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Creativity

Bergson considers the appearance of novelty as a result of pure undetermined creation, instead of as the predetermined result of mechanistic forces. His philosophy emphasises pure mobility, unforeseeable novelty, creativity and freedom; thus one can characterize his system as a process philosophy. It touches upon such topics as time and identity, free will, perception, change, memory, consciousness, language, the foundation of mathematics and the limits of reason.[36]

Criticizing Kant's theory of knowledge exposed in the Critique of Pure Reason and his conception of truth – which he compares to Plato's conception of truth as its symmetrical inversion (order of nature/order of thought) – Bergson attempted to redefine the relations between science and metaphysics, intelligence and intuition, and insisted on the necessity of increasing thought's possibility through the use of intuition, which, according to him, alone approached a knowledge of the absolute and of real life, understood as pure duration. Because of his (relative) criticism of intelligence, he makes a frequent use of images and metaphors in his writings in order to avoid the use of concepts, which (he considers) fail to touch the whole of reality, being only a sort of abstract net thrown on things. For instance, he says in The Creative Evolution (chap. III) that thought in itself would never have thought it possible for the human being to swim, as it cannot deduce swimming from walking. For swimming to be possible, man must throw itself in water, and only then can thought consider swimming as possible. Intelligence, for Bergson, is a practical faculty rather than a pure speculative faculty, a product of evolution used by man to survive. If metaphysics is to avoid "false problems", it should not extend the abstract concepts of intelligence to pure speculation, but rather use intuition.[37]

The Creative Evolution in particular attempted to think through the continuous creation of life, and explicitly pitted itself against Herbert Spencer's evolutionary philosophy. Spencer had attempted to transpose Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in philosophy and to construct a cosmology based on this theory (Spencer also coined the expression "survival of the fittest"). Bergson disputed what he saw as Spencer's mechanistic philosophy.[38]

Bergson's Lebensphilosophie (philosophy of life) can be seen as a response to the mechanistic philosophies of his time,[39] but also to the failure of finalism.[18] Indeed, he considers that finalism is unable to explain "duration" and the "continuous creation of life", as it only explains life as the progressive development of an initially determined program – a notion which remains, for example, in the expression of a "genetic program";[18] such a description of finalism was adopted, for instance, by Leibniz.[18] It clearly announces Alfred North Whitehead's.

Bergson regarded planning beforehand for the future as impossible, since time itself unravels unforeseen possibilities. Indeed, one could always explain a historical event retrospectively by its conditions of possibility. But, in the introduction to the Pensée et le mouvant, he explains that such an event created retrospectively its causes, taking the example of the creation of a work of art, for example a symphony: it was impossible to predict what would be the symphony of the future, as if the musician knew what symphony would be the best for his time, he would realize it. In his words, the effect created its cause. Henceforth, he attempted to find a third way between mechanism and finalism, through the notion of an original impulse, the élan vital, in life, which dispersed itself through evolution into contradictory tendencies (he substituted to the finalist notion of a teleological aim a notion of an original impulse).

Duration

See also: Duration (philosophy)

The foundation of Henri Bergson's philosophy, his theory of Duration, he discovered when trying to improve the inadequacies of Herbert Spencer's philosophy.[39] Bergson introduced Duration as a theory of time and consciousness in his doctoral thesis Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness as a response to another of his influences: Immanuel Kant.[40]

Kant believed that free will (better perceived as The Will) could only exist outside of time and space, indeed the only non-determined aspect of our private existence in the universe, separate to water cycles, mathematics and mortality. However, we could therefore not know whether or not it exists, and that it is nothing but a pragmatic faith.[40] Bergson responded that Kant, along with many other philosophers, had confused time with its spatial representation.[41] In reality, Bergson argued, Duration is unextended yet heterogeneous, and so its parts cannot be juxtaposed as a succession of distinct parts, with one causing the other. Based on this he concluded that determinism is an impossibility and free will pure mobility, which is what Bergson identified as being the Duration.[42]

Intuitionism

See also: Intuition (Bergson)

Duration, as defined by Bergson, then is a unity and a multiplicity, but, being mobile, it cannot be grasped through immobile concepts. Bergson hence argues that one can grasp it only through his method of intuition. Two images from Henri Bergson's An Introduction to Metaphysics may help one to grasp Bergson's term intuition, the limits of concepts, and the ability of intuition to grasp the absolute. The first image is that of a city. Analysis, or the creation of concepts through the divisions of points of view, can only ever give us a model of the city through a construction of photographs taken from every possible point of view, yet it can never give us the dimensional value of walking in the city itself. One can only grasp this through intuition; likewise the experience of reading a line of Homer. One may translate the line and pile commentary upon commentary, but this commentary too shall never grasp the simple dimensional value of experiencing the poem in its originality itself. The method of intuition, then, is that of getting back to the things themselves.[43]

Élan vital

See also: Élan vital

Élan vital ranks as Bergson's third essential concept, after Duration and intuition. An idea with the goal of explaining evolution, the élan vital first appeared in 1907's Creative Evolution. Bergson portrays élan vital as a kind of vital impetus which explains evolution in a less mechanical and more lively manner, as well as accounting for the creative impulse of mankind. This concept led several authors to characterize Bergson as a supporter of vitalism—although he criticized it explicitly in The Creative Evolution, as he thought, against Driesch and Johannes Reinke (whom he cited) that there is neither "purely internal finality nor clearly cut individuality in nature":[44]

Hereby lies the stumbling block of vitalist theories ... It is thus in vain that one pretends to reduce finality to the individuality of the living being. If there is finality in the world of life, it encompasses the whole of life in one indivisible embrace.[45]


Laughter

In Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic, Bergson develops a theory not of laughter itself but of how laughter can be provoked (see his objection to Delage, published in the 23rd edition of the essay).[18] He describes the process of laughter (refusing to give a conceptual definition which would not approach its reality[18]), used in particular by comics and clowns, as caricature of the mechanistic nature of humans (habits, automatic acts, etc.), one of the two tendencies of life (degradation towards inert matter and mechanism, and continual creation of new forms).[18] However, Bergson warns us that laughter's criterion of what should be laughed at is not a moral criterion and that it can in fact cause serious damage to a person's self-esteem.[46] This essay made his opposition to the Cartesian theory of the animal-machine obvious.[18]

Reception

From his first publications, Bergson's philosophy attracted strong criticism from different quarters, although he also became very popular and durably influenced French philosophy. The mathematician Édouard Le Roy became Bergson's main disciple. Nonetheless, Suzanne Guerlac has argued that his institutional position at the Collège de France, delivering lectures to a general audience, may have retarded the systematic reception of his thought: "Bergson achieved enormous popular success in this context, often due to the emotional appeal of his ideas. But he did not have the equivalent of graduate students who might have become rigorous interpreters of his thought. Thus Bergson's philosophy—in principle open and nonsystematic—was easily borrowed piecemeal and altered by enthusiastic admirers".[47]

Alfred North Whitehead acknowledged Bergson's influence on his process philosophy in his 1929 Process and Reality.[48] However, Bertrand Russell, Whitehead's collaborator on Principia Mathematica, was not so entranced by Bergson's philosophy. Although acknowledging Bergson's literary skills, Russell saw Bergson's arguments at best as persuasive or emotive speculation but not at all as any worthwhile example of sound reasoning or philosophical insight.[49] The epistemologist Gaston Bachelard explicitly alluded to him in the last pages of his 1938 book The Formation of the Scientific Mind. Others influenced by Bergson include Vladimir Jankélévitch, who wrote a book on him in 1931,[50] Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and Gilles Deleuze who wrote Le bergsonisme in 1966.[51] Bergson also influenced the phenomenology of Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Emmanuel Levinas,[52] although Merleau-Ponty had reservations about Bergson's philosophy.[53] The Greek author Nikos Kazantzakis studied under Bergson in Paris and his writing and philosophy were profoundly influenced as a result.[54]

Many writers of the early 20th century criticized Bergson's intuitionism, indeterminism, psychologism and interpretation of the scientific impulse. Those who explicitly criticized Bergson, either in published articles or in letters, included Bertrand Russell[55] George Santayana,[56] G. E. Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger,[57] Julien Benda,[58] T. S. Eliot, Wyndham Lewis,[59] Wallace Stevens,[60] Paul Valéry, André Gide, Jean Piaget,[61] Marxist philosophers Theodor W. Adorno,[62] Lucio Colletti,[63] Jean-Paul Sartre,[64] and Georges Politzer,[65] as well as Maurice Blanchot,[66] American philosophers such as Irving Babbitt, Arthur Lovejoy, Josiah Royce, The New Realists (Ralph B. Perry, E. B. Holt, and William Pepperell Montague), The Critical Realists (Durant Drake, Roy W. Sellars, C. A. Strong, and A. K. Rogers), Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, Roger Fry (see his letters), Julian Huxley (in Evolution: The Modern Synthesis) and Virginia Woolf (for the latter, see Ann Banfield, The Phantom Table).[citation needed]

The Vatican accused Bergson of pantheism, while free-thinkers[who?] (who formed a large part of the teachers and professors of the French Third Republic) accused him of spiritualism. Still others have characterized his philosophy as a materialist emergentism – Samuel Alexander and C. Lloyd Morgan explicitly claimed Bergson as their forebear.[18] According to Henri Hude (1990, II, p. 142), who supports himself on the whole of Bergson's works as well as his now published courses, accusing him of pantheism is a "counter-sense". Hude alleges that a mystical experience, roughly outlined at the end of Les Deux sources de la morale et de la religion, is the inner principle of his whole philosophy, although this has been contested by other commentators.

Charles Sanders Peirce took strong exception to those who associated him with Bergson. In response to a letter comparing his work with that of Bergson he wrote, "a man who seeks to further science can hardly commit a greater sin than to use the terms of his science without anxious care to use them with strict accuracy; it is not very gratifying to my feelings to be classed along with a Bergson who seems to be doing his utmost to muddle all distinctions." William James's students resisted the assimilation of his work to that of Bergson. See, for example, Horace Kallen's book on the subject James and Bergson. As Jean Wahl described the "ultimate disagreement" between James and Bergson in his System of Metaphysics: "for James, the consideration of action is necessary for the definition of truth, according to Bergson, action ... must be kept from our mind if we want to see the truth"[page needed]. Gide even went so far as to say that future historians will overestimate Bergson's influence on art and philosophy just because he was the self-appointed spokesman for "the spirit of the age".

As early as the 1890s, Santayana attacked certain key concepts in Bergson's philosophy, above all his view of the New and the indeterminate:

the possibility of a new and unaccountable fact appearing at any time," he writes in his book on Hermann Lotze, "does not practically affect the method of investigation; ... the only thing given up is the hope that these hypotheses may ever be adequate to the reality and cover the process of nature without leaving a remainder. This is no great renunciation; for that consummation of science ... is by no one really expected.


