Endangered Minds: Why Children Don't Think, And What We Can

[admin]

Notes

CHAPTER 1: "KID'S BRAINS MUST BE DIFFERENT ..."

1. Jackson, A., and D. Hornbeck. "Educating young adolescents." American Psychologist 44 (5), 1988, p. 831.

2. Fortune, November 7, 1988.

3. Lopez, J. "System failure." Wall Street Journal, March 31, 1989, p. R13.

4. Source of all SAT and GRE scores: The College Board, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ.

5. Venezky, R., et al. The Subtle Danger. Center for the Assessment of Educational Progress, Educational Testing Service, January 1987.

6. New York Times, April 26, 1988.

7. Barrow, K., et al. "Achievement and the three R's: A synopsis of National Assessment findings in reading, writing, and mathematics." NAEP-SY-RWM- 50, 1982 (ED 223 658).

8. Munday, L. "Changing test scores." Phi Delta Kappan 50, 1979, pp. 670-71.

9. New York Times, March 28, 1988.

10. Lapointe, A. "Is there really a national literacy crisis?" Curriculum Review, September/October 1987.

11. Carroll, J. "The National Assessments in reading: Are we misreading the findings?" Phi Delta Kappan, February 1987.

12. Manna, A., and S. Misheff. "What teachers say about their own reading development." Journal of Reading, November 1987, pp. 160-68.

13. Cullinan, B. Children's Literature in the Reading Program. Newark, DE: IRA, 1987.

14. New York Times, January 2, 1989.

15. Shuchman, L. "Books on tape: the latest best-sellers in Tokyo." New York Times, September 10, 1988.

16. Kozol, J. Illiterate America. New York: NAL, 1986.

17. Reed, K. "Expectation vs. ability: Junior college reading skills." Journal of Reading, March 1989.

18. Hechinger, F. "About education." New York Times, March 16, 1988.

19. Rothman, R. "NAEP releases delayed report on reading test." Education Week, March 2, 1988.

20. New York Times, December 30, 1987.

21. Eurich, A. 'The reading abilities of college students-after fifty years." New York: New York Times Foundation, 1980 (ED 182 742).

22. Education Week, April 5, 1989, p. 1.

23. Stanford Achievement Test, Eighth Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988.

24. Cannell, J. Nationally Normed Elementary Achievement Testing in America's Public Schools: How AU Fifty States Are Above the National Average. Daniels, WV: Friends of Education, 1987.

25. Education Week, April 20, 1988.

26. Valenti, J. "About historians who can't write." New York Times, December 11, 1987.

27. Woodward, A. "Stress on visuals weakens texts." Commentary, Education Week, March 9, 1988, p. 19

28. New York Times, April 26, 1987.

29. Flynn, J. R. "Massie IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure." Psychological Bulletin 101 (2), 1987, pp. 171-91.

30. Emanuelsson, I., and A. Svenson. "Does the level of intelligence decrease?" National Swedish Board of Education, Stockholm, 1985 (ED 262094).

31. Lynn, R., and S. Hampson. "The rise of national intelligence." Personality and Individual Differences 7 (1), pp. 23-32.

32. Parker, K. "Changes with age, year-of-birth cohort, age by year-of-birth cohort interaction, and standardization of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Tests." Human Development 29, 1986, pp. 209-22.

33. Franke, R. "A nation at risk? IQ and environment in the 20th century." Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., August 1986.

34. Flynn, ibid.

35. Flynn, J. R. "Sociobiology and IQ trends over time." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9 (1), 1986, p. 192.

36. O'Rourke, S. Personal communication. September 1988.

37. Kirk-Alpern, P. Personal communication. September 1988.

38. Costa, A. Personal communication. June 1988.

39. Gulick, R. Personal communication. April 1988.

40. Brazelton, T. B. "First steps." The World, March/April 1989.

41. Luddington-Hoe, S. Personal communication. September 1989.

42. Coulter, D. Personal communication. February 1989.

CHAPTER 2: NEURAL PLASTICITY: NATURE'S DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD

1. Diamond, M. Enriching Heredity. New York: Free Press, 1988.

2. Diamond, M. "Enriching heredity." Address given at conference: The Education Summit. Fairfax, VA, 1988.

3. Diamond, M. Personal communication. June 1988.

4. Denenberg, V. H. "Animal models and plasticity." In Gallagher, J., and C. Ramey, eds., The Malleability of Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1987.

5. Lerner, R. On the Nature of Human Plasticity. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

6. Lerner, R. Personal communication.

7. Scott, J. P. "Critical periods in behavioral development." Science, 1972, p. 957.

8. Scheibel, Arnold. 'The rise of the human brain." Paper presented at symposium, "The Ever-Changing Brain." San Rafael, CA, August 1985.

9. Greenough, W. T., J. E. Black, and C. S. Wallace. "Experience and brain development." Child Development 58, 1987, pp. 555-67.

10. Greenough, W. T. Personal communication.

11. Bernstein, Jane Holmes. Personal communication. October 1988.

12. Bernstein, Jane Holmes. Neurological Development: Brain Maturation and Psychological Development. Unpublished manuscript.

13. Diamond, M. Personal communication. March 1989.

14. Krasnegor, N., D. Gray, and T. Thompson. Developmental Behavioral Pharmacology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986.

15. Elkington, John. The Poisoned Womb. New York: Viking Penguin, 1985.

16. Eskenazi, B. "Behavioral teratology: Toxic chemicals and the developing brain." Address given at 'The Ever-Changing Brain." San Rafael, CA, 1985.

17. Eskenazi, B. Personal communication. 1987.

18. Needleman, H. "Exposure to lead at low dose in early childhood and before birth." In Krasnegor, N., D. Gray, and T. Thompson, eds., Developmental Behavioral Pharmacology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986, p. 169.

19. Riley, E. P., and C. V. Vorhees. Handbook of Behavioral Teratology. New York: Plenum Press, 1986.

20. USA Today, August 29, 1988, p. 1.

21. Healy, J. M. "Birth defects of the mind." Parents, March 1989.

22. Eskenazi, B. Personal communication. August 1987.

23. Dr. med. H. Pomp: Ev. Bethesda-Krankenhaus GmbH. Personal communication. January 1987.

24. Erik Jansson, co-ordinator of the National Network to Prevent Birth Defects. Personal communication. 1987.

25. Lauder, J., and H. Krebs. "Critical periods and neurohumors." In Greenough, W. and J. Juraska, eds., Developmental Neuropsychobiology. San Diego: Academic Press, 1986.

26. Fride, E., and M. Weinstock. "Prenatal stress increases anxiety-related behavior and alters cerebral lateralization of dopamine activity." Life Sciences 42, 1988, pp. 1059-65.

27. Kelley-Buchanan, C. Peace of Mind During Pregnancy. New York: Facts on File, 1988.

28. Rapin, I. "Disorders of higher cerebral function in children: New investigative techniques." Bulletin of the Orton Society 31, 1981, pp. 47-63.

29. Gardner, H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books, 1983.

30. Healy, J. Your Child's Growing Mind: A Guide to Learning and Brain Development from Birth to Adolescence. New York: Doubleday, 1987.

31. Luddington, S. "Infant developmental care." Address given at Symposium Medicus. Cleveland, OH, September 1988.

32. Smotherman, W. P. "Fetal learning in utero." Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology. Baltimore, 1984.

33. De Casper, T. "Do human fetuses eavesdrop in the womb?" Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology. Baltimore, 1984.

CHAPTER 3: MALLEABLE MINDS: ENVIRONMENT SHAPES INTELLIGENCE

1. Kaas, J. H., M. Merzenich, and H. Killackey. "The reorganization of somatosensory cortex following peripheral nerve damage in adult and developing mammals." Annual Review of Neuroscience 6, 1983, pp. 325-56.

2. Epstein, H. "Growth spurts during brain development: Implications fur educational policy and practice." In J. Chall and H. Mirsky, eds., Education and the Brain. Seventy-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (Part 11). Chicago: NSSE, 1978.

3. Yakovlev, P., and A. Lecours. "The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain." In A. Minkowski, ed., Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1967.

4. Renner, M., and M. Rosenzweig. Enriched and Impoverished Environments: Effects on Brain and Behavior. New York: Springer Verlag, 1987, p. 13.

5. Globus, A., et al. "Effects of differential experience on dendritic spine counts in rat cerebral cortex." Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 82, 1972, pp. 175-81.

6. Greenough, W. T., Black, J. E., and C. S. Wallace. "Experience and brain development." Child Development 58, 1987, p. 547.

7. Diamond, M. Enriching Heredity. New York: The Free Press, 1988.

8. Diamond, M., et al. "On the brain of a scientist: Albert Einstein." Experimental Neurology 88, 1985, pp. 198-204.

9. Bernstein, Jane Holmes. Personal communication. October 1988.

10. Scheibel, A. Personal communication. August 1984.

11. Bornstein, M. H., ed. Sensitive Periods in Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.

12. Hirsch, H., and S. Tieman. "Perceptual development and experience-dependent changes in cat visual cortex." In Bornstein, M. H., ed., Sensitive Periods in Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987, p. 70.

13. Bornstein, M. H. Op. cit.

14. Buchwald, J. S. "A comparison of plasticity in sensory and cognitive processing systems." In N. Gunzenhauser, ed., Infant Stimulation. Somerville, NJ: Johnson & Johnson, 1987, p. 9.

15. Ibid., p. 27.

16. Bornstein, M. H., ed. Op. cit., p. 169.

17. Edelman, G. M. Neural Darwinism. New York: Basic Books, 1987.

18. Ibid., p. 165.

CHAPTER 4: WHO'S TEACHING THE CHILDREN TO TALK?

1. Luria, A. "The role of speech in the formation of temporary connections and the regulation of behavior in the normal and oligophrenic child." In B. Simon and J. Simon, eds., Educational Psychology in the USSR. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968, p. 85.

2. Bruner, J. Actual Minds, P088ible Worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986, p. 8.

3. Hamilton, A. J. "Challenging verbal passivity." NEATE Leaflet 85 (1), 1986, p.22.

4. Gigioli, P., ed. Language and Social Context. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1972.

5. Postman, N. Amusing Ourselves to Death. New York: Elizabeth Sifton Viking, 1985, p. 112.

6. Geyer, G. "Words bounce blame." Cleveland Plain Dealer, September 17, 1988.

7. Wells, G. Language, Learning, and Education. Windsor, Berkshire, England: NFER-NELSON, 1985, pp. 102-3.

8. Schieffelin, B., and E. Ochs. "Language socialization." Annual Review of Anthropology 15, 1986, pp. 163-91.

9. Schieffelin, B. Personal communication. August 1988.

10. Olson, S., et al. "Mother-child interaction and children's speech progress: A longitudinal study of the first two years." Merrill Palmer Quarterly 32 (1), 1986, pp.1-20.

11. Rinders, J., and M. Horrobin. "To give an EDGE: A guide for new parents of children with Down Syndrome." Minneapolis: Colwell Industries, 1984.

12. Wells, G. Op. cit., p. 135.

13. Squire, J. The Dynamics of Language Learning. NCRE/ERIC, 1987.

14. Kuczaj, S. A. "On the nature of syntactic development." In Kuczaj, S. A., ed., Language Development (vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1982.

15. Bohannon, J., and L. Stanowicz. "The issue of negative evidence: Adult responses to children's language errors. Developmental Psychology 24 (5), 1988.

16. Zigler, E., and M. Frank, eds. The Parental Leave Crisis. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.

17. Dumtschin, J. "Recognize lanuage development and delay in early childhood." Young Children, March 1988, p. 20.

18. Schieffelin, B. Personal communication. September 1988.

19. Wells, G., op. cit., p. 117.

20. Dunning, B. "Doesn't anybody here talk English any more?" Cleveland Plain Dealer, January 28, 1988.

21. Vail, P. Clear and Lively Writing. New York: Walker lit Co., 1981.

22. Vail, P. Smart Kids With School Problems. New York: NAL, 1989. 23. Pratt, A., and S. Brady. "Phonological awareness and reading disability." Journal of Educational Psychology 80 (3), 1988, pp. 319-23.

