, NS 8, number 20, 2.
126 Eckart, "Das fressende Feuer," Auf gut deutsch, August 22, 1919.
127 Letter from Hausen to Marz from April 6, 1921, RGVA (TsKhIDK),fond 577, opis I, delo 853, 41.
128 Maser, Der Sturm auf die Republik, 150; Rose, Die Thule Gesellschaft, 79.
129 Interview with Walburga Reicheneder on January 11, 1952, IZG, ZS 119, 1.
130 Rosenberg, Memoirs, KR, BAB, NS 8, number 20, 16.
131 Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler, 66, 67.
132 Hitler, Mein Kampf trans. Ralph Mannheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943), 687.
133 Hitler, Hitler's Table Talk 194Z-44: His Private Conversations, trans. Norman Cameron and R. H. Stevens, second edn. (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973), 217.
134 Rosenberg, "Meine erste Begegnung mit dem Fuhrer," The National Archives, Records of the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories, 1941-45, IZG, number 454, roll 63, 578.
135 Walter Laqueur, Russia and Germany: A Century of Conflict (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965), 56.
136 Christine Pajouh, "Die Ostpolitik Rosenbergs 1941-1944," Deutschbalten, Weimarer Republik und Drittes Reich, ed. Michael Garleff (Koln: Bohlau Verlag, 2001), 167.
137 Plewnia, Auf dem weg zu Hitler, 95.
138 Eckart, "Tagebuch," Auf gut deutsch, October 10, 1919.
139 Eckart, "Die Midgardschlange," Auf gut deutsch, December 30, 1919.
140 Eckart, '''Jewry uber alles,’” Auf gut deutsch, November 26, 1920.
141 Konrad Heiden, Der Fuhrer: Hitler's Rise to Power, trans, Ralph Mannheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1944), 1.
142 Hagemeister, “Sergej Nilus und die 'Protokolle der Weisen von Zion," 136.
143 Rosenberg, Die Spur des Juden im Wandel der Zeiten (Munich: Deutscher Volks-Verlag, 1920).
144 "Die Protokolle der Weisen von Zion und die judische Weltpolitik,” Volkischer Beobachter, August 21, 1923, 3.
145 Rosenberg, Die Protokolle der weisen von Zion und die Judische Weltpolitik (Munich: Deutscher Volks-Verlag, 1923), 8, 9, 32, 45.
146 Hitler, notes for a speech on August 12, 1921, Samtliche Aufzeichnungen 1905-1924, eds. Eberhard Jackel and Axel Kuhn (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1980), 451-453.
147 Hitler, speech on August 19, 1921, Samtliche Aufzeichnungen, 458.
148 ''Adolf Hitler’s Ehrentag," Volkischer Beobachter, April 22/23, 1923, I.
149 Hitler, speech on August 1, 1923, Samtliche Aufzeichnungen, 955.
150 Hitler, Mein Kampf, 306, 307.
151 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Hardcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979), 360.
152 Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, 128, 138; Rollin, L 'Apocalypse de notre temps, 40.