According to Santayana and Russell, Bergson projected false claims onto the aspirations of scientific method, claims which Bergson needed to make in order to justify his prior moral commitment to freedom. Russell takes particular exception to Bergson's understanding of number in chapter two of Time and Free-will. According to Russell, Bergson uses an outmoded spatial metaphor ("extended images") to describe the nature of mathematics as well as logic in general. "Bergson only succeeds in making his theory of number possible by confusing a particular collection with the number of its terms, and this again with number in general", writes Russell (see The Philosophy of Bergson[page needed] and A History of Western Philosophy[page needed]).

Furthermore, writers such as Russell, Wittgenstein, and James saw élan vital as a projection of subjectivity onto the world. The external world, according to certain[which?] theories of probability, provides less and less indeterminism with further refinement of scientific method. In brief, one should not confuse the moral, psychological, subjective demand for the new, the underivable and the unexplained with the universe.[citation needed] One's subjective sense of duration differs the (non-human) world, a difference which, according to the ancient materialist Lucretius should not be characterized as either one of becoming or being, creation or destruction (De Rerum Natura).

Suzanne Guerlac has argued that the more recent resurgence of scholarly interest in Bergson is related to the growing influence of his follower Deleuze within continental philosophy: "If there is a return to Bergson today, then, it is largely due to Gilles Deleuze whose own work has etched the contours of the New Bergson. This is not only because Deleuze wrote about Bergson; it is also because Deleuze's own thought is deeply engaged with that of his predecessor, even when Bergson is not explicitly mentioned."[67] Leonard Lawlor and Valentine Moulard agree with Guerlac that "the recent revitalization of Bergsonism ... is almost entirely due to Deleuze." They explain that Bergson's concept of multiplicity "is at the very heart of Deleuze's thought, and duration is the model for all of Deleuze's 'becomings.' The other aspect that attracted Deleuze, which is indeed connected to the first, is Bergson's criticism of the concept of negation in Creative Evolution. ... Thus Bergson became a resource in the criticism of the Hegelian dialectic, the negative."[68]

Ilya Prigogine acknowledged Bergson's influence at his Nobel Prize reception lecture: "Since my adolescence, I have read many philosophical texts, and I still remember the spell L’évolution créatrice cast on me. More specifically, I felt that some essential message was embedded, still to be made explicit, in Bergson‘s remark: 'The more deeply we study the nature of time, the better we understand that duration means invention, creation of forms, continuous elaboration of the absolutely new.'"[69]

Comparison to Indian philosophies

Several Hindu authors have found parallels to Hindu philosophy in Bergson's thought. The integrative evolutionism of Sri Aurobindo, an Indian philosopher from the early 20th century, has many similarities to Bergson's philosophy. Whether this represents a direct influence of Bergson is disputed, although Aurobindo was familiar with many Western philosophers.[70] K Narayanaswami Aiyer, a member of the Theosophical Society, published a pamphlet titled "Professor Bergson and the Hindu Vedanta", where he argued that Bergson's ideas on matter, consciousness, and evolution were in agreement with Vedantic and Puranic explanations.[71] Nalini Kanta Brahma, Marie Tudor Garland and Hope Fitz are other authors who have comparatively evaluated Hindu and Bergsonian philosophies, especially in relation to intuition, consciousness and evolution.[72][73][74]

Bibliography

• Bergson, H.; The Philosophy of Poetry: The Genius of Lucretius (La Philosophie de la Poesie: le Génie de Lucrèce, 1884), Philosophical Library 1959: ISBN 978-1-4976-7566-7
• Bergson, H.; Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience, 1889). Allen & Unwin 1910, Dover Publications 2001: ISBN 0-486-41767-0 – Bergson's doctoral dissertation.
• Bergson, H.; Matter and Memory (Matière et mémoire, 1896). Swan Sonnenschein 1911, Zone Books 1990: ISBN 0-942299-05-1, Dover Publications 2004: ISBN 0-486-43415-X.
• Bergson, H.; Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic (Le rire, 1900). Green Integer 1998: ISBN 1-892295-02-4, Dover Publications 2005: ISBN 0-486-44380-9.
• Bergson, H.; Creative Evolution (L'Évolution créatrice, 1907). Henry Holt and Company 1911, University Press of America 1983: ISBN 0-8191-3553-4, Dover Publications 1998: ISBN 0-486-40036-0, Kessinger Publishing 2003: ISBN 0-7661-4732-0, Cosimo 2005: ISBN 1-59605-309-7.
• Bergson, H.; Mind-energy (L'Énergie spirituelle, 1919). McMillan 1920. – a collection of essays and lectures. On Archive.org.
• Bergson, H.; Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe (Durée et simultanéité, 1922). Clinamen Press Ltd 1999. ISBN 1-903083-01-X.
• Bergson, H.; The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (Les Deux Sources de la Morale et de la Religion, 1932). University of Notre Dame Press 1977. ISBN 0-268-01835-9. On Archive.org.
• Bergson, H.; The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics (La Pensée et le mouvant, 1934). Citadel Press 1946: ISBN 0-8065-2326-3 – essay collection, sequel to Mind-Energy, including 1903's "An Introduction to Metaphysics."

See also

• Philosophy of biology
• Psychosophy
• Intuition (Bergson)
• Duration (philosophy)
• List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

1. John Ó Maoilearca, Beth Lord (eds.), The Continuum Companion to Continental Philosophy, Bloomsbury Academic, 2009, p. 204.
2. Ford, Russell (2004), 'Immanence and Method: Bergson's Early Reading of Spinoza,'. The Southern Journal of Philosophy 42(2): 171–92. doi:10.1111/j.2041-6962.2004.tb00995.x
3. Astesiano, Lionel: Joie et liberté chez Bergson et Spinoza. (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2016)
4. Hancock, Curtis L. (May 1995). "The Influence of Plotinus on Berson's Critique of Empirical Science". In R. Baine Harris (ed.). Neoplatonism and Contemporary Thought. Congress of the International Society for Neoplatonic Studies held in May 1995 at Vanderbilt University. 10. International Society for Neoplatonic Studies. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 139ff. ISBN 978-0-7914-5275-2. Retrieved 10 May 2010. That the philosophy of Henri Bergson is significantly influenced by the doctrines of Plotinus is indicated by the many years Bergson devoted to teaching Plotinus and the many parallels in their respective philosophies. This influence has been discussed at some length by Bergson's contemporaries, such as Emile Bréhier and Rose-Marie Rossé-Bastide. ...
5. R. William Rauch, Politics and Belief in Contemporary France: Emmanuel Mounier and Christian Democracy, 1932–1950, Springer, 2012, p. 67.
6. Merquior, J. G. (1987). Foucault (Fontana Modern Masters series), University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-06062-8.
7. "The Nobel prize in Literature". Retrieved 15 November 2010.
8. Robert C. Grogin, The Bergsonian Controversy in France, 1900–1914, Univ of Calgary Press (May 1988), ISBN 0919813305
9. Gelber, Nathan Michael (1 January 2007). "Bergson". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
10. Dynner, Glenn (2008). Men of Silk: The Hasidic Conquest of Polish Jewish Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 104–105. ISBN 019538265X.
11. Henri Bergson. 2014. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 13 August 2014, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/top ... ri-Bergson
12. "Z ziemi polskiej do Nobla" [From the Polish lands to the Nobel Prize]. Wprost(in Polish). Warsaw: Agencja Wydawniczo-Reklamowa Wprost. 4 January 2008. Retrieved 10 May 2010. Polskie korzenie ma Henri Bergson, jeden z najwybitniejszych pisarzy, fizyk i filozof francuski żydowskiego pochodzenia. Jego ojcem był Michał Bergson z Warszawy, prawnuk Szmula Jakubowicza Sonnenberga, zwanego Zbytkowerem (1756–1801), żydowskiego kupca i bankiera. [Translation: Henri Bergson, one of the greatest French writers, physicists and philosophers of Jewish ancestry, had Polish roots. His father was Michael Bergson from Warsaw, the great-grandson of Szmul Jakubowicz Sonnenberg – known as Zbytkower – (1756–1801), a Jewish merchant and banker.]
13. Testament starozakonnego Berka Szmula Sonnenberga z 1818 roku Archived28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
14. Suzanne Guerlac, Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2007, p. 9.
15. Lawlor, Leonard and Moulard Leonard, Valentine, "Henri Bergson", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/bergson/>
16. Henri Hude, Bergson, Paris, Editions Universitaires, 1990, 2 volumes, quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeau in her 21 December 2006 course at the College of France
17. "Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques". 2 (17). Paris. 1878: 268. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
18. Anne Fagot-Largeau, 21 December 2006 course Archived 6 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine at the College of France (audio file of the course)
19. Henri Bergson: Key Writings, ed. Keith Ansell Pearson and John Mullarkey. London: Continuum, 2002, p. ix.
20. p. 39
21. Seth Benedict Graham A CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RUSSO-SOVIET ANEKDOT, 2003, p. 2
22. "Florence Meyer Blumenthal". Jewish Women's Archive, Michele Siegel.
23. Bergson and his philosophy Chapter 1: Life of Bergson
24. Bergson, Henri (1911). La perception du changement; conférences faites à l'Université d'Oxford les 26 et 27 mai 1911 [The perception of change: lectures delivered at the University of Oxford on 26 and 27 May 1911] (in French). Oxford: Clarendon. p. 37.
25. Reberioux, M. (January – March 1964). "La gauche socialiste française: La Guerre Sociale et Le Mouvement Socialiste face au problème colonial" [French right-wing socialism: La Guerre Sociale and Le Mouvement Socialiste in the face of the colonial problem]. Le Mouvement social (in French). Editions l'Atelier/Association Le Mouvement Social (46): 91–103. JSTOR 3777267. ... deux organes, d'ailleurs si dissembables, ou s'exprime l'extrême-gauche du courant socialiste français: le Mouvement socialiste d'Hubert Lagardelle et la Guerre sociale de Gustave Hervé. Jeune publications – le Mouvement socialiste est fondé en janvier 1899, la Guerre sociale en décembre 1906 –, dirigées par de jeunes équipes qui faisaient profession de rejeter le chauvinisme, d'être attentives au nouveau et de ne pas reculer devant les prises de position les plus véhémentes, ...
26. King Albert's book: a tribute to the Belgian king and people from representative men and women throughout the world. London: The Daily Telegraph. 1914. p. 187.
27. See Chapter III of The Creative Evolution
28. Canales J., The Physicist and the Philosopher: Einstein, Bergson and the Debate That Changed Our Understanding of Time, Princeton, Princeton Press, 2015.
29. Minutes of the meeting:Séance du 6 Avril 1922
30. Signs, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, trans. Richard C. McCleary, Northwestern Univ. Press, 1964.
31. On the relation between Einstein and Bergson in this Committee, see Einstein, Bergson and the Experiment that Failed: Intellectual Cooperation at the League of Nations. On the involvement of Bergson (and Einstein) in the Committee in general, see Grandjean, Martin (2018). Les réseaux de la coopération intellectuelle. La Société des Nations comme actrice des échanges scientifiques et culturels dans l'entre-deux-guerres [The Networks of Intellectual Cooperation. The League of Nations as an Actor of the Scientific and Cultural Exchanges in the Inter-War Period] (in French). Lausanne: Université de Lausanne..
32. "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 16 June 2011.
33. Quoted in: Zolli, Eugenio (2008) [1954]. Before the Dawn. Ignatius Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-58617-287-9.
34. Gilbert, Martin. The Second World War: A Complete History (p. 129). Rosetta Books. Kindle Edition.
35. "Henri Bergson – Philosopher – Biography". http://www.egs.edu. 3 January 1941. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
36. Bergson explores these topics in Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness, in Matter and Memory, in Creative Evolution, and in The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics.
37. Elie During, « Fantômes de problèmes », published by the Centre International d'Etudes de la Philosophie Française Contemporaine (short version first published in Le magazine littéraire, n°386, April 2000 (issue dedicated to Bergson)
38. The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics, pages 11 to 14
39. Henri Bergson, The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics, pages 11 to 13.
40. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Henri Bergson": "'Time and Free Will' has to be seen as an attack on Kant, for whom freedom belongs to a realm outside of space and time."
41. Henri Bergson, Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness, Author's Preface.
42. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Henri Bergson": "For Bergson – and perhaps this is his greatest insight – freedom is mobility."
43. Henri Bergson, The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics, pages 160 to 161. For a Whiteheadian use of Bergsonian intuition, see Michel Weber's Whitehead’s Pancreativism. The Basics. Foreword by Nicholas Rescher, Frankfurt / Paris, Ontos Verlag, 2006.
44. L'Évolution créatrice, pp. 42–44; pp. 226–227
45. L'Évolution créatrice, pp. 42–43
46. Henri Bergson's theory of laughter. A brief summary.
47. Suzanne Guerlac, Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006, p. 10
48. Cf. Ronny Desmet and Michel Weber (edited by), Whitehead. The Algebra of Metaphysics. Applied Process Metaphysics Summer Institute Memorandum, Louvain-la-Neuve, Éditions Chromatika, 2010 & Michel Weber, Whitehead’s Pancreativism. The Basics. Foreword by Nicholas Rescher, Frankfurt / Paris, ontos verlag, 2006.
49. Russell, B.; "The Philosophy of Bergson," The Monist 1912 vol. 22 pp. 321–347
50. entitled Henri Bergson.
51. transl. 1988.
52. Dermot Moran, Introduction to Phenomenology, 2000, pp. 322 and 393.
53. Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (2001). Bjelland, Andrew G.; Burke, Patrick (eds.). The incarnate subject : Malebranche, Biran, and Bergson on the union of body and soul. preface by Jacques Taminiaux ; translation by Paul B. Milan. Amherst, N.Y.: Humanity Books. p. 152. ISBN 1-57392-915-8.
54. Peter Bien, Three Generations of Greek Writers, Published by Efstathiadis Group, Athens, 1983
55. see his short book Russell, Bertrand (1977). The philosophy of Bergson. Folcroft, Pa.: Folcroft Library Editions. p. 36. ISBN 0-8414-7371-4.on the subject).
56. see his study on the author in "Winds of Doctrine"
57. see Being and Time, esp. sections 5, 10, and 82.
58. see his two books on the subject
59. Wyndham Lewis, Time and Western Man (1927), ed. Paul Edwards, Santa Rosa, CA: Black Sparrow, 1993.
60. "The Irrational Element in Poetry." 1936. Opus Posthumous. 1957. Ed. Milton J. Bates. New York: Random House, 1990.
61. see his book Insights and Illusions of Philosophy 1972
62. see "Against Epistemology"
63. see "Hegel and Marxism"
64. see his early book Imagination – although Sartre also appropriated himself Bergsonian thesis on novelty as pure creation – see Situations I Gallimard 1947, p. 314
65. see the latter's two books on the subject: Le Bergsonisme, une Mystification Philosophique and La fin d'une parade philosophique: le Bergsonisme both of which had a tremendous effect on French existential phenomenology
66. see Bergson and Symbolism
67. Suzanne Guerlac, Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006, p. 175.
68. Leonard Lawlor and Valentine Moulard (12 July 2011) [18 May 2004], "The revitalization of Bergsonism", Henri Bergson, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 20 August 2012
69. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemi ... graphical/
70. K Mackenzie Brown. "Hindu perspectives on evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design". Routledge, Jan 2012. Page 164-166
71. KN Aiyer. "Professor Bergson and the Hindu Vedanta". Vasanta Press. 1910. Pages 36 – 37.
72. Marie Tudor Garland. "Hindu Mind Training". Longmans, Green and Company, 1917. Page 20.
73. Nalini Kanta Brahma. "Philosophy of Hindu Sadhana". PHI Learning Private Ltd 2008.
74. Hope K Fitz. "Intuition: Its nature and uses in human experience." Motilal Banarsidass publishers 2000. Pages 22–30.