CHAPTER 5: SAGGING SYNTAX, SLOPPY SEMANTICS, AND FUZZY THINKING

1. Mandelbaum, D. G. Selected Writings of Edward Sapir in Language, Culture and Personality. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958.

2. Whorf, B. Language, Thought and Reality. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1956.

3. Tyler, S. The Said and the Unsaid. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

4. Blount, B., and M. Sanches. Sociocultural Dimensions of Language Change. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

5. Luria, A. Language and Cognition. New York: Wiley, 1982.

6. Vocate, D. The Theory of A. R. Luria. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987, p. 29.

7. Premack, D. "Minds with and without language." In L. Weiskrantz, ed., Thought Without Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.

8. Cohen, M., and S. Grossberg. "Neural dynamics of speech and language coding." Human Neurobiology 5 (1), 1986, pp. 1-22.

9. Siegel, L., and E. Ryan. "Development of grammatical-sensitivity, phonological and short-term memory skills in normally achieving and learning disabled children." Developmental Psychology 24 (I), 1988, pp. 28-37.

10. Dennis, M. "Using language to parse the young damaged brain. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 9 (6), 1987, pp. 723-53.

11. "Students said to lack writing skills." New York Times, December 4, 1986.

12. Benbow, C. "Neuropsychological perspectives on mathematical talent." In L. Obler and D. Fine, eds., The Exceptional Brain. New York: Guilford Press, 1988.

13. Orr, E. W. Twice as Less. New York: Norton, 1987.

14. Miura, I., and Y. Okamoto. "Comparisons of US and Japanese first graders' cognitive representation of number and understanding of place value." Journal of Educational Psychology 81 (I), 1989, pp. 109-13.

15. Sachs, J., Bard, B., and M. Johnson. "Language learning with restricted input." Applied Psycholinguistics 2, 1981, pp. 33-54.

16. Newport, E. "Maturation and language acquisition: Contrasting conceptualizations of critical periods for learning." Address given at annual conference: Jean Piaget Society. Philadelphia, June 1988.

17. Kay, P. "Language evolution and speech style." In Blount, B., and M. Sanches, eds., Sociocultural Dimensions of Language Change. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

18. Vocate, D. Op. cit., p. 19.

19. Gleitman, L. "Biological preprogramming for language learning?" In S. Friedman, K. Klivingdon, and R. Peterson, eds., The Brain, Cognition, and Education. New York: Academic Press, 1986.

20. Baker: R. "Swine by design." New York Times, October 2, 1988.

21. "Sassy: Like, you know, for kids." New York Times, September 18, 1988.

CHAPTER 6: LANGUAGE CHANGES BRAINS

1. Readers who may wish more amplification of hemispheric research as it relates to children may consult: Best, C. Hemispheric Function and Collaboration in the Child. New York: Academic Press, 1985. Molfese, D., and S. Segalowitz. Brain Lateralization in Children: Developmental Implications. New York: Guilford Press, 1988.

2. Snow, C. "Relevance of the notion of a critical period to language acquisition." In M. H. Bornstein, ed., Sensitive Periods in Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.

3. Witelson, S. "Neurobiologic aspects of language in children." Child Development 58, 1988, pp. 653-88.

4. Dennis, M., and H. Whitaker. "Language acquisition following hemidecortication: Linguistic superiority of left over the right hemisphere." Brain and Language 3, 1976, pp. 404-33.

5. Curtiss, S. 'The special talent of grammar acquisition." In Obler, L., and D. Fine, eds., The Exceptional Brain. New York: Guilford Press, 1988.

6. Levine, S. "Hemispheric specialization and implications for the education of the hearing impaired." American Annals of the Deaf 131 (3), 1986, pp. 238-42.

7. Marcotte, A., and R. La Barba. 'The effects of linguistic experience on cerebral lateralization for speech production in normal hearing and deaf adolescents. Brain and Language 31, 1987, pp. 276-300.

8. Neville, H., et al. "Altered visual-evoked potentials in congenitally deaf adults." Brain Research 226, 1983, pp. 127-32.

9. Neville, H. Personal communication. March 1989.

10. Simonds, R., and A. Scheibel. "The postnatal development of the motor speech area: A preliminary study." Brain and Language. In press.

11. Scheibel, A. Personal communication. June 1989.

12. Almli, C. R., and S. Finger. "Neural insult and critical period concepts." In M. H. Bornstein, ed., Sensitive Periods in Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.

13. Witelson, S. Personal communication. November 1988.

CHAPTER 7: LEARNING DISABILITIES: NEURAL WIRING GOES TO SCHOOL

1. Ohio ACLD Newsletter. Spring 1988.

2. Wang, M. C. "Commentary." Education Week, May 4, 1988.

3. ACID Newsbriefs 24 (I), January 1989, p. 12.

4. McGuinness, D. "Attention deficit disorder: The emperor's clothes, animal farm and other fiction." In S. Fisher and R. P. Greenberg, eds., How Effective Are Somatic Treatments for Psychological Problems? New York: Erlbaum. In press.

5. Lyytinen, H. "Attentional problems in children: Review of psychophysiological findings relevant to explaining their nature." Paper given at Annual Meeting, International Neuropsychological Society. Lahti, Finland, July 1988.

6. Yang, L. L., et al. "Perinatal hypoxia and cognitive functioning in relation to behavioral development of children." Paper given at Annual Meeting, International Neuropsychological Society. Lahti, Finland, July 1988.

7. Eichlseder, W. 'Ten years' experience with 1,000 hyperactive children in a private practice." The American Academy of Pediatrics 76, 1985, pp. 176-84.

8. "Debate grows on classroom's 'Magic Pill: " Education Week, October 21, 1987.

9. McGuinness, D. When Children Don't Learn. New York: Basic Books, 1985.

10. Obler, L. K., and D. Fein, eds. The Exceptional Brain. New York: Guilford Press, 1988, p. 7.

11. Pennington, B. "Genotype and phenotype analysis of familial dyslexia." Address presented at the Annual Meeting of the Orton Dyslexia Society. Tampa, FL, November 1988.

12. Vail, P. Smart Kids with School Problems. New York: Dutton, 1987.

13. Duffy, F., and N. Geshwind. Dyslexia. Boston: Little Brown, 1985.

14. Obler, L. K., and D. Fein, eds. Op. cit.

15. Geshwind,. N. "The brain of a learning disabled individual." Annals of Dyslexia 34, 1984.

16. Geshwind, N., and P. Behan. "Left-handedness: Association with immune disease, migraine, and developmental learning disorder." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 79, 1982, pp. 5097-5100.

17. Galaburda, A. Personal communication. November 1988.

18. Galaburda, A. "Ordinary and extraordinary brains: Nature, nurture, and dyslexia." Address presented at the Annual Meeting of the Orton Dyslexia Society. Tampa, FL, November 1988.

19. Duane, D. D. "Dyslexia: pure and plus: A model behavioral syndrome." Address presented at the Annual Meeting of the Orton Dyslexia Society. Tampa, FL, November 1988.

20. Rourke, B. "The syndrome of nonverbal learning disorders." The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2 (4), 1988, pp. 293-330.

21. Potchen, E. J. "Disorders of the language system including dyslexia and learning disabilities." Address presented at the Annual Meeting of the Orton Dyslexia Society. Tampa, FL, November 1988.

CHAPTER 8: WHY CAN'T THEY PAY ATTENTION?

1. Aubin, M. Personal communication. October 1988.

2. Picton, T., et al. "Attention and the brain." In S. Friedman et al., The Brain, Cognition, and Education. New York: Academic Press, 1986.

3. Posner, M. "Attention and the control of cognition." In S. Friedman et al., op. cit.

4. Johnston, W., and V. Dark. "Selective attention." Annual Review of Psychology 37, 1986, pp. 43-75.

5. Ceci, S., ed. Handbook of Cognitive, Social, and Neuropsychological Aspects of Learning Disabilities, Vol. II. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.

6. Whalen, C., and B. Henker. Hyperactive Children. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

7. Bigler, N., et al. "Educational perspectives on attention deficit disorder." Paper presented at the international ACLD Conference. Las Vegas, February 1988.

8. Whalen, C., and B. Henker. Hyperactive Children. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

9. Kirby, E., and L. Grimley. Understanding and Treating Attention Deficit Disorder. New York: Pergamon, 1986.

10. Pelham, W. "The combination of behavior therapy and methylphenidate in the treatment of attention deficit disorders: A therapy outcome study." In L. Bloomingdale, ed., Attention Deficit Disorder, Vol. 3. Oxford: Pergamon, 1988.

11. Silver, L. "The confusion relating to Ritalin." ACW Newsbriefs, September 1988.

12. McGuinness, D. When Children Don't Learn. New York: Basic Books, 1985, pp. 200-201.

13. Cohen, N. "Physiological concomitants of attention in hyperactive children." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University, 1970.

14. Barkley, R. "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder." Address presented at symposium: The Many Faces of Intelligence. Washington, D.C., Kingsbury Center, September 1988.

15. Barkley, R. "An overview of attention deficit and related disorders in childhood and adolescence." Address presented at course: Neurodevelopment and Its Implications for Attention, Emotion, and Cognition: California Neuropsychology Services. Long Beach, CA, November 1988.

16. Jacobvitz, D., and L. Sroufe. 'The early caregiver-child relationship and attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity in kindergarten: A prospective study." Child Development 58, 1987, pp. 1496-1504.

17. Mattson, A., et al. "40 Hertz EEG activity in LD and normal children." Poster presentation, International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

18. Best, C. T:, ed. Hemispheric Function and Collaboration in the Child. New York: Academic Press, 1985.

19. Welsh, M., and B. Pennington. "Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology." Developmental Neuropsychology 4 (3), 1988, pp. 199-230.

20. Brody, J. "Widespread abuse of drugs by pregnant women is found." New York Times, August 30, 1988.

21. Education Week, June 1, 1988.

22. "Get the lead out of your water." PTA Today, February 1988.

23. New York Times, April 12, 1989, p. 1.

24. Hartman, D. Neuropsychological Toxicology. New York: Pergamon, 1988.

25. Flax, E. "Pesticides in schools: Focus shifting from indifference to concern." Education Week, April 20, 1988.

26. "In California district, chemicals are used as last resort." Education Week, April 20, 1988.

27. Levine, A., and D. Krahn. "Food and behavior." In Morley, J., et al., eds., Nutritional Modulation of Neural Functioning. New York: Academic Press, 1988.

28. Wurtman, R., and J. Wurtman. Nutrition and the Brain, vols. 4, 6, and 7. New York: Raven, 1979, 1983, 1986.

29. Winick, M. Nutrition in Health and Disease. New York: Wiley, 1980.

30. Winick, M. Malnutrition and Brain Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.

31. Kane, P. Food Makes the Difference. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985.

32. Chollar, S. "Food for thought." Psychology Today, April 1988, pp. 30-34.

33. Conners, K. Feeding the Brain: How Foods Affect Children. New York: Plenum Press, 1989.

34. Conners, K. "The phenomenology and neurophysiology of attention: Foods, drugs and attention in children." Address presented at course: Neurodevelopment and Its Implications for Attention, Emotion, and Cognition: California Neuropsychology Services. Long Beach, CA, November 1988.

35. Wurtman, R., and E. Ritter-Walker. Dietary Phenylalanine and Brain Function. Boston: Birkhauser, 1988.

36. Nation's School Report 14 (2), 1988.

37. "Army softens basic training." Cleveland Plain Dealer, April 17, 1989, p. 1.