Further reading

• Ansell-Pearson, Keith. Philosophy and the Adventure of the Virtual: Bergson and the Time of Life. London: Routledge, 2002.
• Bachelard, Gaston. The Dialectic of Duration. Trans. Mary Mcallester Jones. Manchester: Clinamen Press, 2000.
• Bianco, Giuseppe. Après Bergson. Portrait de groupe avec philosophe. Paris, PUF, 2015.
• Canales, Jimena. The Physicist and the Philosopher: Einstein, Bergson and the Debate That Changed Our Understanding of Time. Princeton, Princeton Press, 2015.
• Deleuze, Gilles. Bergsonism. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. New York: Zone Books, 1988.
• Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: The Movement-Image. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.
• Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 2: The Time-Image. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989.
• Fradet, Pierre-Alexandre, Derrida-Bergson. Sur l'immédiateté, Hermann, Paris, coll. "Hermann Philosophie", 2014. ISBN 978-2-7056-8831-8
• Grosz, Elizabeth. The Nick of Time: Politics, Evolution, and the Untimely. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
• Guerlac, Suzanne. Thinking in Time: An Introduction to Henri Bergson. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.
• Horkheimer, Max. "On Bergson's Metaphysics of Time." Trans. Peter Thomas, revised by Stewart Martin. Radical Philosophy 131 (2005) 9–19.
• James, William. "Bergson and his Critique of Intellectualism." In A Pluralistic Universe. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996. 223–74.
• Lawlor, Leonard. The Challenge of Bergsonism: Phenomenology, Ontology, Ethics. London: Continuum Press, 2003.
• Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. "Bergson." In In Praise of Philosophy and Other Essays. Trans. John O'Neill. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1963. 9–32.
• Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. "Bergson in the Making." In Signs. Trans. Richard McCleary. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964. 182–91.
• Mullarkey, John. "Bergson and Philosophy." Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
• Mullarkey, John, ed. The New Bergson. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1999.
• Russell, Bertrand "The Philosophy of Bergson". The Monist 22 (1912): 321–47.

External links

Henri Bergsonat Wikipedia's sister projects

• Definitions from Wiktionary
• Media from Wikimedia Commons
• News from Wikinews
• Quotations from Wikiquote
• Texts from Wikisource
• Textbooks from Wikibooks
• Resources from Wikiversity
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
• Henri Bergson's theory of laughter. A brief summary.
• « 'A History of Problems' : Bergson and the French Epistemological Tradition », by Elie During
• Gontarski, Stanley E.: Bergson, Henri, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
• M. C. Sanchez Rey « The Bergsonian Philosophy of the Intelligence » translation
• Newspaper clippings about Henri Bergson in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
• Henri Bergson, Nobel Luminaries - Jewish Nobel Prize Winners, on the Beit Hatfutsot-The Museum of the Jewish People Website.

Works online

• Works by Henri Bergson at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Henri Bergson at Internet Archive
• Works by Henri Bergson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Works by Henri Bergson at Open Library
• Works by Henri Bergson in French at "La Philosophie"
• Complete works in French on the "Classiques des sciences sociales" website
• L'Évolution créatrice (in the original French, 1907)
o 1911 English translation at the Wayback Machine (archived 23 April 2006) of Creative Evolution (html)
o multiple formats at Internet Archive
• 1910 English translation of Time and Free Will at the Wayback Machine (archived 24 April 2006) (HTML)
o multiple formats at Internet Archive
• 1911 English translation of Matter and Memory at the Wayback Machine (archived 24 April 2006) (HTML)
o multiple formats at Internet Archive
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sun Aug 18, 2019 12:35 am

Elisabeth Rotten
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/17/19

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Elisabeth Friederike Rotten (15 February 1882, Berlin - 2 May 1964) was a Quaker peace activist and educational progressive.

Life

As daughter to the Swiss couple Moritz and Luise Rotten, she attended the "höhere Mädchenschule Luisenschule" during 1888-1898, later studying at the Victorialyzeum Berlin from 1904. In September 1906 she took the Reifeprüfung at the Kaiserin Augusta-Gymnasium Charlottenburg. She graduated in her studies in philosophy and German language and literature in Heidelberg, Berlin, Marburg and Montpellier. In Marburg she met with Hermann Lietz and Gustav Wyneken, which was vital to the future development of her thinking. In 1913 she published her PhD thesis under the title "Goethes Urphänomen und die platonische Idee" (Goethe's "Urphänomen" and the Platonic ideal) in Marburg.

In 1913 she began lecturing at the University of Cambridge on German literature. In 1914 she returned to Berlin and worked in the "Auskunfts- und Hilfsstelle für Deutsche im Ausland und Ausländer in Deutschland" with professor Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze. In the same year she co-founded the "Bund Neues Vaterland", later the "German League for Human Rights". In 1915 she travelled as a representative to the 1st International Women's Congress in The Hague and worked for the foundation of the "Internationalen Frauenliga für Frieden und Freiheit" (International Women's League for Peace and Freedom").

In 1922, together with Beatrice Ensor and Adolphe Ferrière she founded the New Education Fellowship becoming its vice-chair for German-speaking countries and editor, of its German language journal which eventually came to be called Das Werdende Zeitalter.[1] From 1922 she was associated with the school farm, Schulfarm Insel Scharfenberg, begun by Wilhelm Blume in Berlin and was a frequent visitor to the Odenwaldschule founded in 1910 by the educational reformer Paul Geheeb.

In 1925, Rotten and Adolphe Ferrière became the first Deputy Directors of the International Bureau of Education (IBE), where they provided support to Director Pierre Bovet.[2]

She was also a friend of the anarchist, Gustav Landauer, who was Minister of Culture in the short-lived Munich Soviet (or “Council Republic”) of 1919 before being murdered after it was violently suppressed. From 1926 until 1932, Rotten shared the editorship of the journal Das Werdende Zeitalter with Karl Wilker, an exponent of social pedagogy who transformed the Lindenhof in Berlin. The title of this journal was inspired by that given to a collection of essays by Landauer, which his friend, the philosopher Martin Buber, published in 1921.

The most moving anecdote about Buber was that which his educator friend Elisabeth Rotten related in the introduction to her selection from the revelations of Sister Mechtild von Magdeburg. Speaking directly to Buber, she reminded him of how, six years before, a small circle of his close friends were gathered at his house in lively conversation around his table and how this conversation elicited from Buber a statement that she often found illuminating her way in the years since. "'One must also love the evil,' you said to us, 'yes -- but in the way that the evil wants to be loved.' Your glance said to us still more than your words alone could have said. We had been speaking of the Quakers' belief in the good in all men and of our strong attraction to it but also of the danger of losing sight of the reality of evil.... Your simple words, your embracing glance solved this dark and tormenting riddle of life that had oppressed us."