38. Allen, G. "Why we need to improve youth fitness." PTA Today, February 1987.

39. Nation's School Report 14 (2), 1988.

40. Miller, N., and L. Melamed. "Neuropsychological correlates of academic achievement." Poster presentation, International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

41. Phillips, S. "The toddler and the preschooler." Unit for Child Studies, Selected Papers no. 29, New South Wales University, 1984 (ED 250 097).

42. Ayres, A. J. Sensory Integration and Learning Disorders. Los Angeles Western Psychological Services, 1972.

43. Ayres, A. J. "Improving academic scores through integration." Journal of Learning Disabilities 11, 1978, pp. 242-45.

44. Weikart, P. Round the Circle: Key Experiences in Movement. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope Press, 1986.

45. Weilcart, P. Personal communication. November 1988.

46. Mills, J. "Noise and children." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 58 (4), 1975, p. 776.

47. Deutsch, D., ed. The Psychology of Music. New York: Academic Press, 1982.

48. Breitling, D., et al. "Auditory perception of music measured by brain electrical activity mapping." Neuropsychologia 25 (5), 1987, pp. 765-74.

49. Pareles, J. "What'd they say? Awop-bop a loo-bop." New York Times, August 8, 1988.

50. Pareles, J. "New-age music booms softly." New York Times, November 29, 1988.

51. Zentall, S., and T. Zentall. "Optimal stimulation: A model of disordered activity and performance in normal and deviant children." Psychological Bulletin 94 (3), 1983, pp. 446-71.

52. Luddington-Hoe, S. "Infant development and care." Symposium sponsored by Symposia Medicus. Cleveland, November 1988.

53. Levy, J. Personal communication. November 1988.

54. Schreckenberg, G., and H. Bird. "Neural plasticity of MUS musculus in response to disharmonic sound." Bulletin of the New Jersey Academy of Sciences 32, 1987, pp. 77-86.

CHAPTER 9: THE STARVING EXECUTIVE

1. Posner, M., and F. Friedrich. "Attention and the control of cognition." In Klivington et al., eds., The Brain, Cognition, and Education. New York: Academic Press, 1986, p. 100.

2. DenckIa, M. Personal communication. September 1988.

3. Snyder, V. "Use of self-monitoring of attention with LD students: Research and application." Learning Disability Quarterly 10 (2), 1987, pp. 139-51.

4. Palfrey et al. 'The emergence of attention deficits in early childhood: A prospective study." Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 6 (6), 1986, pp. 339- 348.

5. Lambert, N. "Adolescent outcomes for hyperactive children." American Psychologist 43 (10), 1988, pp. 786-99.

6. Pollard, S., et al. "The effects of parent training and Ritalin on the parent-child interactions of hyperactive boys." Family and Behavior Therapy 5 (4), 1983, pp. 51-69.

7. Barkley, R. "What is the role of parent group training in the treatment of ADD children? Journal of Children in Contemporary Society 19 (1, 2), 1986, pp. 143-51.

8. Rapport, M. "Ritalin vs. response cost in the control of hyperactive children: A within-subject comparison." Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 15 (2), 1982, pp. 205-16.

9. Wells, K. "What do we know about the use and effects of behavior therapies in the treatment of ADD?" Journal of Children in Contemporary Society 19 (1, 2), 1986, pp. 111-22.

10. Patemite, C., and J. Loney. "Childhood hyperkinesis and home environment." In C. Whalen and B. Henker, 005., Hyperactive Children. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

11. Campbell, W., et al. "Correlates and predictors of hyperactivity and aggression." Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 14 (2), 1986, pp. 217-34.

12. Meichenbaum, D. Cognitive-Behavior Modification: An Integrative Approach. New York: Plenum, 1977.

13. Vocate, D. R. The Theory of A. R. Luria. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987, p. 136.

14. Vygotsky, L. Thought and Language. A. Kozulin, ed. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986.

15. Ibid., p. 228.

16. Waters, H., and V. Tinsley. "The development of verbal self-regulation." In Kuczai, S., ed., Language Development, Vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1982.

17. Ibid.

18. Duckworth, E. "Understanding children's understandings." Paper presented at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Toronto, 1981, pp. 51-52.

19. Cazden, C. Classroom Discourse. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heineman, 1988, p. 102.

20. Bruner, J. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.

21. Rakic, P., and P. Goldman-Rakic. Development and modifiability of the cerebral cortex." Neurosciences Research Program Bulletin 20 (4), 1982.

22. Noava, O., and A. Ardilla. "Linguistic abilities in patients with prefrontal damage." Brain and Language 30, 1987, pp. 206-25.

23. Goldman-Rakic, P: "Development of cortical circuitry and cognitive function." Child Development 58, pp. 601-22.

24. Becker, M., Isaac, W., and G. Hynd. "Neuropsychological development of nonverbal behaviors attributed to frontal lobe functioning." Developmental Neuropsychology 3 (3, 4), 1987, pp. 275-98.

25. Welsh, M., and B. Pennington. "Assessing frontal-lobe functioning in children." Developmental Neuropsychology 4 (3), 1988, pp. 199-230.

26. Friedman, S., K. Klivington, and R. Peterson. The Brain, Cognition, and Education. New York: Academic Press, 1986.

27. Klivington, K. Personal communication. August 1988.

CHAPTER 10: TV, VIDEO GAMES, AND THE GROWING BRAIN

1. e.g., Palmer, E. Television and American Children: A Crisis of Neglect. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Greenfield, P. Mind and Media. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.

2. Fox, N., and M. Fanyo. "Turn off the television and turn on reading." Reading Today, April/May 1988, p. 11.

3. Winick, M., and J. Wehrenberg. Children and TV Two. Washington: ACEI, 1982.

4. Walberg, H., and T. Shanahan. "High school effects on individual students." Educational Researcher 12 (7), 1983, pp. 4-9.

5. Winn, M. Unplugging the Plug-In Drug. New York: Penguin, 1987.

6. Liebert, R., and J. Sprafkin. The Early Window. New York: Pergamon, 1988.

7. Languis, M., and M. Wittrock. "Integrating neuropsychological and cognitive research: A perspective for bridging the brain-behavior relationship." In J. Obrzut and G. Hynd, eds., Child Neuropsychology, vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1986.

8. Anderson, D., and P. Collins. The impact on children's education: Television's influence on cognitive development. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, April 1988, p. 34.

9. Anderson, D. Personal communication. March 1989.

10. Singer, J. Personal communication. March 1989.

11. Beentjes, J., and T. Van der Voort. "Television's impact on children's reading skills: A review of research." Reading Research Quarterly 23 (4), 1988, pp. 389-413.

12. Goleman, D. "Infants under 2 seem to learn from TV." New York Times, November 22, 1988.

13. Liebert, R. and J. Sprafkin. The Early Window. New York: Pergamon, 1988.

14. Reeves, B., et al. "Attention to television: Intrastimulus effects of movement and scene changes on alpha variation over time." International Journal of Neuroscience 27, 1985, pp. 241-55.

15. Moody, K. Growing Up on Television. New York: Times Books, 1980.

16. Mander, J. Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television. New York: Morrow Quill, 1978.

17. Emery, F., and M. Emery. A Choice of Futures: To Enlighten or Inform? Canberra: Center for Continuing Education, Australian National University, 1975.

18. Anderson, D., and P. Collins. Op. cit., p. 52.

19. Reeves, B. Personal communication. March 1989.

20. Bryant, J. Personal communication. March 1989.

21. Anderson, D. '''The influence of television on children's attentional abilities." Paper commissioned by Children's Television Workshop, University of Massachusetts, 1985.

22. Anderson, D., and •P. Collins. Op. cit., p. 34.

23. Ibid., p. 65.

24. Krugman, H. "Brain wave measures of media involvement." Journal of Advertising Research 2 (1), 1971, pp. 3-9.

25. Emery, M., and F. Emery. "The vacuous vision: The TV medium." Journal of University Film Association 32 (1, 2), 1980, pp. 27-31.

26. Mulholand, T. "Objective EEG methods for studying covert shifts in visual attention." In F. J. McGuigan and R. Schoonover, eds., The Psychophysiology of Thinking. New York: Academic Press, 1973.

27. Featherman, G., et al. Electroencephalographic and Electrooculographic Correlates of Television Viewing. Final Technical Report: National Science Foundation Student-Oriented Studies. Amherst: Hampshire College, 1979.

28. Walker, J. "Changes in EEG rhythms during television viewing." Perceptual and Motor Skills 51, 1980, pp. 255-61.

29. Radlick, M. "The processing demands of television." Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Troy, NY: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1980.

30. Burns, J., and D. Anderson. "Cognition and watching television." In D. Tupper and K. Cicerone, eds., Neuropsychology of Everyday Life. Boston: Kluwer, in press.

31. Yosawitz, A. Personal communication. February 1989.

32. Turkle, S. The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984.

33. Bracy, O., et al. "Cognitive Retaining Through Computers: Fact or Fad? Cognitive Rehabilitation, March 1985, pp. 10-23.

34. Siegel, L. Personal communication, February 1989.

35. Harter, R. Personal communication. March 1989.

36. Singer, J. '''The power and limitations of television: A cognitive-affective analysis." In P. Tannenbaum, ed., The Entertainment Functional of Television. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1980, p. 61.

37. Winn, M. The Plug-In Drug. New York: Viking Press, 1977, pp. 42, 47.

38. Emery, M., and F. Emery. '''The vacuous vision: The TV medium." Journal of the University Film Association 32 (1, 2), 1980, p. 30.

39. See, e.g., S. Weinstein et al., "Brain-activity responses to magazine and television advertising." Journal of Advertising Research 20 (3), 1980, pp. 57-63.

40. Springer, S., and G. Deutsch. Left Brain, Right Brain, revised edition. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1985.

41. Kirk, U. Neuropsychology of Language, Reading, and Spelling. New York: Academic Press, 1983.

42. Calvert et al. '''The relation between selective attention to television forms and cl1iIdren's comprehension of content." Child Development 53, 1982, pp. 601-10.

43. de Kerckhove, D. "Critical brain processes." In D. de Kerckhove and C. Lumsden, eds., The Alphabet and the Brain. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988, p. 417.

44. Ibid. General Introduction.

45. Maehara, K., et al. "Handedness in the Japanese." Developmental Neuropsychology 4 (2), 1988, pp. 117-27.

46. Springer, S., and G. Deutsch. Left Brain, Right Brain, revised edition. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1985.

47. Neville, H., et al. "ERP studies of cerebral specialization during reading." Brain and Language 16, 1982, pp. 316-37.

48. Bakker, D., and J. Vinke. "Effects of hemisphere-specific stimulation on brain activity and reading in dyslexics." Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 7 (5), 1985, pp. 505-25.

49. Bakker, D. '''The brain as a dependent variable." Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology 6 (I), 1984, pp. 1-16.

50. Bakker, D., and S. Glaude. "Prediction and prevention of L- and P-type dyslexia." Poster Session, Annual Meeting: International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

51. Heller, W. Personal communication. April 1989.

52. Best, C. Hemispheric Function and Collaboration in the Child. New York: Academic Press, 1985.

53. Witelson, S., and D. Kigar. "Anatomical development of the corpus callosum in humans." In D. Molfese and S. Segalowitz, eds., Brain Lateralization in Children: Developmental Implications. New York: Guilford Press, 1988.

54. Levy, J. "Single-mindedness in the asymmetric brain." In Best, op. cit., p. 27.

55. Levy, J. Personal communication. November 1989.

56. Segalowitz, S. Personal communication. February 1989.

57. Welsh, M., and K. Cuneo. "Perseveration in young children." Poster session, Annual Meeting: International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

CHAPTER 11: SESAME STREET AND THE DEATH OF READING

1. Katz, L. Engaging Children's Minds. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1989.

2. Katz, L. "Engaging children's minds." Address presented at Annual Meeting, National Association of Independent Schools. Chicago, March 1989.