A significant counterpart to Buber's statement on evil narrated by Elisabeth Rotten is found in his comment on Max Brod's contribution to the special Buber issue of Der Jude. Speaking to Brod of three of his novels, Buber protested: "One may not voluntarily accept evil into one's life. Evil enters our lives entirely willy nilly. To defend ourselves against it, we should always will only to penetrate the impure with the pure. The result will probably be an interpenetration of both elements; still one ought not anticipate that result by saying 'Yes' to the evil in advance." Hermann Hesse testified to the enormous impact on his life of Buber's Hasidic tales; the Christian theologian Friedrich Thieberger wrote of the new biblical belief that he and Buber shared, and many prominent Zionists, such as Leo Hermann, Adolf Bohm, Markus Reiner, Robert Weltsch, Ernst Simon, Viktor Kellner, Felix Weltsch, and Siegfried Lehmann, founder of the Jewish National Home, wrote of Buber's contributions to Zionism and Judaism. Hugo Bergmann contributed a philosophical study of "Concept and Reality" in the thought of Buber and the German Idealist philosopher J.G. Fichte. Several letters from the early correspondence between Buber and Chaim Weizmann were also published in this issue. One contributor even told of how Buber at fifty outran his companions when they left his house for a spontaneous run in the night! "The life of people in this age sucks dry with mighty drafts, strikes out with mighty thrusts," reflected the distinguished writer Arnold Zweig. "But it would have no depth were there not here and there on the earth persons who sit like this man Buber in Heppenheim and give it that tiy injection of iodine without which its fire, spirit, and central creativity would be a mere mechanical process."

-- Martin Buber's Life and Work, by Maurice Friedman


In 1930, Rotten co-founded a school at Hellerau just outside Dresden, where a garden city was established shortly after 1900 as part of a reform movement advocating modern housing.[3]

References

1. Brehony, K. J. (2004). "A New Education for a New Era: Creating International Fellowship Through Conferences 1921-1938." Paedagogica Historica 40(5 & 6): 733-755.
2. IBE (2015). IBE In Focus: 90 years of excellence in education (PDF). UNESCO. p. 22.
3. Brehony, K. J. (2004). "A New Education for a New Era: Creating International Fellowship Through Conferences 1921-1938." Paedagogica Historica 40(5 & 6): 733-755.

Bibliography

• Dietmar Haubfleisch: Schulfarm Insel Scharfenberg. Mikroanalyse der reformpädagogischen Unterrichts- und Erziehungsrealität einer demokratischen Versuchsschule im Berlin der Weimarer Republik (=Studien zur Bildungsreform, 40). Frankfurt u.a. 2001. ISBN 3-631-34724-3
Inhaltsverzeichnis und Vorwort des Herausgebers der Reihe "Studien zur Bildungsreform"
• Dietmar Haubfleisch: Elisabeth Rotten (1882 - 1964) - eine (fast) vergessene Reformpädagogin. In: Inge Hansen-Schaberg (Hrsg.): „etwas erzählen“. Die lebensgeschichtliche Dimension in der Pädagogik. Bruno Schonig zum 60. Geburtstag. Baltmannsweiler 1997, S. 114-131. - Überarb. Ausg. unter Weglassung der Abb.: Marburg 1997:
http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/sonst/1996/0010.html
• Dietmar Haubfleisch: Elisabeth Rotten (1882 - 1964) - ein Quellen- und Literaturverzeichnis. Marburg 1997.
http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/sonst/1997/0010.html
• Das Werdende Zeitalter (Internationale Erziehungs-Rundschau). Register sämtlicher Aufsätze und Rezensionen einer reformpädagogischen Zeitschrift in der Weimarer Republik. Zusammengestellt und eingeleitet von Dietmar Haubfleisch und Jörg-W. Link (=Archivhilfe, 8), Oer-Erkenschwick 1994; Auszug der Einleitung (S. 5-16) wieder in: Mitteilungen & Materialien. Arbeitsgruppe Pädagogisches Museum e.V., Berlin, Heft Nr. 42/1994, S. 97-99; Einleitung in leicht korr. Fassung u.d.T.: 'Dietmar Haubfleisch und Jörg-W. Link: Einleitung zum Register der reformpädagogischen Zeitschrift 'Das Werdende Zeitalter' ('Internationale Erziehungs-Rundschau')' wieder: Marburg 1996:
http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/sonst/1996/0012.html

External links

• Elisabeth Rotten in the German National Library catalogue (1)
• Elisabeth Rotten in the German National Library catalogue (2)
• Lebenslauf, ausgewählte Quellen und Literatur zu Elisabeth Rotten bei paed.com
• Elisabeth Rotten im Frauenwiki
• Data
• Claus Bernet (2006). "Elisabeth Rotten". In Bautz, Traugott (ed.). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL) (in German). 26. Nordhausen: Bautz. cols. 1283–1310. ISBN 3-88309-354-8.
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sun Aug 18, 2019 12:40 am

Odenwaldschule
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/17/19

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO READ THE COPYRIGHT NOTICE AT THIS LINK BEFORE YOU READ THE FOLLOWING WORK, THAT IS AVAILABLE SOLELY FOR PRIVATE STUDY, SCHOLARSHIP OR RESEARCH PURSUANT TO 17 U.S.C. SECTION 107 AND 108. IN THE EVENT THAT THE LIBRARY DETERMINES THAT UNLAWFUL COPYING OF THIS WORK HAS OCCURRED, THE LIBRARY HAS THE RIGHT TO BLOCK THE I.P. ADDRESS AT WHICH THE UNLAWFUL COPYING APPEARED TO HAVE OCCURRED. THANK YOU FOR RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF COPYRIGHT OWNERS.


Image
Odenwaldschule in Heppenheim

Image
Political instruction at the Odenwaldschule during the Nazi era

The Odenwaldschule was a German school located in Heppenheim in the Odenwald. Founded in 1910, it was Germany's oldest Landerziehungsheim [de], a private boarding school located in a rural setting. Edith and Paul Geheeb [de] established it using their concept of progressive education, which integrated the work of the head and hand. The school went bankrupt and was closed in 2015, following the revelation of numerous cases of sexual abuse of students.

History and educational concept

Image
The Goethehaus at the Odenwaldschule

The Odenwaldschule emerged as part of the reformed education movement at the beginning of the 20th century. It was founded by Paul Geheeb on 14 April 1910. Edith Geheeb's father, the town council member for Berlin, Max Cassirer, who supported the Odenwaldschule from that time onwards, financed the land purchase and the buildings.

Geheeb felt inspired by the sentence "be who you are" (Γένοιο οἷος ἔσσι.) from the Greek poet Pindar. Thus the school should promote the community, personality and self-determined actions. At this point in time there were only 14 students. They were all housed in the Goethehaus.

The founders' concept was originally coined by the fundamentals of the work schools, for example in the introduction of a course system and the dispensation with year groups. All students should be able to co-create, participate and be equally responsible. The Odenwaldschule is a free community, in which the different generations treat each other impartially and can learn from each other, was the school's rules. Children and adolescents should when possible get individual learning stimuli such as intellectual, practical, musical and artistic learning methods. Learning was connected with vocational training. They lived in a mix-age living area, the families, whose head was the teacher and every year they were rearranged differently. Being on first name basis with the teacher belonged to the further characteristics of the school's educational concept, long before the emergence of anti-authoritarian schooling.

In the 1920s the school was internationally recognised and until 1938 teachers from other countries, such as England and the USA, taught there. From 1924 until 1932 the educator Martin Wagenschein worked at the school. In 1934 Paul and Edith Geheeb emigrated to Switzerland with around 25 students and some teachers and formed the Ecole d’Humanité there. In 1939 the Reicharbeitsdienst (Reich Labour Service) requested the takeover of the Odenwaldschule because it contradicted the "concept of the national socialistic schooling community." The school was run by Minna Specht from 1946 to 1951.[1]

After the Second World War, the school's teaching system was reformed many times. In 1963 it became a UNESCO ASPNet project. The school was a member of the Schulverbund Blick über den Zaun (literally: School Union - view over the fence).

Integrated Comprehensive School

The Odenwaldschule was an integrated comprehensive school. It was possible to pass through a joiner or a metalwork vocational course with a state qualification alongside the technical diploma or the full A Level equivalent. It was also possible to do an information technician assistant course or a chemistry technician assistant course alongside the German equivalent to an A Level.

Life at the Odenwaldschule

There was 250 school places. At the end of 2011 there was roughly 200 students at the Odenwaldschule. In 2010 almost half of the students came from the state of Hesse, one fifth came directly from the Bergstraße district, "almost a third were state supported children."[2] Most of them lived at the boarding school in family-like living groups of six to ten people. The average class size was 17 students. Roughly half of the 120 employees were teachers at the school.

Costs

For a boarding school place £1,670 (2.370 €) had to be paid (as of the 2012/13 academic year). There was additional fees for vocational courses. External students paid a lower amount.

Abuse Cases

In 1998 reports from former students were made public, according to which the then at the time headmaster Gerold Becker had sexually abused multiple students from the 1970s to the 1980s.[2] Andreas Huckele, a former student, who went to the Odenwaldschule from 1981 to 1988 and was later protected by the Frankfurter Rundschau with the pseudonym Jürgen Dehmers, had sent two letters to headmaster Wolfgang Harder in June 1998.

The school explained in 1998, the former headmaster had never contradicted "the victim's statements when he had to meet with the board of directors and vacated his functions and duties of the Odenwaldschule's sponsoring organisation". In 1998 the victims of sexual abuse met with the former headteacher Harder and the former SPD-MP Peter Conradi as the vice-president of the sponsoring organisation and agreed on reviewing the abuse cases, but this did not take place.[3]

In the late 1990s, and again in 2010, the school became the center of national attention, when an investigation revealed the sexual abuse of more than 130 pupils by at least 8 teachers in the 1970s and 1980s.[4][5]


Review

One year late the penal case review was dismissed by the Darmstadt prosecution service due to statutory limitation. When Jörg Schindler reported about it in the Frankfurter Rundschau in November 1999, Florian Lindermann, the former spokesman for the former students, criticised the coverage as over the top.[6]

In 2010 Margarita Kaufmann, who since 2007 served as headmistress, called for a new enquiry into the sex abuse cases. Kaufmann spoke of 33 victims that she knew of and eight teachers, who supposedly are guilty of sexual assault between 1966 and 1991. In the meantime it was assumed that more than ten teachers were perpetrators. The music teacher Wolfgang Held, who died in 2006, was the main perpetrator alongside Becker.[7] The Frankfurter Rundschau daily newspaper reported on 6 March 2010 in a top priority article, that there was an assumption there is between 50 and 100 sex abuse victims. In total, the Darmstadt prosecution service once more dismissed six of the 13 preliminary proceedings until 2 May 2010. At the end of May 2010 the prosecution service investigated against six former teachers and one student.[8] There was no court ruling until the end of 2012.