3. Sesame Street. Morning edition, National Public Radio, December 1988.

4. Kaufman, F., vice president for public affairs, Children's Television Workshop. Personal communication. March 1989.

5. Education Week, June 15, 1988, p. 5.

6. Mielke, K., vice president for research, Children's Television Workshop. Personal communication. March, 1989.

7. Benbow, M. "Development of handwriting." Lecture presented at Smith College Day School. Northampton, MA, October 1989.

8. Healy, J. Your Child's Growing Mind. New York: Doubleday, 1989.

9. Beck, I., and P. Carpenter. "Cognitive approaches to word reading." American Psychologist 41 (10), 1986, pp. 1098-1105.

10. Beck, I., and P. Carpenter. "Cognitive approaches to understanding reading." American Psychologist 41 (10), 1986, pp. 1098-1105.

11. Lundberg, I., and T. Hoien. "Case studies of reading development among normal and disabled readers in Scandinavia." Paper presented at 39th Annual Conference, Orton Dyslexia Society. Tampa, FL, November 1988.

12. Rice, M., and P. Haight. "'Motherese' of Mr. Rogers: A description of the dialogue of educational television programs." Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders 51, 1986, pp. 282-87.

13. Jensen, J., and D. Neff. "Differential maturation of auditory abilities in preschool children." Paper presented Annual Meeting: International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

14. Jensen, J. Personal communication. February 1989.

15. Wood, K., and L. Richman. "Developmental trends within memory-deficient reading-disability subtypes." Developmental Neuropsychology 4 (4), 1988, pp. 261-74.

16. Rice, M., and L. Woodsmall. "Lessons from television." Child Development (in press).

17. Singer, J. ''The power and limitations of television: A cognitive-affective analysis." In P. Tannenbaum, ed., The Entertainment Functions of Television. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1980.

18. Rice, M., et al. Words from Sesame Street: Learning Vocabulary while Viewing. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, in press.

19. Cook, T., et al. Sesame Street Revisited. New York: Russell Sage, 1975.

20. Aulls, M. "Research into practice." Reading Today, February 3, 1988, p. 6.

21. Postman, N. Amusing Ourselves to Death. New York: Elizabeth Sifton/Viking, 1985.

22. Statement of instructional goals for the twentieth experimental season of Sesame Street (1988-89).

23. Meringoff, L. "Influence of the medium on children's story apprehension." Journal of Educational Psychology 72, 1980, pp. 240-49.

24. Tamis-LeMonda, C., and M. Bornstein. "Is there a 'sensitive period' in human mental development?" In M. Bornstein, ed., Sensitive Periods in Development. Hillsdale: NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.

25. Halpern, W. "Turned-on toddlers." Journal of Communication, Autumn 1975, pp. 66-70.

26. Singer, J., ibid., p. 55.

27. Singer, ibid., p. 54.

28. Ibid., p. 55.

29. Bums, J., and D. Anderson. "Cognition and watching television." In D. Tupper and K. Cicerone, eds., Neuropsychology of Everyday Life. Boston: Kluwer, in press.

30. Pressley, M., et al. "Short term memory, verbal competence, and age as predictors of imagery instructional effectiveness." Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 43, 1987, pp. 194-211.

31. Greenfield, P., et al. "Is the medium the message?" Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 7, 1986, pp. 201-18.

32. Sesame Street. Morning edition, National Public Radio, December 1988.

CHAPTER 12: "DISADVANTAGED" BRAINS

1. Lerner, R., and K. Hood. "Plasticity in development: Concepts and issues for intervention." Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 7, 1986, pp. 139-52.

2. Education Week, February 22, 1989, p. 15.

3. Winick, M., et al. "Malnutrition and environmental enrichment by early adoption." Science 190, 1975, pp. 1173-86.

4. Hechinger, F. "A better start." Address given at Annual Meeting, National Association of Independent Schools. New York, February 1988.

5. Brooks, A. "Children of fast-track parents." Address given at Annual Meeting, National Association of Independent Schools. New York, February 1988.

6. Brooks, A. Children of Fast-Track Parents, New York: Viking, 1989.

7. Brooks, A. Personal communication. March 1989.

8. New York Times, December 26, 1988.

9. Brislin, R. W. "Human diversity: Race, culture, class, and ethnicity." G. Stanley Hall Address presented at Annual Meeting, American Psychological Association. New York, August 1987.

10. Cazden, C. Classroom Discourse. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1988.

11. Havighurst, R. 'The relative importance of social class and ethnicity in human development." Human Development 19, 1976, pp. 56-64.

12. Graham, S. "Can attribution theory tell us something about motivation in blacks?" Educational Psychologist 23 (1), 1988, pp. 3-21.

13. Largo, R., et al. "Language development of term and preterm children during the first five years of life." Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 28, 1986, pp. 333-50.

14. Gunarsa, S., et al. "Cognitive development of children." Symposium: Preparation for Adulthood, Third Asian Workshop on Child and Adolescent Development. Malaysia, 1984.

15. Reeves, S. "Self-interest and the common weal: Focusing on the bottom half." Education Week, April 27, 1988.

16. Wells, G. Language, Learning, and Education. Philadelphia: NFER-NELSON" 1985.

17. Thanks to Dr. Elyse Fleming for her suggestion of this term.

18. Schorr, L., and D. Schorr. Within Our Reach. New York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1988.

19: Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition. "Contributions of cross-cultural research to educational practice." American Psychologist, October 1986, p. 1053.

20. McCall, R. "Developmental function, individual differences, and the plasticity of intelligence." In J. Gallagher and C. Ramey, 005., The Malleability of Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1987, p. 33.

21. Pogrow, S. "Teaching thinking to at-risk elementary students." Educational Leadership, April 1988, p. 80.

22. Coles, R. The Call of Stories: Teaching and the Moral Imagination. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989.

23. Whimbey, A., and J. Lockheed. Problem Soloing and Comprehension. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute, 1982.

24. Smith, J., and J. Caplan. "Cultural differences in cognitive style development." Developmental Psychology 24 (I), 1988, pp. 46-52.

25. Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, op. cit., p. 1053.

26. Alvarez, G. "Effects of material deprivation on neurological functioning." Social Science and Medicine 17 (16), 1983, pp. 1097-1105.

27. Blount, B., and M. Sanches. Sociocultural Dimensions of Language Change. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

28. Siegel, L. "Home environmental influences of cognitive development in preterm and full-term children during the first five years." In A. Gottfried, ed., Home Environment and Early Cognitive Development. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1984.

29. Norman-Jackson, E. "Family interactions, language development and primary reading achievement of black children in families of low income." Child Development 53, 1982, pp. 349-58.

30. Cazden, C., op. cit.

31. Hemphill, L. "Context and conversational style. " Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, UMI no. 86-20, 1986, p. 703.

32. Cazden, C., op. cit., p. 192.

33. Bruner, J. Actual Minds, Possible worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.

34. Heath, S. "What no bedtime story means: Narrative skills at home and school." Language in Society 11, 1982, pp. 49-76.

35. Whitehurst, G., et al. '''The effects of parent questions on children's reading abilities." Developmental Psychology 24, 1988, pp. 552-59.

36. Alvarez, G., op. cit., pp. 1099, 1102.

37. Flashman, L., and I. Knopf. '''The relationship between sustained attention and short-term memory in kindergarten children." Poster session, Annual Meeting, International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

38. Geffner, D., and I. Hochberg. "Ear laterality performance of children from low and middle socioeconomic levels on a verbal dichotic listening task." Cortex 7, 1971, pp. 193-203.

39. Borowy, R., and R. Goebel. "Cerebral lateralization of speech: The effects of age, sex, race, and social class." Neuropsychologia 14, 1976, pp. 363-70.

40. Barwick, M., L. Siegel, and J. Van Duzer. '''The nature of reading disability in an adult population." Poster session, Annual Meeting, International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

41. Waber, D., et al. "SES-related aspects of neuropsychological performance." Child Development 55, 1984, pp. 1878-86.

42. Waber, D. 'The biological boundaries of cognitive styles: A neuropsychological analysis." In T. Globerson and T. Zelniker, eds., Cognitive Style and Cognitive Development. New York: Ablex, in press.

43. Springer, S., and G. Deutsch. Left Brain, Right Brain. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1981, p. 142.

44. Springer, S., and G. Deutsch. Left Brain, Right Brain, 2nd edition. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1985, p. 242.

45. Scott, S., et al. "Cerebral speech lateralization in the Native American Navajo." Neuropsychologia 17, 1979, pp. 89-92.

46. Rogers, L., et al. "Hemispheric specialization of language: An EEG study of bilingual Hopi Indian children." International Journal of Neuroscience 8, 1977, pp. 1-6.

47. McKeever, L., et al. "Language dominance in Navajo children: Importance of the language context." Poster session, Annual Meeting, International Neuropsychological Society. Vancouver, BC, February 1989.

48. Becker, M., et. al. "Neuropsychological development of nonverbal behaviors attributed to 'frontal lobe' functioning," Developmental Neuropsychology 3 (4), 1987, pp. 275-98.

49. Waber, D. Personal communication. March 1989.

50. Angoff, W. "The nature-nurture debate, aptitudes, and group differences." American Psychologist 43 (9), 1988, p. 713.

51. Scarr, S., and R. Weinberg. "IQ test performance of black children adopted by white families." American Psychologist 31, 1976, pp. 726-39.

52. Scarr, S., and J. Arnett. "Malleability: Lessons from intervention and family studies," In J. Gallagher and C. Ramey, eds., The Malleability of Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1987, pp. 78-9.

53. Duyme, M. "School and social class: An adoption study." Developmental Psychology 24 (2), 1988, pp. 203-9.

54. Scarr, S., and R. Weinberg. 'The influence of "family background" on intellectual attainment." American Sociological Review 43, 1978, pp. 674-92.

55. Diamond, M. Enriching Heredity. New York: Free Press, 1988, p. 96.

56. Kiyono, S., et al. "Facilitative effects of maternal environmental enrichment on maze learning in rat offspring." Physiology & Behavior 34, 1985, pp. 431-35.

57. Scarr, S., and J. Arnett, op cit., p. 74.

58. Schorr, L., and D. Schorr, op. cit.

59. Scholnick, E. "Influences on plasticity: Problems of definition." Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 7, 1986, pp. 131-38.

60. Manrique, B. Personal communication. June 1988.

61. Manrique, B. Personal communication. June 1988.

62. Caldwell, B. "Sustaining intervention effects," In Gallagher, J., and C. Ramey, eds., The Malleability of Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1987, p. 91.

63. Rothman, R. "A district ties goals to success," Education Week, March 22, 1989.

64. Bracey, G. "Advocates of basic skills 'know what ain't so,'" Education Week, April 5, 1989.

65. Zigler, E., and J. Freedman. "Early experience, malleability, and Head Start," In J. Gallagher and C. Ramey, eds., The Malleability of Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1987, p. 91.

CHAPTER 13: NEW BRAINS: NEW SCHOOLS?

1. Costa, A. "The school as home for the mind." Address delivered at Education Summit Conference. Fairfax, VA, June 1988.

2. Costa, A. Personal communication. June 1988.

3. White, Merry. The Japanese Educational Challenge. New York: The Free Press, 1987.

4. Kohn, A. No Contest: The Case Against Competition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986.

5. "Teachers complain of lack of parental support." New York Times, December 12, 1988.

6. Comer, J. Issues '88. Washington: National Education Association, 1988.

7. White, B. "Helping children actualize their potential." Human Intelligence Newsletter 9 (3), 1988, pp. 3-5.

8. Bartolome, Paz. "The changing family and early childhood education." In Changing Family Lifestyles. Washington: ACEI, 1982, p. 11.

9. Pratt, M., et al. "Mothers and fathers teaching 3-year-olds." .Developmental Psychology 24 (6), 1988, pp. 832-39.

10. McGuinness, D. "Reading failure: Causes and cures." Paper presented at Annual Meeting, Orton Dyslexia Society. Tampa, FL, November 1988.