In a letter sent by Gerold Becker to the Odenwaldschule in March 2010, he asked his victims for forgiveness and wrote he renewed his expressed desire to come forward to speak to the victims, which he wanted to do since the first reports came out in 1999. Becker died on 7 July 2010 without having been made penally responsible.[9]

The board of directors at the Odenwaldschule at first rejected a compensation in a letter to the victims in July 2010.[10] In September 2010 the board of directors promised a financial compensation for 50 former students who were affected. In addition there are more unresolved cases, which are still to be reviewed.[11]


The lawyers Claudia Burgsmüller and Brigitte Tilmann were entrusted with the task of reviewing the sex abuse cases in the early part of 2010. According to the final report from 17 December 2010 at least 132 students were victims of attack by teachers between 1965 and 1998. The lawyers said the documentation was incomplete.[12][13]

Official school letters, found in archive and reviewed in a dissertation, point a fact that there already was sex abuse cases on girls and boys under the management of Paul and Edith Geheeb. However no one contacted the police.[14][15]

In March 2011 Christian Füller's monograph, entitled Sündenfall. Wie die Reformschule ihre Ideale missbrauchte (literally- The Fall of Man. How the reform school abused its ideals), was published. Füller calls the school, when it was under Becker's management, a "reformed education paradise with a torture chamber in the basement" based on the model of a "aristocratic patriarchy". He speaks of paedophiles and "robbers of childhood", which had systematically taken over the part of the school.[16]

Tilman Jens, a former student and up until the early part of summer in 2014 was a member of the Odenwaldschule's sponsoring organisation, published two months later the book Freiwild. Die Odenwaldschule - Ein Lehrstück von Tätern und Opfern. (literally - Fair game. The Odenwaldschule - a lesson of attackers and victims.) Jens demanded a balanced coverage: contrary to the customs of the constitutional state also innocent people were denounced as assailants or co-assailants.[17] In October 2014 he summarised according to an article of the Deutschlandfunk that even if the film Die Auserwählten (The Favoured Few) was filmed at the Odenwaldschule which showed the willingness of the school's management at this time to face the history of misconduct, in the years before further resolutions are said to have faltered multiple times.[18]

In September 2010 several victims formed a group called Glasbrechen (literally - breaking of glass), who had the goal of helping people, who had experienced sexual, physical and psychological attacks.[19][20]

In July 2011 the former headmistress Kaufmann resigned from her office to solely deal with the review of the sexual abuse cases.[21]

Without any media presence the club Odenwaldschule e.V. with the Altschülervereinigung und Förderkreis der Odenwaldschule e.V. (literally - Association of former students and society for promotion of the Odenwaldschule) formed the foundation "Brücken bauen" (literally - building bridges).[22][23] According to its charter the foundation should be responsible for carrying out and supporting measures for those, who had suffered from sexual violence and physical and psychological abuse at the Odenwaldschule.[24]

A fierce critic of the review is Andreas Huckele, known for his book Wie laut soll ich denn noch schreien?, which he wrote under his pseudonym. In his acceptance speech for winning the Geschwister-Scholl-Preis in 2012 he criticised about the lack of action taken by the school since the first article was published in the Frankfurter Runschau in 1999.[25]

Teachers and management dismissed because of child pornography

On 9 April 2014 a teacher, who taught and lived there from 2011, had their room searched through by the authorities. The teacher admitted to having downloaded from the internet child pornography before his appointment at the Odenwaldschule. He was immediately dismissed from teaching at the school. The district administrator Matthias Wilkes criticised the school's management because they had not adhered to promised transparency.

After this incident in June 2014, the headmaster Däschler-Seiler handed in his resignation. In July 2014, the sponsoring organisation dismissed the entire management.

Attempts to save the Odenwaldschule

In February 2015, Gerhard Herbert, as chairman of the sponsoring organisation, introduced a new management team consisting of the boarding school's headteacher Sonya Mayoufi, born in 1973, and manager Marcus Halfen-Kieper, born in 1967. The new management team tried to rebuild trust in the Odenwaldschule and put an end to the organisation's failures from the last couple of years. Additionally the school's sponsorship was to be transferred to a foundation and to a not-for-profit private limited company. The new management team should take over the running of the company after they received permission, however the sponsoring organisation dismissed the team on 27 July 2015 after having disputed with them.

Closure of the school

The sponsoring organisation publicly announced on 25 April 2015 that it had not succeeded in securing the finances for the next couple of years, after a large part of the trust founded by banks and former students had been squandered. This meant the definite end of the school. The remaining time until the next academic year was used to gradually disintegrate all school operations and to move the students to other schools, according to Vice District Administrator Schimpf. "The school is where it is now through its own mistakes, its own structures, by turning a blind eye and ducking away, through its own non-action", the head of the management team, Marcus Halfen-Kieper, explained. "We could and should neither try to blame the responsibility for the situation on the media nor the regulators or the politics nor even the victims of sexual assault at the school."

Parents and students fought for keeping the school open. On 30 May 2015, the chairman of the sponsoring organisation resigned after temporarily giving up the reigns to the new management team on 17 May 2015. The school, parents and former students hoped to win over investors for financing the next two academic years by setting up a trust, which would have to be proven for permission to reopen the school. The lack of permission blocked the active acquisition of new students.

On 15 May 2015, the board of directors declared that its financial means for the maintenance of the school had been used up. On 16 June 2015, the sponsoring organisation declared itself bankrupt and in September 2015, the school was permanently closed.

In 2016, the inventory of the school (furniture, tools and also the library) were sold by public auction, the archive was given to a public archive in Darmstadt for preservation. Months later, the buildings were sold to an entrepreneur from Mannheim. Also in 2016, a group consisting of parents and donors who wanted to reopen the school under a new name ("Schuldorf Lindenstein") declared the end of their efforts.

Future plans

According to the purchaser of the school's buildings, the buildings are planned to be renovated and established as a housing complex, a holiday park and a historical museum following the acquisition of adjacent land. The new amenities are planned to provide space for 300 people and will be named "Wohnpark Ober-Hambach".[26]

Notable alumni

• Hans Bethe
• Daniel Cohn-Bendit
• Nathan Clark
• Nigel Dennis
• Amelie Fried
• Klaus Gysi
• Wolfgang Hildesheimer
• Felicitas Kukuck
• Klaus Mann
• Sandra Nettelbeck (daughter of Uwe Nettelbeck)
• Konstantin Neven DuMont
• Rosalinda von Ossietzky-Palm [de] (daughter of Carl von Ossietzky)
• Wolfgang Porsche
• Dankwart Rustow
• Rudolf Ritsema
• Andreas von Weizsäcker (son of Richard von Weizsäcker)[27]
• Oda Schottmüller

Notable staff and teachers

• Fridolin Friedmann
• Alois Kottmann
• Alfred Landé
• Peter Suhrkamp
• Minna Specht
• Martin Wagenschein

See also

• Landschulheim Herrlingen

In film

• Und wir sind nicht die Einzigen [de]. Director: Christoph Röhl; Produzenten: Dirk Wilutzky, Anja Wedell; Redakteure: Inge Classen, Udo Bremer. Eine Produktion von Herbstfilm im Auftrag von 3Sat 2011, 85 min
• Geschlossene Gesellschaft.[28]
• Die Auserwählten. Director: Christoph Röhl [29]
Further reading[edit]
• Detmers, Jürgen (2011). Wie laut soll ich denn noch schreien? Die Odenwaldschule und der sexuelle Missbrauch (in German). Rowohlt, Reinbek. ISBN 978-3-498-01332-5.

References

1. Dr. Inge Hansen-Schaberg, Erinnerung an Minna SpechtArchived 21 October 2008 at the Wayback MachinePhilosophical-Political Academy. Retrieved July 19, 2010 (in German)
2. Jump up to:a b "Sonder- und Videomaut". asfinag.at. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
3. Jörg Schindler (17 November 1999). "Der Lack ist ab". Frankfurter Rundschau. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
4. Menke, Birger (1 March 2010). "Diskret ins Desaster". Spiegel Online.
5. Burgsmüller, Claudia; Tilmann, Brigitte. "Abschlussbericht über die bisherigen Mitteilungen über sexuelle Ausbeutung von Schülern und Schülerinnen an der Odenwaldschule im Zeitraum 1960 bis 2010" ((PDF; 395 kB)).
6. Duden. Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache in zehn Bänden. Mannheim 1999, ISBN 3-411-04743-7, s. v. ahoi
7. z. B. "OED" s. v. ahoy
8. see quote in the retrospective language
9. "Ex-Direktor der Odenwaldschule gestorben". DIE WELT. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
10. Wille, Joachim (8 July 2010). "Odenwaldschule lehnt Entschädigung ab: "Es gibt nichts zu feiern"". fr-online.de(in German). Retrieved 4 December 2015.
11. Wille, Joachim (27 September 2010). "Odenwaldschule: Missbrauchsopfer müssen warten". fr-online.de (in German). Retrieved 4 December 2015.
12. Claudia Burgsmüller, Brigitte Tilmann Abschlussbericht über die bisherigen Mitteilungen über sexuelle Ausbeutung von Schülern und Schülerinnen an der Odenwaldschule im Zeitraum 1960 bis 2010 (PDF; 395 kB)
13. http://www.tagesschau.de
14. Matthias Bartsch, Markus Verbeet (2010), "Die Wurzeln des Missbrauchs", Der Spiegel, 19. Juli 2010 (29)
15. Christl Stark: Idee und Gestalt einer Schule im Urteil des Elternhauses. Dissertation, Pädagogische Hochschule Heidelberg 1998
16. "Paradies mit Folterkeller". tagesspiegel.de. undatiert. Retrieved 7 December 2014. Check date values in: |date=(help)
17. Tilman Jens im Gespräch mit Joachim Scholl: "Wir haben nicht genau hingeguckt". Odenwaldschule: Tilman Jens beklagt "Hatz" auf nachweislich unschuldige Lehrer.Deutschlandradio Kultur, Radiofeuilleton, 16. Mai 2011, 15.07 Uhr, abgerufen am 17. Mai 2011
18. "Deutschlandfunk – Film über Odenwaldschule Stockende Aufklärung". Retrieved 3 October 2014.
19. Adrian Koerfer: Erneut versagt die Schule, Frankfurter Rundschau, 17. September 2011
20. Satzung des Vereins "Glasbrechen". (PDF; 99 kB) Stand 24. Oktober 2012
21. dpa (9 June 2011). "Missbrauchsskandal: Leiterin der Odenwaldschule tritt zurück". zeit.de. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
22. Die Stifter. Website der Stiftung "Brücken bauen", abgerufen am 30. April 2013.
23. "Sexueller Missbrauch: 7.000 Euro für Opfer der Odenwaldschule". zeit.de. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
24. Stiftungszweck und Förderrahmen. Website der Stiftung "Brücken bauen", abgerufen am 30. April 2013.
25. Jürgen Detmers: Wie laut soll ich denn noch schreien? Die Odenwaldschule und der sexuelle Missbrauch. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2011, ISBN 978-3-498-01332-5
26. "Odenwaldschule soll Ferienpark werden". spiegel.de. 20 April 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
27. "Odenwaldschule: Familie Weizsäcker bricht Schweigen". Spiegel Online. 27 March 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
28. Tobias Büchner. "zero one film: Inhalt". Retrieved 2 October 2014.
29. "Film zum Missbrauchsskandal an der Odenwaldschule". 5 July 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sun Aug 18, 2019 12:48 am

Psychometrics
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/17/19

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Psychometrics is a field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement. As defined by the US National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), psychometrics refers to psychological measurement. Generally, it refers to the field in psychology and education that is devoted to testing, measurement, assessment, and related activities.[1]

The field is concerned with the objective measurement of skills and knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational achievement. Some psychometric researchers focus on the construction and validation of assessment instruments such as questionnaires, tests, raters' judgments, and personality tests. Others focus on research relating to measurement theory (e.g., item response theory; intraclass correlation).

Practitioners are described as psychometricians. Psychometricians usually possess a specific qualification, and most are psychologists with advanced graduate training. In addition to traditional academic institutions, many psychometricians work for the government or in human resources departments. Others specialize as learning and development professionals.

Historical foundation

Psychological testing has come from two streams of thought: the first, from Darwin, Galton, and Cattell on the measurement of individual differences, and the second, from Herbart, Weber, Fechner, and Wundt and their psychophysical measurements of a similar construct. The second set of individuals and their research is what has led to the development of experimental psychology, and standardized testing.[2]

Victorian stream

Charles Darwin was the inspiration behind Sir Francis Galton who led to the creation of psychometrics. In 1859, Darwin published his book "The Origin of Species", which pertained to individual differences in animals. This book discussed how individual members in a species differ and how they possess characteristics that are more adaptive and successful or less adaptive and less successful. Those who are adaptive and successful are the ones that survive and give way to the next generation, who would be just as or more adaptive and successful. This idea, studied previously in animals, led to Galton's interest and study of human beings and how they differ one from another, and more importantly, how to measure those differences.

Galton wrote a book entitled "Hereditary Genius" about different characteristics that people possess and how those characteristics make them more "fit" than others. Today these differences, such as sensory and motor functioning (reaction time, visual acuity, and physical strength) are important domains of scientific psychology. Much of the early theoretical and applied work in psychometrics was undertaken in an attempt to measure intelligence. Galton, often referred to as "the father of psychometrics," devised and included mental tests among his anthropometric measures. James McKeen Cattell, who is considered a pioneer of psychometrics went on to extend Galton's work. Cattell also coined the term mental test, and is responsible for the research and knowledge which ultimately led to the development of modern tests. (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2010)

German stream

The origin of psychometrics also has connections to the related field of psychophysics. Around the same time that Darwin, Galton, and Cattell were making their discoveries, Herbart was also interested in "unlocking the mysteries of human consciousness" through the scientific method. (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2010) Herbart was responsible for creating mathematical models of the mind, which were influential in educational practices in years to come.

E.H. Weber built upon Herbart's work and tried to prove the existence of a psychological threshold, saying that a minimum stimulus was necessary to activate a sensory system. After Weber, G.T. Fechner expanded upon the knowledge he gleaned from Herbart and Weber, to devise the law that the strength of a sensation grows as the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. A follower of Weber and Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt is credited with founding the science of psychology. It is Wundt's influence that paved the way for others to develop psychological testing.[2]

20th century

The psychometrician L. L. Thurstone, founder and first president of the Psychometric Society in 1936, developed and applied a theoretical approach to measurement referred to as the law of comparative judgment, an approach that has close connections to the psychophysical theory of Ernst Heinrich Weber and Gustav Fechner. In addition, Spearman and Thurstone both made important contributions to the theory and application of factor analysis, a statistical method developed and used extensively in psychometrics.[citation needed] In the late 1950s, Leopold Szondi made an historical and epistemological assessment of the impact of statistical thinking onto psychology during previous few decades: "in the last decades, the specifically psychological thinking has been almost completely suppressed and removed, and replaced by a statistical thinking. Precisely here we see the cancer of testology and testomania of today."[3]

More recently, psychometric theory has been applied in the measurement of personality, attitudes, and beliefs, and academic achievement. Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and much of the research and accumulated science in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. Critics, including practitioners in the physical sciences and social activists, have argued that such definition and quantification is impossibly difficult, and that such measurements are often misused, such as with psychometric personality tests used in employment procedures:

"For example, an employer wanting someone for a role requiring consistent attention to repetitive detail will probably not want to give that job to someone who is very creative and gets bored easily."[4]


Figures who made significant contributions to psychometrics include Karl Pearson, Henry F. Kaiser, Carl Brigham, L. L. Thurstone, Anne Anastasi, Georg Rasch, Eugene Galanter, Johnson O'Connor, Frederic M. Lord, Ledyard R Tucker, Arthur Jensen, and David Andrich.

Definition of measurement in the social sciences

The definition of measurement in the social sciences has a long history. A currently widespread definition, proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens (1946), is that measurement is "the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to some rule." This definition was introduced in the paper in which Stevens proposed four levels of measurement. Although widely adopted, this definition differs in important respects from the more classical definition of measurement adopted in the physical sciences, namely that scientific measurement entails "the estimation or discovery of the ratio of some magnitude of a quantitative attribute to a unit of the same attribute" (p. 358)[5]

Indeed, Stevens's definition of measurement was put forward in response to the British Ferguson Committee, whose chair, A. Ferguson, was a physicist. The committee was appointed in 1932 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science to investigate the possibility of quantitatively estimating sensory events. Although its chair and other members were physicists, the committee also included several psychologists. The committee's report highlighted the importance of the definition of measurement. While Stevens's response was to propose a new definition, which has had considerable influence in the field, this was by no means the only response to the report. Another, notably different, response was to accept the classical definition, as reflected in the following statement:

Measurement in psychology and physics are in no sense different. Physicists can measure when they can find the operations by which they may meet the necessary criteria; psychologists have but to do the same. They need not worry about the mysterious differences between the meaning of measurement in the two sciences. (Reese, 1943, p. 49)


These divergent responses are reflected in alternative approaches to measurement. For example, methods based on covariance matrices are typically employed on the premise that numbers, such as raw scores derived from assessments, are measurements. Such approaches implicitly entail Stevens's definition of measurement, which requires only that numbers are assigned according to some rule. The main research task, then, is generally considered to be the discovery of associations between scores, and of factors posited to underlie such associations.[citation needed]

On the other hand, when measurement models such as the Rasch model are employed, numbers are not assigned based on a rule. Instead, in keeping with Reese's statement above, specific criteria for measurement are stated, and the goal is to construct procedures or operations that provide data that meet the relevant criteria. Measurements are estimated based on the models, and tests are conducted to ascertain whether the relevant criteria have been met.[citation needed]

Instruments and procedures

The first[citation needed]psychometric instruments were designed to measure the concept of intelligence.[6] One historical approach involved the Stanford-Binet IQ test, developed originally by the French psychologist Alfred Binet. Intelligence tests are useful tools for various purposes. An alternative conception of intelligence is that cognitive capacities within individuals are a manifestation of a general component, or general intelligence factor, as well as cognitive capacity specific to a given domain.[citation needed]

Another major focus in psychometrics has been on personality testing. There have been a range of theoretical approaches to conceptualizing and measuring personality. Some of the better known instruments include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Five-Factor Model (or "Big 5") and tools such as Personality and Preference Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Attitudes have also been studied extensively using psychometric approaches.[citation needed] A common method in the measurement of attitudes is the use of the Likert scale. An alternative method involves the application of unfolding measurement models, the most general being the Hyperbolic Cosine Model (Andrich & Luo, 1993).[7]

Theoretical approaches

Psychometricians have developed a number of different measurement theories. These include classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT).[8][9] An approach which seems mathematically to be similar to IRT but also quite distinctive, in terms of its origins and features, is represented by the Rasch model for measurement. The development of the Rasch model, and the broader class of models to which it belongs, was explicitly founded on requirements of measurement in the physical sciences.[10]

Psychometricians have also developed methods for working with large matrices of correlations and covariances. Techniques in this general tradition include: factor analysis,[11] a method of determining the underlying dimensions of data; multidimensional scaling,[12] a method for finding a simple representation for data with a large number of latent dimensions; and data clustering, an approach to finding objects that are like each other. All these multivariate descriptive methods try to distill large amounts of data into simpler structures. More recently, structural equation modeling[13] and path analysis represent more sophisticated approaches to working with large covariance matrices. These methods allow statistically sophisticated models to be fitted to data and tested to determine if they are adequate fits.

One of the main deficiencies in various factor analyses is a lack of consensus in cutting points for determining the number of latent factors. A usual procedure is to stop factoring when eigenvalues drop below one because the original sphere shrinks. The lack of the cutting points concerns other multivariate methods, also.[citation needed]

Key concepts

Key concepts in classical test theory are reliability and validity. A reliable measure is one that measures a construct consistently across time, individuals, and situations. A valid measure is one that measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability is necessary, but not sufficient, for validity.

Both reliability and validity can be assessed statistically. Consistency over repeated measures of the same test can be assessed with the Pearson correlation coefficient, and is often called test-retest reliability.[14] Similarly, the equivalence of different versions of the same measure can be indexed by a Pearson correlation, and is called equivalent forms reliability or a similar term.[14]

Internal consistency, which addresses the homogeneity of a single test form, may be assessed by correlating performance on two halves of a test, which is termed split-half reliability; the value of this Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for two half-tests is adjusted with the Spearman–Brown prediction formula to correspond to the correlation between two full-length tests.[14] Perhaps the most commonly used index of reliability is Cronbach's α, which is equivalent to the mean of all possible split-half coefficients. Other approaches include the intra-class correlation, which is the ratio of variance of measurements of a given target to the variance of all targets.

There are a number of different forms of validity. Criterion-related validity can be assessed by correlating a measure with a criterion measure theoretically expected to be related. When the criterion measure is collected at the same time as the measure being validated the goal is to establish concurrent validity; when the criterion is collected later the goal is to establish predictive validity. A measure has construct validity if it is related to measures of other constructs as required by theory. Content validity is a demonstration that the items of a test do an adequate job of covering the domain being measured. In a personnel selection example, test content is based on a defined statement or set of statements of knowledge, skill, ability, or other characteristics obtained from a job analysis.

Item response theory models the relationship between latent traits and responses to test items. Among other advantages, IRT provides a basis for obtaining an estimate of the location of a test-taker on a given latent trait as well as the standard error of measurement of that location. For example, a university student's knowledge of history can be deduced from his or her score on a university test and then be compared reliably with a high school student's knowledge deduced from a less difficult test. Scores derived by classical test theory do not have this characteristic, and assessment of actual ability (rather than ability relative to other test-takers) must be assessed by comparing scores to those of a "norm group" randomly selected from the population. In fact, all measures derived from classical test theory are dependent on the sample tested, while, in principle, those derived from item response theory are not.