11. Lindamood, P. Personal communication. November 1988.

12. Blachman, B. Discussant, Symposium on Phonological Processes in Literacy. Annual Meeting, Orton Dyslexia Society. Tampa, FL, November 1988.

13. Winn, D. "Develop listening skills as a part of the curriculum." The Reading Teacher, November 1988, pp. 144-46.

14. Cazden, C. Classroom Discourse. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1988.

15. Hamilton, A. J. "Challenging verbal passivity." NEATE Leaflet 85 (1), 1986, p. 22.

16. Taxonomy of questions adapted from B. Bloom et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay, 1956.

17. Goodman, K. What's Whole in Whole Language? Exeter, NH: Heinemann, 1986.

18. Calkins, L. The Art of Teaching Writing. Exeter, NH: Heinemann, 1986.

19. Newman, J. Whole Language: Theory in Use. Exeter, NH: Heinemann, 1985.

20. Altwerger, B., et al. "Whole Language: What's New?" The Reading Teacher, November 1987.

21. Harman, S., and C. Edelsky. 'The risks of whole language literacy: Alienation and connection." Language Arts 66 (4), 1989, pp. 392-406.

22. Heath, S., "Questioning at home and at school." In G. Spindler, ed., Doing the Ethnography of Schooling. New York: Holt, Rinehart, &: Winston, 1982.

23. Tharp, R. "Psychocultural variables and constants." American Psychologist 44 (2), 1989, pp. 349-59.

24. "Peer mediation: When students agree not to disagree." Education Week, May 25, 1988.

25. "Schoolyard diplomacy." Children, June. 1988.

26. Barbieri, E. "Talents unlimited." Educational Leadership, April 1988, p. 35.

CHAPTER 14: TEACHING THE NEW GENERATION TO THINK: HUMAN AND COMPUTER MODELS AT SCHOOL AND AT HOME

1. Wilson, M. "Critical thinking: Repackaging or revolution?" Language Arts 65 (6), 1988, pp. 543-51.

2. Perkins, D. "Mindware: The new science of learnable intelligence." Address delivered at Education Summit Conference. Fairfax, VA, June 1988.

3. Wiggins, G. "10 'radical' suggestions for school reform." Education Week, March 9, 1988, p. 28.

4. Education Week, October 19, 1988, p. 5.

5. Eisner, E. "The ecology of school improvement." Educational Leadership, February 1988, pp. 24-29.

6. Resnick, L. "On learning research." Educational Leadership, December 1988, p. 12.

7. Kiewra, B. "Verbal control processes and working memory." Educational Psychologist, Winter 1988, p. 42.

8. Feuerstein, R. "Mediated learning: An open system." Address delivered at Education Summit Conference. Fairfax, VA, June 1988.

9. Ibid.

10. Hirsch, E. D., Jr. Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987.

11. Kett, J. Personal communication. October 1988.

12. New York Times, "Education Life," April 9, 1989.

13. Palmer, E. Television and America's Children: A Crisis of Neglect. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

14. Ibid., p. xxii.

15. Greenfield, P. Mind and Media. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.

16. Posner, M. Personal communication. August 1988.

17. Herron, J. Personal communication. April 1989.

18. Schwartz, J. "Closing the gap between education and the schools," In M. A. White, ed., What Curriculum for the Information Age? Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987, p. 70.

19. Weizenbaum, J. Computer Power and Human Reason. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976.

20. Boden, M. Artificial intelligence and Natural Man. New York: Basic Books, 1987.

21. Rutkowsa, J., and C. Crook. Computers, Cognition, and Development. New York: John Wiley, 1987.

22. Forbes, August 27, 1984, p. 156.

23. Katz, L. Personal communication. March 1989.

24. Frith, U. Autism:, Explaining the Enigma. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.

CHAPTER 15: EXPANDING MINDS

1. Ogbu, J. "Cultural influences on plasticity in human development," In J. Gallagher and C. Ramey, eds., The Malleability of Children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1987, p. 159.

2. Gould, S. J. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton, 1981, p. 325. 3. Ibid., p. 331.

4. Gould, S. J. Ever Since Darwin. New York: Norton, 1977, p. 45.

5. Potts, R. Quoted in U.S. News and World Report, January 27, 1989, p. 59.

6. Bruner, J. Personal communication. September 15, 1988.

7. Education for a Democratic Future. Committee on Correspondence on the Future of Public Education, New York, 1984.

8. Technology and the American Tradition. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1988.

9. Vail, P. Personal communication. June 1988.

10. White, M. A. "The third learning revolution." Electronic Learning, January 1988, p. 6.

11. Schwartz, J. "Closing the gap between education and the schools." In M. A. White, ed., What Curriculum for the Information Age? Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.

12. Zukav, G. The Dancing Wu Li Masters. New York: Bantam Books, 1979.

13. John-Steiner, V. Notebooks of the Mind. New York: Harper &: Row, 1985.

14. Ferguson, E. "The mind's eye: Nonverbal thought in technology." Science 197 (4306), 1977, pp. 827-36.

15. Grubb, R. Personal communication. June 1988.

16. Weiskrantz, L. Thought Without Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.

17. O'Neill, C. Personal communication. October 1988.

18. Logan, R. The Alphabet Effect. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.

19. de Kerckhove, D: "Critical brain processes involved in deciphering the Greek alphabet." In D. de Kerckhove and C. Lumsden, eds., The Alphabet and the Brain. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987, pp. 416-17.

20. John-Steiner, V. Op. cit.

21. Hunt, M. The Universe Within. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982, p. 315.

22. Ravitch, D. "Technology and the curriculum." In White, M. A., ed., What Curriculum for the Information Age? Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.

[admin]

Index

abortion, spontaneous, 59
abuse, child, 236
ACT (American College Testing
Program), 17
active learning, 71-73, 297-300
ADHD, see attention deficit with
or without hyperactivity disorder
adopted children, 262-64
Age of Reason, 87
air pollution, 164, 238
alcohol, fetal brain development
and, 60, 163-64
aliteracy, 23
Allen, George, 169
allergic (autoimmune) disease,
147
allergies, 166
AU the King's Men (Warren), 25
alphabet, 212, 223-26, 342-45
Alphabet and the Brain, The (de
Kerckhove), 212
Alphabet Effect, The (Logan), 343
alpha waves, 173, 203-4, 231
aluminum, 60, 164
Alvarez, Gonzalo, 253, 256-57
amblyopia, 76-77
American Academy of Pediatrics,
168
American College Testing Pro-
gram (ACT), 17
American Federation of Teachers,
20
American Psychological Association,
243
367
American Sign Language (ASL),
115
Amusing Ourselves to Death
(Postman), 87
Anderson, Daniel, 197-98, 200,
202-3, 204
Anderson, John, 169
Angoff, William H., 262
Animal Farm (Orwell), 98
animals:
brain of human beings vs., 53-
54, 149
music and, 175 .
antisocial behavior, 154, 158, 250,
306
Army, U.S., 168-69
arsenic, 60, 164
artificial intelligence, 322r-23
ASL (American Sign Language),
115
aspartame (NutraSweet), 166,
167-68, 169
Association for Children with
Learning Disabilities, 61
Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development,
42, 153
attention deficit with or without
hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), 13~1, 149, 153,
177, 186, 192, 250
antisocial behavior and, 154,
158
categories of, 154
cognitive therapy for, 156
attention deficit with or without
hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) (cont.)
definition of, 139-40
diagnosis of, 155
dyslexia and, 146
emotional factors in, 156
environment and heredity and,
158-59, 178, 192
hyperactivity and, 139-41, 154,
157
learning disabilities and, 139-
141, 149
motivational control of, 157-58
rule-governed behavior and,
157-58
statistics on, 140, 179
attention spans, 13-15, 41-42,
137, 151-92, 302-3, 313
attention systems in, 159-62
brain development and, 138,
159-62
diet and, 162, 165-68
involuntary vs. voluntary, 231
learning and, 154
parental attention and, 177-82
reward systems and, 158-59
television and, 42, 153, 199,
215, 216, 228, 231
auditory cortex, 75
autoimmune (allergic) disease,
147
automatic codes, 125
autoplasticity, 314
axons, 51, 66
Ayres, Jean, 171

back-to-basics movements, 279
Baker, Russell, 120
Bakker, Dirk, 212-13
Barkley, Russell, 157-58
basal readers, 36, 298, 300
beat, internal sense of, 171-72
behavioral teratology, 59
Bernstein, Jane Holmes, 57-58,
73, 79-81
beta waves, 173
birds, neural development of, 149
birth defects, 58-59
birthweight, low, 162
blacks:
class and, 244-46
improved SAT scores of, 18
underclass as stereotype for,
244
whites' adoption of, 263
blood-brain barrier, 163, 164, 167
body language, 109, 125, 344
books:
textbooks, 36-37, 116
trade, 298
Bowers, Reveta, 241
Boyer, Ernest, 320
Bracey, Gerald W., 273
brain, 47-82
alcohol and, 50, 163-64
alphabet and, 212, 342-45
alpha waves of, 173, 2034, 231
animal vs. human, 53-54, 149
beta waves of, 173
blood barrier of, 163, 164, 167
cells of, 51
changing nature of, 13, 45-46,
49, 52, 55, 278
computers vs., 222-23, 321-29,
331
corpus callosum of, 125, 159,
213-14
cortex of, see cortex
damage to, recovering from, 53,
131
of disadvantaged children, 237-
240, 256-58
drugs and, 50, 163-64
emotional deprivation and, 239-
240
environment and, 47-82, 261
evolution of, 333-35
experience-dependent systems
of, 54, 68-69
experience-expectant systems
of, 54, 89, 108
first year in development of,
44, 93
future demands on, 331-46
glial cells of, 51, 56, 66, 71, 73
hearing problems and, 88, 130-
131, 212
"holes" in, 63
individuality of, 58, 141-43,
149, 150 .
internal competition in, 78-79,
127
language and, 86, 106-7, 123-
134
language deprivation and, 86
left hemisphere of, see left
hemisphere of brain
limbic system of, 160-61, 239
motor-speech area of, 131
myelination of, 66-67, 69, 70
neocortex of, 56
neural plasticity of, 47-65, 67,
346
neurons of, see neurons
nutrition and, 165-68, 238
oxygen deprivation of, 163
physical development of, 56
physical fitness and, 170-72
prefrontal development of,
162, 184, 18~90, 191, 215,
260
prenatal stimulation of, 64-65
P300 wave of, 77
of rats, 47-48, 70-72, 264-65
reading and, 211-12, 214, 215-
216, 261
removing one hemisphere of,
128
right hemisphere of, see right
hemisphere of brain
screening out stimulation of,
174
stress and, 62, 167, 174, 238
stroke and, 53
television and, 199, 200-204,
208-17
timing and, 73-78, 265-66
toxic exposure and, 58, 5~1,
62, 138, 162, 164-65, 238
uncommitted tissue of, 53-54
in verbal vs. nonverbal skills,
20, 40
visual system of, 75, 76, 130
weight of, 66
writing and, 211-12, 214, 215-
216, 261, 342-45
Brain, Cognition, and Education,
The (Friedman, Klivington,
and Peterson), 191
Brazelton, T. Barry, 43
breakfast, 167
breast milk, 61
Brislin, Richard, 243, 244, 245,
246
Brooks, Andree, 240-41
Bruner, Jerome, 85, 89, 188, 254,
334-35
Bryant, Jennings, 201-2
Buchwald, Jennifer, 77
bureaucratese, 120