Many psychometricians are also concerned with finding and eliminating test bias from their psychological tests. Test bias is a form of systematic (i.e., non-random) error which leads to examinees from one demographic group having an unwarranted advantage over examinees from another demographic group.[15] According to leading experts, test bias may cause differences in average scores across demographic groups, but differences in group scores are not sufficient evidence that test bias is actually present because the test could be measuring real differences among groups.[16][15] Psychometricians use sophisticated scientific methods to search for test bias and eliminate it. Research shows that it is usually impossible for people reading a test item to accurately determine whether it is biased or not.[17]

Standards of quality

The considerations of validity and reliability typically are viewed as essential elements for determining the quality of any test. However, professional and practitioner associations frequently have placed these concerns within broader contexts when developing standards and making overall judgments about the quality of any test as a whole within a given context. A consideration of concern in many applied research settings is whether or not the metric of a given psychological inventory is meaningful or arbitrary.[18]

Testing standards

In 2014, the American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) published a revision of the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing,[19] which describes standards for test development, evaluation, and use. The Standards cover essential topics in testing including validity, reliability/errors of measurement, and fairness in testing. The book also establishes standards related to testing operations including test design and development, scores, scales, norms, score linking, cut scores, test administration, scoring, reporting, score interpretation, test documentation, and rights and responsibilities of test takers and test users. Finally, the Standards cover topics related to testing applications, including psychological testing and assessment, workplace testing and credentialing, educational testing and assessment, and testing in program evaluation and public policy.

Evaluation standards

In the field of evaluation, and in particular educational evaluation, the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation[20] has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards[21] was published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition)[22] was published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards[23] was published in 2003.

Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation.[24] Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance.

Non-human: animals and machines

Psychometrics addresses human abilities, attitudes, traits and educational evolution. Notably, the study of behavior, mental processes and abilities of non-human animals is usually addressed by comparative psychology, or with a continuum between non-human animals and the rest of animals by evolutionary psychology. Nonetheless there are some advocators for a more gradual transition between the approach taken for humans and the approach taken for (non-human) animals.[25][26][27] [28]

The evaluation of abilities, traits and learning evolution of machines has been mostly unrelated to the case of humans and non-human animals, with specific approaches in the area of artificial intelligence. A more integrated approach, under the name of universal psychometrics, has also been proposed.[29]

See also

• Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
• Classical test theory
• Computational psychometrics
• Concept inventory
• Cronbach's alpha
• Data mining
• Educational assessment
• Educational psychology
• Factor analysis
• Item response theory
• List of psychometric software
• List of schools for psychometrics
• Operationalisation
• Quantitative psychology
• Psychometric Society
• Rasch model
• Scale (social sciences)
• School counselor
• School psychology
• Standardized test

References

Bibliography


• Andrich, D. & Luo, G. (1993). "A hyperbolic cosine model for unfolding dichotomous single-stimulus responses" (PDF). Applied Psychological Measurement. 17 (3): 253–276. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1003.8107. doi:10.1177/014662169301700307.[permanent dead link]
• Michell, J. (1999). Measurement in Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511490040
• Rasch, G. (1960/1980). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Copenhagen, Danish Institute for Educational Research), expanded edition (1980) with foreword and afterword by B.D. Wright. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• Reese, T.W. (1943). "The application of the theory of physical measurement to the measurement of psychological magnitudes, with three experimental examples". Psychological Monographs. 55: 1–89.
• Stevens, S. S. (1946). "On the theory of scales of measurement". Science. 103 (2684): 677–80. Bibcode:1946Sci...103..677S. doi:10.1126/science.103.2684.677. PMID 17750512.
• Thurstone, L.L. (1927). "A law of comparative judgement". Psychological Review. 34 (4): 278–286. doi:10.1037/h0070288.
• Thurstone, L.L. (1929). The Measurement of Psychological Value. In T.V. Smith and W.K. Wright (Eds.), Essays in Philosophy by Seventeen Doctors of Philosophy of the University of Chicago. Chicago: Open Court.
• Thurstone, L.L. (1959). The Measurement of Values. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• S.F. Blinkhorn (1997). "Past imperfect, future conditional: fifty years of test theory". Br. J. Math. Statist. Psychol. 50 (2): 175–185. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8317.1997.tb01139.x.

Notes

1. National Council on Measurement in Education http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_ ... rPArchived 2017-07-22 at the Wayback Machine
2. Kaplan, R.M., & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2010). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues. (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
3. Leopold Szondi (1960) Das zweite Buch: Lehrbuch der Experimentellen Triebdiagnostik. Huber, Bern und Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Ch.27, From the Spanish translation, B)II Las condiciones estadisticas, p.396. Quotation:
el pensamiento psicologico especifico, en las ultima decadas, fue suprimido y eliminado casi totalmente, siendo sustituido por un pensamiento estadistico. Precisamente aqui vemos el cáncer de la testología y testomania de hoy.
4. Psychometric Assessments. Psychometric Assessments . University of Melbourne.
5. Michell, Joel (August 1997). "Quantitative science and the definition of measurement in psychology". British Journal of Psychology. 88 (3): 355–383. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02641.x.
6. "Los diferentes tipos de tests psicometricos - examen psicometrico". examenpsicometrico.com.
7. Andrich, D. & Luo, G. (1993). A hyperbolic cosine latent trait model for unfolding dichotomous single-stimulus responses. Applied Psychological Measurement, 17, 253-276.
8. Embretson, S.E., & Reise, S.P. (2000). Item Response Theory for Psychologists. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
9. Hambleton, R.K., & Swaminathan, H. (1985). Item Response Theory: Principles and Applications. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
10. Rasch, G. (1960/1980). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Copenhagen, Danish Institute for Educational Research, expanded edition (1980) with foreword and afterword by B.D. Wright. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
11. Thompson, B.R. (2004). Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Understanding Concepts and Applications. American Psychological Association.
12. Davison, M.L. (1992). Multidimensional Scaling. Krieger.
13. Kaplan, D. (2008). Structural Equation Modeling: Foundations and Extensions, 2nd ed. Sage.
14. "Home - Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle". http://www.gifted.uconn.edu.
15. Warne, Russell T.; Yoon, Myeongsun; Price, Chris J. (2014). "Exploring the various interpretations of "test bias"". Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 20 (4): 570–582. doi:10.1037/a0036503. PMID 25313435.
16. Reynolds, C. R. (2000). Why is psychometric research on bias in mental testing so often ignored? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6, 144-150. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.6.1.144
17. Reschly, D. J. (1980) Psychological evidence in the Larry P. opinion: A case of right problem-wrong solution? School Psychology Review, 9, 123-125.
18. Blanton, H., & Jaccard, J. (2006). Arbitrary metrics in psychology. Archived2006-05-10 at the Wayback Machine American Psychologist, 61(1), 27-41.
19. "The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing". http://www.apa.org. External link in |website= (help)
20. Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation Archived 2009-10-15 at the Wayback Machine
21. Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (1988). The Personnel Evaluation Standards: How to Assess Systems for Evaluating Educators.Archived 2005-12-12 at the Wayback Machine Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
22. Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (1994). The Program Evaluation Standards, 2nd Edition. Archived 2006-02-22 at the Wayback Machine Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
23. Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (2003). The Student Evaluation Standards: How to Improve Evaluations of Students. Archived 2006-05-24 at the Wayback Machine Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.
24. [E. Cabrera-Nguyen. "Author guidelines for reporting scale development and validation results in the Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research]". Academia.edu. 1 (2): 99–103.
25. Humphreys, L.G. (1987). "Psychometrics considerations in the evaluation of intraspecies differences in intelligence". Behav Brain Sci. 10 (4): 668–669. doi:10.1017/s0140525x0005514x.
26. Eysenck, H.J. (1987). "The several meanings of intelligence". Behav Brain Sci. 10(4): 663. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00055060.
27. Locurto, C. & Scanlon, C (1987). "Individual differences and spatial learning factor in two strains of mice". Behav Brain Sci. 112: 344–352.
28. King, James E & Figueredo, Aurelio Jose (1997). "The five-factor model plus dominance in chimpanzee personality". Journal of Research in Personality. 31 (2): 257–271. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1997.2179.
29. J. Hernández-Orallo; D.L. Dowe; M.V. Hernández-Lloreda (2013). "Universal Psychometrics: Measuring Cognitive Abilities in the Machine Kingdom". Cognitive Systems Research. 27: 50–74. doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2013.06.001. hdl:10251/50244.
Further reading[edit]
• Robert F. DeVellis (2016). Scale Development: Theory and Applications. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-4158-3.
• Borsboom, Denny (2005). Measuring the Mind: Conceptual Issues in Contemporary Psychometrics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84463-5. Lay summary (28 June 2010).
• Leslie A. Miller; Robert L. Lovler (2015). Foundations of Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4833-6927-3.
• Roderick P. McDonald (2013). Test Theory: A Unified Treatment. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-135-67530-1.
• Paul Kline (2000). The Handbook of Psychological Testing. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-21158-1.
• Rush AJ Jr; First MB; Blacker D (2008). Handbook of Psychiatric Measures. American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58562-218-4. OCLC 85885343.
• Ann C Silverlake (2016). Comprehending Test Manuals: A Guide and Workbook. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-97086-0.
• Fenton H (2019). "Top 10 Tips on how to prepare for a psychometric test to get that job!". Business Optimization Training Institute.
• Dr. Snigdha Rai (2018). "An Ultimate Guide to Psychometric Tests". Mercer Mettl.

External links

• APA Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
• International Personality Item Pool
• Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation
• The Psychometrics Centre, University of Cambridge [1]
• Psychometric Society and Psychometrika homepage
• London Psychometric Laboratory
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

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Part 1 of 2

UNESCO
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/17/19

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

YOU ARE REQUIRED TO READ THE COPYRIGHT NOTICE AT THIS LINK BEFORE YOU READ THE FOLLOWING WORK, THAT IS AVAILABLE SOLELY FOR PRIVATE STUDY, SCHOLARSHIP OR RESEARCH PURSUANT TO 17 U.S.C. SECTION 107 AND 108. IN THE EVENT THAT THE LIBRARY DETERMINES THAT UNLAWFUL COPYING OF THIS WORK HAS OCCURRED, THE LIBRARY HAS THE RIGHT TO BLOCK THE I.P. ADDRESS AT WHICH THE UNLAWFUL COPYING APPEARED TO HAVE OCCURRED. THANK YOU FOR RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF COPYRIGHT OWNERS.


The N.E.F. [New Education Fellowship] and Unesco

Just as theosophy had a profound influence on the N.E.F. so the N.E.F. had a profound influence on the creation of UNESCO. It was described as "the midwife at the birth of UNESCO" (Kobayashi) and has been an NGO of UNESCO since 1966 (Hiroshi Iwama). It changed its name to W.E.F. [World Education Fellowship] that year.


-- Beatrice Ensor, by Wikipedia

UNESCO COLLECTION OF REPRESENTATIVE WORKS —INDIAN SERIES

This book [Vinaya Texts, Part III: The Kullavagga, IV-XII, Translated From the Pali by T.W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, 1885] has been accepted in the Indian Translation Series of the UNESCO collection of Representative Works, jointly sponsored by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the Government of India.