cadmium, 60
California Achievement Test, 28
Call of Stories, The (Coles), 249
Cannell, James, 28, 29
carbohydrates, 166
caretakers, 43-44, 240-41
inadequate learning environments
created by, 240
low pay and low skill of, 241
see also day care
Carnegie Council on Adolescent
Development, 16
cataracts, 77
cats, 75, 76, 79-80
Cazden, Courtney, 186, 243-44,
293
Chelsea (hearing-impaired
woman), 130
chemical fertilizers, 60
children:
abused, 236
adopted, 262-64
caretakers for, 240-41
disadvantaged, see disadvantaged
children
divorce and, 282, 284
of single parents, 284
wild, 129-30
Children of Fast-Track Parents
(Brooks), 240
Children's Television Workshop,
202, 221, 222, 233
chimpanzees, 107
China, People's Republic of, 140
Chinese ideographs, 343
Chopin, Frederic, 174
cigarettes, 58
Classroom Discourse (Cazden),
243
Clear and Lively Writing (Vail),
102 Cliff Notes, 22
closed class (function) words,
118-19, 126, 129, 132
Coalition of Essential Schools, 311
cocaine, 50, 164
codeine, 60
codes:
automatic, 125
elaborated, 117-19, 121, 133
restricted, 116-19
switching of, 120-22
cognitive therapy, 156
Coles, Robert, 249
collaborative learning techniques,
283
College Board, 17
Comer, James, 284-85
Committee on Correspondence on
the Future of Public Education,
335
computer hackers, 21)7
computers, 22, 40, 45, 50, 308-29
brain vs., 222-23, 321-29, 331
as educational tool, 322, 324-
329, 335-37
learning abilities promoted by,
337-38
mediated learning and, 315
nonverbal thinking and, 341
talking to, 324-25
transfer and, 327
writing on, 325-26
zone of proximal development
and, 326-27
conflict resolution, 306-7
connective thinking, 312
Conners, Keith, 166-67, 168
content (open class) words, 118-
119
contextualized instruction, 305,
312
conversation, mealtime, 252
corporations:
middle management in, 279
remedial courses offered by, 16,
86
corpus callosum, 125, 159, 213-
214
cortex, 56, 70, 75, 128
frontal lobes of, 161, 184, 18~
190, 191, 203, 215, 260
cosmetic curriculum, 67
Costa, Arthur, 42, 279
Coulter, Dee, 44, 335
Council for Basic Education, 36
Countryman, Joan, 112
Country of the Pointed Firs, The
(Jewett), 25
critical thinking, 124, 133, 257-
259, 309, 317, 31~21)
Croxton, James, 164
Cullinan, Bernice, 23
cultural evolution, 333-35
cultural literacy, 318-19
Cultural Literacy: What Every
American Needs to Know
(Hirsch), 318
culture, language and, 86-88, 89
curriculum:
cosmetic, 67
rewriting of, 312
zero-based, 273
see also schools; teaching
Curtiss, Susan, 120-30

Dancing Wu Li Masters, The
(Zukav), 340
Darling-Hammond, Linda, 27
Darwin, Charles, 333
Darwin III (computer), 78
day care, 235-37, 239
availability of, 43
language skills in, 94-95
quality of, 44
socioeconomic mix in, 235-37
see also caretakers
deafness, 88, 130, 212
"Debate Grows on Classroom's
'Magic Pill,'" 141
defects, birth, 58-59
de Kerckhove, Derrick, 212, 343
delinquency, 154, 158, 250, 306
Denckla, Martha Bridge, 177-78
dendrites, 71, 76
environmental enrichment and,
131
function of, 51-52, 66
Denenberg, Victor H., 49
deprivation:
emotional, 239-40
of oxygen, 163
Deutsch, Georg, 259
Diamond, Marian, 47-49, 71, 72
Einstein's brain studied by, 73
on environmental enrichment,
48-49, 70, 264
rats' brain studied by: 47-48,
70, 264
on uniqueness of brain, 58
dichotomania, 213
disabilities, learning, see learning
disabilities
disadvantaged children, 235-74
brain of, 237-40, 256-68
definition of, 237
problem-solving abilities of,
248-51, 255-56
in school, 247-57, 304-7
divorce, 282, 284 .
"Doesn't Anybody Here Talk English
Any More?" (Dunning),
102
Down's syndrome, 91
dropout rates, 268
drugs:
brain damage and, 50, 163-64
hyperactivity and, 140-41, 154,
155-57
learning disabilities and, 138,
140-41, 154, 155-57
Duckworth, Eleanor, 185
Dunning, Brian, 102
dyes, food, 166
dysgraphia, 223
dyslexia, 145-48, 149, 192, 303

economics, GRE scoring gains in,
20
Eddy, Kristin, 25
Edelman, Gerald, 78-79
education:
intrauterine, 265
in Japan vs. U.S., 280-81
see also learning; schools; teaching
Educational Testing Service, 18,
262
Education Week, 36, 141
eggs, 167
egocentric speech, 184
Einstein, Albert, 73
Eisner, Eliot, 312-13
elaborated codes, 117-19, 121, 133
Electric Company, 201-2
Elementary School Center, 282
embedded information, 108
Emery, Fred, 203, 210
Emery, Merrelyn, 203, 210
emotional deprivation, 239-40
Engaging Children's Minds
(Katz), 220
engineering, GRE scoring gains
in, 20
English literature:
GRE scores declining in, 19
teachers' dislike of, 22-23
Enriching Heredity (Diamond),
48, 264
environment:
ADHD and, 158-59, 178, 192
brain and, 47-82, 261
enrichment of, 48-49, 70, 131,
264
heredity vs., 48, 49-51, 138,
145-50, 262-64
IQ tests and, 38, 39, 40, 50,
253
learning disabilities and, 50,
138, 145-50
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), 164
Epstein, Herman, 69
Eskenazi, Brenda, 59, 61
evolution:
cultural, 333-35
of language, 87
examinations, see tests
Exceptional Brain, The (Obler
and Fine), 145
exercise, 170
experience-dependent systems,
54, 68-69
experience-expectant systems, 54,
89, 108

facial expression, 109
Fairleigh Dickinson University,
175
family size, 38-39
Family Ties, 319
FAX machines, 332
Feeding the Brain (Conners), 166
fertilizers, chemical, 60
fetus:
alcohol and, 50, 163-64
artificial stimulation of, 64-65
music and, 174
toxins and, 58, 59-61, 162, 163
Feuerstein, Reuven, 314-15
Fine, Deborah, 145
Finland, 140
Flynn, James R., 39, 40
food, 165-68
additives in, 165, 166
allergies to, 166
dyes in, 166
junk, 162, 165-68
Food Makes the Difference
(Kane), 166
forced learning, 67-69, 242-43
foreign-born students, 19, 20, 21
foreign languages, 114
GRE scores declining in, 19
language development and, 241
learning of, 77-78, 124
Fortune, 16
Frames of Mind (Gardner), 64
France, 101
Freire, Paolo, 223
Friedrich, Frances, 177
function (closed• class) words,
118-19, 126, 129, 132
Futrell, Mary Hatwood, 284, 285

Galaburda, Albert, 146-48
Gardner, Howard, 64, 338
genetic engineering, 296
Genie (wild child), 129, 130
Germany, Federal Republic of
(West), 61, 140
Geshwind, Norman, 146-47
gesturing and prompting, 78
Gettysburg address, 87-88
Geyer, Georgie Anne, 88
glial cells, 51, 56, 66, 71, 73
global village, 45
Gould, Steven Jay, 333-34
Graduate Record Examinations
(GRE):
foreign-born students and, 19,
20
nature of, 18-19
scoring trends of, 18-20
Graham, Sandra, 244-45
grammar, see syntax
Great Britain, 101
Greenfield, Patricia, 320, 321
Greenough, William T., 54-55,
71, 72, 172
Grubb, Ralph, 341
Gulick, Rosemary, 42-43

hackers, computer, 207
Hamilton, A. Jane, 86
Harter, M. Russell, 208, 209
headphones, 81, 87, 103, 172,
175
Head Start, 265
hearing problems:
brain and, 130-31, 212
language skills and, 77, 114-15
math skills and, 112
heart disease, 168
Heath, Shirley Brice, 255-56, 304
Hechinger, Fred M., 25, 240
Heller, Wendy, 213
heredity, environment vs., 48,
49-51, 138, 145-50, 262-64
heroin, 60
Herron, Jeannine, 322
Hirsch, E. D., 318, 319
history, GRE scores declining in,
19
holistic thinking, 124, 125, 133,
257-59, 340
homelessness, 235, 236, 237, 238
Hopi, 259
How to Have a Smarter Baby
(Luddington-Hoe), 65
Hyperactive Children (Barkley),
157
hyperactivity, 139, 140-41, 154,
155-57, 178, 296
see also attention deficit with or
without hyperactivity disorder
hyperlexics, 26

IBM, 337, 341
illiteracy, 22, 212
infants, premature, 238, 245-46
information, embedded, 108
inner speech, 182-86, 190, 192,
314
instruction, see education; teaching
intelligence:
artificial, 322-23
language and, 106-7
see also IQ scores and tests
internal sense of beat, 171-72
International Reading Association,
227
intrauterine education, 265
intuition, 125
Inuits, 106
IQ scores and tests, 13, 37-40,
42, 103, 190
of adopted children, 263
of chimpanzees, 107
environmental factors in, 38,
39, 40, 50, 253
with half of brain removed, 128
increased difficulty of, 38
lead and, 59-60
nutrition and, 38
prefrontal development and,
162
uncertainty of, 38, 39
verbal vs. nonverbal sections of,
37-38
iron deficiency, 165, 167

Japan:
educational philosophy of U.S.
vs., 280-81
newspaper readership in, 24
publishing industry of, 24
Japanese language:
left and right hemisphere functions
in, 212
numbers in, 113-14
Jensen, Janet, 225
Jewett, Sarah Orne, 25
Johnny Tremaine (Forbes), 299
Jones, Anna, 287
junk food, 162, 165-68

Kamehameha Early Education
Program (KEEP), 305-6
Kaspar (wild child), 129, 130
Katz, Lillian, 220, 233, 319, 328
Kay, Paul, 117, 119-20
KEEP (Kamehameha Early Education
Program), 305-6
Kennedy Institute Neurobehavioral
Clinic, 177
Kett, Joseph, 318
kinesthetic (muscular) stimulation,
78
Kinsbourne, Marcel, 213
kittens, 75, 76, 79-80
Klivington, Kenneth. A., 51, 191
Korea, Republic of (South), 238

language, 85-134
body, 109, 125, 326, 344
brain and, 86, 106-7, 123-34
bureaucratic use of, 120
contemporary changes in, 119
culture and, 86-88, 89
in day-care and school, 94-97
deprivation of, 86
developing skills in, 54-55, 76-
78, 88-98, 129-31, 241, 283
disabilities in, 102, 109
evolution of, 87
foreign, see foreign languages
hearing problems and, 77, 114-
115
inner speech and, 182-86, 190,
192, 314
intelligence and, 106-7
listening skills and, 96, 101-4,
121, 143-44, 286-95
language (cont.)
music as model for, 103, 174
Native American, 259-60
parental teaching of, 77-78,
89-94, 103-4, 114-15, 131,
162, 183-86, 188, 286
physical effects of, 106-7, 123-
124
primitive, 116-17, 119-2O
separating words from pictures
in, 91-92, 133, 144
sign, 88
socioeconomics and, 119, 253-
256
syntax and, see syntax
teachers as models for, 95, 96-
97, 132
teenagers' code-switching and,
120-22
television as model for, 88, 94,
114, 115, 210, 225-26
thinking and, 97-99
Language Arts, 321
Lapointe, Archie E., 110
lazy eye, 76-77
lead, toxic effects of, 59-60, 164,
167, 238, 261
learned helplessness, 187
Learners' Model Technology
Project, 330
learning, 81
active, 71-73, 297-300
attention span and, 154
collaborative techniques of,
283
computers and, 322, 324-29,
335-38
forced, 67-69, 242-43
of foreign languages, 77-78, 124
listening skills and, 143-44
mediated, 314-15
passive, 73, 80, 95, 187, 199,
201-3, 230-31, 297, 298-99
receptive, 202
Sesame Street and, 221, 222-24
of syntax, 107-9, 288-90
visual imagery and, 232
see also education; schools;
teaching
learning disabilities, 137-50, 186
ADHD and, 139-41, 149
definition of, 141
diagnoses of, 139
drug treatment of, 138, 140-41,
154, 155-57
environment and heredity and,
50, 138, 145-50
hyperactivity and, 139, 140
individuality of, 141-43
language and, 102, 109
as middle-class phenomenon,
139, 140
nonverbal, 148-49
overstimulation and, 175
physical therapy for, 171
sedentary lifestyles and, 138
toxic exposure and, 59, 62, 138
Left Brain, Right Brain (Springer
and Deutsch), 259
left-handedness, 147
left hemisphere of brain, 123-34
critical thinking and, 124, 133,
257-59
dyslexia and, 146
function words and, 118, 126
hearing impairment and, 130
learning disabilities and, 160
musical appreciation by, 126,
173
Native American language use
of, 260
phonological awareness and,
103, 126
reading skills and, 127, 133,
210
right hemisphere interacting
with, 125, 126, 128, 132-34,
159, 160, 174, 209, 213-14,
215, 216
syntax and, 109, 110, 124, 126-
134
television's neglect of, 110, 127,
209, 210-11, 215, 216
of wild children, 129-30
Leiden University, 198
Lerner, Richard M., 52, 235
Levy, Jerre, 175, 214, 233
lifestyles, sedentary, 138
limbic system, 160-61, 239
Lindamood, Patricia, 287
listening skills:
importance of, 96
integrating other language skills
with, 297, 300-302
language problems and, 96,
101-4, 121, 143-44, 286-95
parental teaching of, 292
television and, 121, 144, 153,
228-29
literacy, 22, 112
cultural, 318-19
visual, 320, 321, 339-40
literature, see English literature
Logan, Robert, 343
LOGO, 327
lower class, 244, 246
Luddington-Hoe, Susan, 43-44,
65, 174-75
Lundberg, Ingvar, 224-25
Luria, Alexander, 85, 106-7, 117,
182-83, 190

Macbeth (Shakespeare), 232
McCall, Robert B., 248
McGuinness, Diane, 156-57
McKeever, Walter, 259-60
McLanguage, 102, 110
McLuhan, Marshall, 344
McMahon, Audrey, 61
MacNeil, Robert, 228
MacNeil/Lehrer Newshour, 228
magazines, increasing numbers of,
24
magic square, 189
Magna Carta, 343
magnetic resonance imaging, 149
malnutrition, 165, 238
manganese, 164
Manrique, Beatriz, 267
marijuana, 60, 164
math, 96
brain functions required by, 20,
125, 127, 148
declining skills in, 15, 16, 20,
21, 188
grammatical problems and, 110,
112-14
and internal sense of beat, 171-
172
nonverbal thinking in, 107, 250,
342
scoring trends in, 18, 19-20
visual imagery and, 232
Matthew (homeless child), 236
mealtime conversation, 252
mediated learning, 314-15
memorizing, 290
memory:
short-term auditory, 143
working, 231
mental retardation:
aspartame and, 167
lead and, 59
synaptic connections and, 75
mercury, 60, 164
metacognition, 313-15
metalinguistic awareness, 227
methadone, 60 .
methyl mercury, 60
Mexico, 164
mice, 175
Michelle (student), 289
middle class, 139, 140
milk, breast, 61
Mind and Media (Greenfield), 320
mindware, 311
"Missouri New Parents as Teachers
Project (NPAT)," 285-86
Mister Rogers' Neighborhood,
225, 231
monkeys, 68, 76
mothers, 265
gesturing and prompting by, 78
teenage, 237
working, 43, 94, 95, 240
see also parents
motor cortex, 161
motor-speech area of brain, 131
Motorola, 16
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 174
muscular (kinesthetic) stimulation,
78
music, 172-76
animal studies and, 175
fetal response to, 174
as language model, 103, 174
music (cont.)
left and right hemisphere
functions and, 103, 125,
126, 173
videos of, 196, 340
myelin, 66-67, 69, 70

Naropa Institute, 335
National Academy of Sciences,
312
National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP), 17,
20, 21, 22, 25-26, 110, 188
National Council for Teachers of
English, 321
National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, 153
Native American languages, 259-
260
nature-nurture question, see environment;
heredity
Navaho, 259-60, 305-6
Needleman, Herbert L., 60
neocortex, 56
Netherlands, 39
Neural Darwinism (Edelman), 78
neural plasticity of brain, 47-65,
67, 346
advantages and disadvantages
of, 55-56
definition of, 49, 50
studies of, 47-48, 49
neuromodulators, 52, 158
neuromotor development, 68
neurons, 51-52, 53, 63, 71, 127
dyslexia and, 146-48
excess numbers of, 57, 66, 74,
78
experience-expectant, 54
function of, 51-52
negative networks of, 69
prenatal migration of, 56, 59
structure of, 51
neurotransmitters, 52, 158
Neville, Helen, 130-31
Newport, Elissa, 115
newspapers:
numbers and readership of, 24
television news vs., 23
New York Times, 26, 164, 174,
240, 319
Niger, 321
"Nintendo, " 207
noise pollution, 173
nonverbal skills, 107, 250, 341-42
disorders with, 148-49
verbal skills vs., 20, 40
North Point Press, 24
numbers:
place value of, 113-14
see also math
nursery rhymes, 93
NutraSweet (aspartame), 166,
167-68, 169
nutrition, 266, 282
brain chemistry and, 165-68,
238
IQ and, 38
myelin and, 70
in pregnancy, 62, 63

obesity, 168
Obler, Lorraine, 145
Ogbu, John U., 330
On the Nature of Human Plasticity
(Lerner), 52
open class (content) words, 118-
119
oral tradition, 290
Orland, Martin, 246
O'Rourke, Shirley, 40-41
Orr, Eleanor Wilson, 113
oxygen deprivation, 163

Palmer, Edward, 320
Pareles, Jon, 174
parents:
attention spans and, 177-82
attitude of, 246, 266-67
caretakers as substitutes for,
240-41
connective thinking taught by,
312
language skills taught by, 77-
78, 89-94, 103-4, 114-15,
131, 162, 183-86, 188, 286
listening skills taught by, 292
mediated learning and, 314-15
overly ambitious demands of,
242-43
problem-solving abilities taught
by, 248-51, 255-56
reluctant self-assertion of, 45
schools and, '284-86
single, 284
see also mothers
Parent-Teacher Association (PTA),
164
passive learning, 73, 80, 95, 187,
199, 201-3, 230-31, 297,
298-99
passive voice, 108, 128
Paul (day-care child), 236-37
Paul, Diana, 37
PBBs, 60
PCBs, 60
Pennington, Bruce, 145, 190
perceptual defense, 229
perceptual-motor skills, 208
perceptual organization, 229
Perkins, David, 311
pesticides, 60, 61, 164-65
Peterson, Gary, 330
philosophy, GRE eliminated for,
19
phoneme segregation, 288
phonics, 25, 27, 127, 133, 228,
287-88
phonological awareness, 103, 126,
258, 287-88
physical abuse, 236
physical fitness, 168-72
physical therapy, 171
pictures, separating words from,
91-92, 133, 144
"Pig Latin, " 287
PKU, 167
placenta, 58, 62
Pogrow, Stanley, 248-49
political science, GRE scores declining
in, 19
pollution:
air, 238
noise, 173
Pope, Alexander, 49
Posner, Michael, 177, 321
Postman, Neil, 87, 228
Potchen, E. James, 149-50
poverty, 237, 238 .
prefrontal development of brain,
162, 184, 189-90, 191, 215,
260
pregnancy, 59-65
drug use in, 60
fetal brain artificially stimulated
in, 64-65
fetal exposure to toxins in, 58,
59-61, 162, 163
nutrition in, 62, 63
stress in, 62, 238
teenage, 237
Premack, David, 107
premature infants, 238, 245-46
prenatal care and stimulation, 38
"Prenatal University, " 65
preschoolers, reading and, 222-
223
Presidential Fitness Test, 168 .
President's Council on Physical
Fitness and Sports, 169
primitive languages, 116-17, 119-
120
print, 87
problem-solving models, 248-51,
255-56
processing, sequential and parallel,
322-23
prompting and gesturing, 78
protein, 167, 239
proximal development, zone of
(ZPD), 186, 190, 191, 326-
327
psychology, GRE ~ring gains in,
20
PTA (Parent-Teacher Association),
164
P300 wave, 77
publishing industry, 24

questioning, 295-96

race, 243, 244-45, 263
radio, 233
RAND, 27
Rapin, Isabelle, 63
ratio of senses, 344
rats:
Diamond's studies of, 47-48,
70-72, 264-65
maternal improvement study of,
265
stress study of, 62
Ravitch, Diane, 344
Reading Rainbow, 221
Reading Research Quarterly, 198
reading skills, 20-37
active learning of, 297-300
alphabet recognition and, 223-
226
brain and, 211-12, 214, 215-16,
261
decline of, 20, 21-26, 188
dumbing-down tests for, 27-29
dyslexia and, 145-46, 303
faulty testing of, 26-29, 36
integrating other language skills
with, 297, 300-302
and internal sense of beat, 171-
172
left-hemisphere deficiency and,
127, 133, 210
metalinguistic awareness and,
226
preschoolers and, 222-23
Sesame Street and, 221, 222-34
television and, 198-99, 203,
208-9, 221, 222-34
test samples for, 30-35
textbooks and, 36-37, 116
reasoning, see thinking
receptive learning, 202
Reeves, Byron, 200
relational thinking, 124, 125, 133,
251, 257-59, ~, 305-6
remedial courses, 16, 86, 2137
Renner, Michael, 71
restricted codes, 116-19
retardation, mental, see mental
retardation
reward systems, 158-59
Rhine River, 61
rhymes, nursery, 93
right hemisphere of brain, 123-
134, 212, 316, 317
dyslexia and, 146-47
holistic thinking and, 124, 125,
133, 257-59, 340
left hemisphere interacting
with, 125, 126, 1213, 132-34,
159, 160, 174, 209, 213-14,
215, 216
musical appreciation and, 103,
125, 173
Native American languages and,
259-60
nonverbal learning disorders
and, 148-49
syntax and, 109, 124-25, 1213-
129
television and, 210-11, 215,
216
video games and, 125, 127
of wild children, 129-30'
Ritalin, 140-41, 155-57, 170, 179
Rivera, Lourdes, 235-37, 241
"Roadville, " 255-56
Romagnano, Lew, 331
Roseanne, 319
Rosenzweig, Mark, 70-71
Round the Circle: Key Experiences
in Movement (Weikart),
171
rule-governed behavior, 157-58

Salt Institute, 130, 191
SAT, see Scholastic Aptitude Test
Scandinavia, 224
Scarr, Sandra, 263-64, 265
Scheibel, Arnold, 74, 131
Schieffelin, Bambi, 90-91, 95-96
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT),
17-18, 39
bias criticisms of, 17
declining scores on, 17-18
improved minority scores on,
18
Scholnick, Ellin, 265
schools, 277-307
administrators of, 29
cultural responsibility of, 277-
278, 320
disadvantaged children in, 247-
257, 304-7
language in, 94-97
parents and, 284-86
schedule of, 282, 321
socioeconomics and, 268-72
structural changes suggested
for, 282, 321
see also teachers; teaching
Schorr, Lisbeth B., 247, 265
Schwartz, Judah, 324, 339
science, 96
declining skills in, 15, 16, 20,
188
grammatical problems and,
110
and rewriting curriculum, 312
visual imagery and, 232
secondary repertoires, 79
sedentary lifestyles, 138
Segalowitz, Sid, 215
senses, ratio of, 344
sensorimotor-perceptual skills,
170
Sensory Integration Therapy, 171
sensory skills, 76-78
sentence structure, 116-19
Sesame Street, 201, 202, 208, 217,
218-34, 288, 319
cultural messages of, 233
and declining reading and
learning skills, 221, 222-34
false message of, 220-21, 226
good television symbolized by,
219-20
incomprehensibility of, 230-31
lack of research on, 221-22,
234
as language model, 94, 114,
225-26
listening skills ignored by, 228-
229
manipulative format of, 200,
202, 218-19, 220, 225, 226,
228
number of viewers of, 221
passive learning and, 80, 230-
231
production cost of, 221
sensory overloading on, 229-
230
slapstick humor of, 233
socioeconomics and, 220, 225,
226
viewing habits institutionalized
by, 196, 220
see also television
Shakespeare, William, 340
Shanker, Albert, 20-21
Shedlin, Allan, 282
Shoemaker, Jack, 24
short-term auditory memory, 143
Siegel, Linda, 208
sign language, 88
Silas Marner (Eliot), 249
Simonds, Roderick, 131
Singer, Jerome, 198, 209, 230,
231
single parents, 284
Smart Kids with School Problems
(Vail), 102
Snow, Catherine, 91
socioeconomics:
academic achievement and,
235-37, 243-47, 257, 263-64,
268
differing values and, 244, 245
drug use and, 164
growing gulf in, 220, 226
IQ tests and, 50
language and, 119, 253-56
of learning disabilities, 139, 140
problems found at every level
of, 101, 179, 239, 240, 249,
252-53, 272
race vs., 244-45
school quality and, 268-72
status (SEC) and, 244, 245-46
teachers' understanding of, 244,
254, 305
of television viewing, 196, 238,
252, 321
sociology, GRE scores declining
in, 19
soft drinks, 166, 167, 168
solvents, 60
Soviet, Union, 170
"Space Invaders," 206
speech:
egocentric, 184
inner, 182-86, 190, 192, 314
spelling:
computer tutoring and, 326
hearing problems and, 77
left hemisphere and, 125, 146,
148, 210
listening skills and, 102
visualization and, 126-27
Spinelli, Nico, 77
spontaneous abortion, 59
Springer, Sally, 259
Stanford Achievement Test, 28
starches, 166
stimulation:
excessive, 175, 229-30
muscular, 78
prenatal, 64-65
screening of, 174
see also television
storytelling, 93, 104, 255, 256
stress, 62, 167, 174, 238
stroke victims, 53
sugar, 165, 166, 167, 266
superbabies, 242, 286
synapses, 51-52, 75, 76, 77, 86
brain power and, 52
definition of, 47
enriched conditions and, 71
"firming up" of, 53, 69, 74
increasing size of, 47
and internal competition in
brain, 79, 127
remodeling of, 242-43, 262-
265
syntax, 105-22
elaborated codes and, 117-19,
121, 133
function of, 88, 288
learning of, 107-9, 288-90
left and right hemisphere handling
of, 109, 110, 124-26,
128-34
mathematics and, 110, 112-14
restricted codes and, 116-19
simple, 117, 121
thinking and, 105-7, 110

tachistoscope, 258
taikyo, 265
"Talents Unlimited, " 307
teachers:
as language models, 95, 96-97,
132
mediated learning and, 315
qualities needed by, 283-84
remedial training needed by,
287
socioeconomic differences and,
244, 254, 305
subjects disliked by, 22
on worsening abilities, 14-15,
21-22, 40-43, 99-102, 111-
112, 137, 151, 227, 268-69,
316-17
see also education; schools
teaching:
as anachronism, 312
collaborative learning techniques
of, 283
computers and, 322, 324-29,
335-38
contextualized instruction and,
305, 312
group discussions and, 292
increased knowledge of, 16-17
to manipulate test scores, 29,
36, 268, 269-71, 273, 278
suggested changes in, 283-307
of thinking, 308-18
whole language movement and,
see whole language movement
see also education; learning;
schools; teachers
"Technology and the American
Transition," 337-38
teenagers:
code-switching by, 120-22
as mothers, 237
television, 42, 55, 73, 74, 90, 99,
127, 131, 195-217, 266, 319
attention spans and, 42, 153,
199, 215, 216, 228, 231
brain and, 199, 200-204, 208-
217
cognitive consequences of, 198-188
critical thinking and, 320
dysgraphia and, 223
foreign language experiment
with, 114
IQ tests and, 40
lack of research on, 195, 196-98
as language model, 88, 94, 114,
115, 210, 225-26
left hemisphere neglected by,
110, 127, 209, 210-11, 215,
216
listening skills and, 121, 144,
153, 228-29
manipulative techniques of,
199-201, 211
news presentation on, 23
passive learning and, 80, 187,
199, 201-3, 230-31
reading skills and, 198-99, 203,
208-9, 221, 222-34
right hemisphere stimulated by,
210-11, 215, 216
as scapegoat, 44, 87
simple syntax used on, 117, 121
socioeconomics of, 196, 238,
252, 321
viewing time of, 18, 23, 94,
169, 196, 216-17
visualization skills and, 232,
316, 342
writing skills and, 202
see also Sesame Street
Television and America's Children:
A Crisis of Neglect
(Palmer), 320
tense markers, 108
teratogens, 59
tests, 28d
California Achievement, 28
dumbing-down of, 27-29
faulty, 26-29, 36
Graduate Record Examinations,
see Graduate Record Examinations
IQ, see IQ tests and scores
manipulating scores of, 29. 36,
268, 269-71, 273, 278
Presidential Fitness, 168
of reading skills, 26-36
Scholastic Aptitude, see Scholastic
Aptitude Test
Stanford Achievement, 28
textbooks, 36-37, 116
thalidomide, 58
Tharp, Roland G., 305-6
therapy:
cognitive, 156
physical, 171
thinking:
connective, 312
critical, 124, 125, 133, 251,
257-59, 303-4, 305-6, 309,
317, 319-20
holistic, 124, 125, 133, 257-59,
340
language and, 97-99
metacognition and, 313-15
mindware and, 311
nonverbal, 107, 250, 341-42
relational, 124, 125, 133, 251,
257-59, 303-4, 305-6
syntax and, 105-7, 110
teaching of, 308-18
in writing, 110-12
Third World, 321
Thought and Language (Vygotsky),
183
time sequence, 108
toast, 167
Tom Sawyer (Twain), 116
toxic exposure, 58, 59-61, 62,
138, 162, 163, 164-65, 238
"Trackton, " 255
trade books, 298
transfer, 205-6, 208, 327
Twain, Mark, 121-22
Twice as Less (Orr), 113
twins, 50
two-tier society, 335

underclass, 244, 246, 335
United States:
educational philosophy of Japan
vs., 280-81
low performance levels in, 16, 39

"Vacuous Vision, The" (Emery
and Emery), 203
Vail, Priscilla, 102, 103-4, 109,
295, 338
Valenti, Jack, 36
Venezuela, 26'Z
verbal skills:
brain functions required for, 20,
40
decline of, 13-15, 21, 99-102
GRE scores declining in, 19
IQ test scores declining in, 37-
38
SAT scores declining in, 17-18
vertical feature detectors, 75
video games, 195-217
addictiveness of, 205
attention spans and, 154
emotional lures of, 207
limited educational potential of,
207-8
real-life situations substituted
by, 80-81, 87
right hemisphere and, 125, 127
transfer and, 205-6, 208
videos, music, 196, 340
visualization, 109, 232, 316, 342
visual literacy, 320, 321, 339-40
visual system of brain:
feature detectors of, 75, 76
hearing impairment and, 130
vitamin pills, 167
Vivaldi, Antonio, 174
Vygotsky, Lev, 183-84, 185, 186

Waber, Deborah, 258-59, 261
wait time, 293
Wall Street Journal, 16
Wang, Margaret C., 139
Washington Post, 25
Wechsler Scales, 38
Weikart, Phyllis, 171
Wells, Gordon, 90, 92, 96, 246
Welsh, Marilyn, 190
When Children Don't Learn
(McGuinness), 156
White, Burton, 285-86
White, Mary Alice, 338
whites, blacks adopted by, 263
whole language movement, 296-
304
active learning and, 297-300
integrating skills in, 297, 300-
302
misuses of, 303
source materials in, 297, 302
Wiggins, Grant, 311
wild children, 129-30
Wilson, Marilyn, 309
Winn, Marie, 196, 210
Witelson, Sandra, 133
Within Our Reach (Schorr), 247,
265
Woodward, Arthur, 36
wordcalling, 26
words:
closed class (function), 118-19,
126, 129, 132
open class (content), 115-19
separating pictures from, 91-92,
133, 144
Wordsworth, William, 85
working memory, 231
working mothers, 43, 94, 95, 240
writing:
brain and, 211-12, 214, 215-16,
261, 342-45
clear thinking in, 110-12
computers and, 325-26
declining skills in, 110-12
habits of, 68
integrating other language skills
with, 297, 300-302
as intellectual stimulation, 119,
290, 295
invention of, 87, 342
television and, 202
Writing to Learn Mathematics
(Countryman), 112
Wurtman, Judith, 166
Wurtman, Richard, 167-68

zero-based curriculum, 273
Zigler, Edward, 241, 273
zinc, 167
zone of proximal development
(ZPD), 186, 190, 191, 326-27
Zukav, Gary, 340-41

[admin]

Dr. Diamond continues. "Here's a summary of the data comparing brain size and weight of rats reared in the standard cages, those who lived in the 'impoverished' environments, and here" -- she pauses dramatically -- "are the results with the animals who lived in the enrichment cages. Notice how, with increasing amounts of environmental enrichment, we see brains that are larger and heavier, with increased dendritic branching. That means those nerve cells can communicate better with each other. With the enriched environments we also get more support cells because the nerve cells are getting bigger. Not only that, but the junction between the cells -- the synapse -- also increases its dimensions. These are highly significant effects of differential experience. It certainly shows how dynamic the nervous system is and how responsive it is to its internal and external surroundings."

[admin]

Another point: Has no one noticed that children are very culturally literate -- except that it's for a different culture? Just make up a list of any details from Roseanne, Family Ties, Sesame Street, etc. and most kids would come out looking as smart as they really are. The problem is that our children have exposed us to ourselves, and we don't like what we see. We have shown them what is really valued in our society, and those little cultural apprentices have happily soaked it up.

If we are serious about wanting them prepared by a knowledge base to gather the intellectual fruits of world cultures, the obvious expedient is to change the content of children's television programming and use other video as enrichment. In my opinion, this should be a major responsibility of both educational and commercial networks. Otherwise, we will soon be forced to revise university-level curricula to include in-depth studies of talking animals and human buffoons.

Schools cannot plaster children with a paste of "cultural literacy" that the culture itself repudiates. Nor can schools completely counteract the powerful effects of television programming that works at direct cross-purposes with our efforts to teach children to think.

[admin]

While dining not long ago with a scientist who probes the workings of the brain, I enjoyed hearing about the intellectual exploits of his three-year-old daughter, clearly the apple of her Daddy's eye. I enjoyed his stories, that is, until we got to dinosaurs.

"She can recognize all the names when she sees them on the computer screen: Tyrannosaurus Rex, Brontosaurus, whatever -- and she matches them right up to the pictures'" he said happily. "The program we got her even teaches about what each one ate, and whether they could fly, and all kinds of stuff. It's amazing!"

I didn't say what was really on my mind at that point . . . something like, "I'm sure that will be really useful for her when she takes her first course in paleontology." Being something of a wimp in the presence of those who spend their days rooting around in other people's brains, I only said,

"And how long did it take her to learn all this?"

"Oh, she loves her computer. She spends a lot of time at it. When my wife and I are busy we would much rather see her there than watching TV. At least we know she's doing something educational."

"Does your little girl ever just play -- by herself, or with other little kids?"

"Oh, sure." He thought for a moment. "But she really loves that computer! Isn't it wonderful how much they can learn at this age?"

"What do you think that computer is doing to her brain?" I asked.

He paused. "You know," he said slowly, "I never thought about it. I really haven't a clue."