First published by the Oxford University Press, 1885
Reprinted by Motlal Banarsidass, 1965  
Rashtrapati Bhavan,
New Delhi-4
June 10, 1962

I am very glad to know that the Sacred Books of the East, published years ago by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, which have been out-of-print for a number of years, now be available to all students of religion and philosophy. The enterprise of the publishers is commendable and I hope the books will be widely read.

-- S. Radhakrishnan

PREFATORY NOTE TO THE NEW EDITION

Since 1948 the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ), upon the recommendation of the General Assembly of the United Nations, has been concerned with facilitating the translation of the works most representative of the culture of certain of its Member States, and, in particular, those of Asia.

One of the major difficulties confronting this programme is the lack of translators having both the qualifications and the time to undertake translations of the many outstanding books meriting publication. To help overcome this difficulty in part, UNESCO’s advisers in this field (a panel of experts convened every other year by the International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies), have recommended that many worthwhile translations published during the 19th century, and now impossible to find except in a limited number of libraries, should be brought back into print in low-priced editions, for the use of students and of the general public.
The International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies (French: Conseil international de la philosophie et des sciences humaines; ICPHS/CIPSH) is a non-governmental organization within UNESCO. It embraces hundreds of learned societies in the field of philosophy, human sciences and related subjects.

CIPSH was founded at a first General Assembly held in January 1949 upon suggestion by Sir Julian Huxley, the first Director-General of UNESCO. The first president was Jacques Rueff. [The first general assembly of the International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies met in January 1949. A supporting organ for a multi-disciplinary and international vocation, CIPSH was conceived as the intermediary between UNESCO on one hand, and learned societies and national academies on the other. Its aim was to extend UNESCO's action in the domain of humanistic studies. Among its initial activities, in 1949, a first analysis of national-socialism was prefaced by CIPSH's first president, Jaques Rueff. This collective study had been prescribed in 1948 by the UNESCO General Conference, but had met with reticences about its publication.]

-- International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies, by Wikipedia

The experts also pointed out that in certain cases, even though there might be in existence more recent and more accurate translations endowed with a more modern apparatus of scholarship, a number of pioneer works of the greatest value and interest to students of Eastern religions also merited republication.

This point of view was warmly endorsed by the Indian National Academy of Letters (Sahitya Akademi), and the Indian National Commission for Unesco.

It is in the spirit of these recommendations that this work from the famous series "Sacred Books of the East”, is now once again being made available to the general public as part of the UNESCO Collection of Representative Works.

PUBLISHER'S NOTE

First, the man distinguished between eternal and perishable. Later he discovered within himself the germ of the Eternal. This discovery was an epoch in the history of the human mind and the East was the first to discover it.

To watch in the Sacred Books of the East the dawn of this religious consciousness of man, must always remain one of the most inspiring and hallowing sights in the whole history of the world. In order to have a solid foundation for a comparative study of the Religions of the East, we must have before all things, complete and thoroughly faithful translation of their Sacred Books in which some of the ancient sayings were preserved because they were so true and so striking that they could not be forgotten. They contained eternal truths, expressed for the first time in human language.

With profoundest reverence for Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, President of India, who inspired us for the task; our deep sense of gratitude for Dr. C. D. Deshmukh & Dr. D. S. Kothari, for encouraging assistance; esteemed appreciation of UNESCO for the warm endorsement of the cause; and finally with indebtedness to Dr. H. Rau, Director, Max Muller Bhawan, New Delhi, in procuring us the texts of the Series for reprint, we humbly conclude.

-- Vinaya Texts, Part III: The Kullavagga, IV-XII, Translated From the Pali by T.W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, 1885


German Economic Tradition

Hayek’s Critique of a Planned Economy


The most far-ranging critic of the German or Central European model of etatism [Total control of the state over individual citizens.] was Friedrich Hayek, an Austrian who mostly worked in the United Kingdom but toward the end of his life settled in Freiburg, in Southwestern Germany. He was largely without political influence until the 1970s. Hayek accurately identified that the interventionist approach of the Weimar Republic (which had its origins in wartime planning) created a sort of path dependency, in which the answer to failure was not an abandonment of the approach but rather a more radical version. In The Road to Serfdom, Friedrich Hayek asserted that Walter Rathenau, the intellectual who devised Germany’s innovative planning regime of World War I, “would have shuddered had he realised the consequences of his totalitarian economics” but nevertheless “deserves a considerable place in any fuller history of the growth of Nazi ideas. Through his writings he has probably, more than any other man, determined the economic views of the generation which grew up in Germany during and immediately after the last war; and some of his closest collaborators were later to form the backbone of the staff of Goering’s Five Year Plan [sic] administration.”6 Partial controls looked ineffective, so the Nazis wanted more extensive and radically enforced control. Rathenau’s major collaborator, Wichard von Moellendorff, formulated his view of a new communal economy, or Gemeinwirtschaft, provocatively and concisely: “Up to now in Germany the principle reined: free in economic matters, constrained in intellectual and spiritual affairs. The purpose of Gemeinwirtschaft is to turn that upside down.”7 In practice, however, the experience of interwar Germany showed that economic constraints also contributed to the erosion of intellectual, spiritual, and political freedoms.

A widespread response to the great financial crisis of 1931 was the imposition of capital controls, which brought the state further into the micromanagement of economic activity. Economic planning, as Hayek recognized, was inherently discriminatory: “It cannot tie itself down in advance to general and formal rules which prevent arbitrariness. . . . It must constantly decide questions which cannot be answered by formal principles only, and in making these decisions it must set up distinctions of merit between the needs of different people.”8 The issue of arbitrariness applies in a particular way to the actual implementation of capital controls. They were implemented in both Austria and Germany from 1931, that is, before the onset of the political dictatorship (Hitler came to power in January 1933, and Austrian conservatives created the reactionary corporate state, or Ständestaat, in 1934). But the dictatorship provided more means of enforcing controls. Hayek cites the German liberal thinker Wilhelm Röpke, to the effect that “while the last resort of a competitive economy is the bailiff, the ultimate sanction of the planned economy is the hangman.”9 Hayek might actually, if he had at the time known Hitler’s table talk, have cited the musings of the dictator himself: “Inflation does not arise when money enters circulation, but only when the individual demands more money for the same service. Here we must intervene. That is what I had to explain to Schacht [the president of the Nazi central bank], that the first cause of the stability of our currency is the concentration camp.”10

The decision on who should benefit from the allocation of foreign exchange became political and arbitrary. The institution invited a political process of rent-seeking, and it was those who could develop the closest contacts with the regime who benefited most. The allocation of scarce raw materials was in fact the basis of Nazi economic planning and also an initial instrument in the application of anti-Semitism: Jews were discriminated against as far as access to imports of raw materials, and their businesses suffered as a result.

Ordoliberalism

A softer version of the Hayekian critique of the old German tradition was deeply influential in Germany and had a major political impact. Known as Ordo-Liberalismus (or sometimes as the Freiburg School), and chiefly expounded by Röpke and Walter Eucken, it developed the emphasis on the state that was characteristic of the old German historical school, but altered the emphasis. According to the new doctrine, rules needed to be formulated in general terms and the state’s actions should be confined to the enforcement of such general laws, for instance, the laws on competition and against cartels, which had been an important part of the older German tradition of business management. Unlike Hayek, who more and more insisted on the spontaneous creation of order and rules, the Ordoliberals emphasized the need for an initial elaboration of an appropriate framework.

Their vision of order includes both a system of general rules and a mechanism by which those rules define the liability (or responsibility) of individuals, and of economic agents. The system fundamentally depends on the accountability of market participants. Any measure that limits accountability or responsibility by promising some sort of contingent rescue would create destructive incentives that would lead to the accumulation of unfulfillable expectations on behalf of the economic actors and unfulfillable liabilities on the part of the government as the ultimate insurer. As a consequence, Ordoliberals worried greatly about moral hazard, a term taken from insurance (a well-insured person may not take sufficient care that his house does not burn down). On these grounds, the Freiburg School and its modern successors even worry about the limited liability principle for corporations. “Unlimited liability is part of a competitive system,” Walter Eucken wrote. In his eyes, the problem was that the development of the legal system and the increased complexity of laws tend to subvert the liability principle: “Its destruction by legal policy endangers the functioning of this system.”11 So too many, and too complicated, laws would breed moral hazard, and the economic agents are given incentives to game the system.

The antitrust thinking of the new German economists also meshed well with the thinking of the US military administration. General Lucius Clay, the military governor, liked to sum up American goals for the postwar German order as the four Ds: denazification, demilitarization, democratization, and decartelization. The critical document for the initial postwar occupation policy, JCS 1067 of April 26, 1945, required the prohibition of “all cartels or other private business arrangements and cartel like organizations.”12 One of the German Ordoliberals, Franz Böhm, wrote that there was “no influential and socially strong group” supporting competition “excepting the American occupation authorities.”13

Competition law thus became a crucial part of the new German philosophy and, as advanced by Walter Hallstein, the German economist and civil servant who became the first president of the European Commission, also of European law. Ludwig Erhard, the economics minister who pushed Germany’s liberalization program, made the link between competition policy and European priorities explicit. In 1952, at the launching of the European Coal and Steel Community, he stated, “We plan to create a common European market. The aim is incompatible with a system of national or international cartels. If we want to create a higher standard of living through technical progress, rationalization, and an increase in production, we have to be against cartels.”14

The resulting vision did not completely remove the state. The Freiburg economists and also Erhard saw their ideal as a middle path between the extremes of an unregulated free market and unlimited state command, and some other economists, notably Alfred Müller-Armack, spoke of a social market economy (soziale Marktwirtschaft). Walter Eucken formulated the philosophy of the Freiburg School as follows: “A genuine, equitable, and smoothly functioning competitive system cannot in fact survive without a judicious moral and legal framework and without regular supervision of the conditions under which competition can take place pursuant to real efficiency principles. This presupposes mature economic discernment on the part of all responsible bodies and individuals and a strong impartial state.”15

The German position always remained somewhat ambivalent, and the middle way could oscillate. The rejection of the past was not as extreme as it appeared in some of the Ordoliberal manifestos. Indeed, the economic historian Albrecht Ritschl has argued (controversially) that a large part of the distinctively German and rather corporatist approach to the state-business relationship was inherited from the Nazi era.16


Ordoliberalism in Today’s Germany

In the 1960s, the German model incorporated a good deal of Keynesianism, reaching a high point in 1967 with the Law on Stability and Growth. But even the way that German Keynesianism was formulated in terms of a foundation of stability—or a rule-based order—was very characteristic of the German tradition. In addition, in academic economics, Ordoliberalism ceased to be the prevalent tradition and was largely replaced by a US-style neoclassical synthesis. There is virtually no serious academic economist who would today describe himself as an Ordoliberal (and indeed no female academic Ordoliberal); most modern Ordoliberal academics are lawyers rather than economists. Hans-Werner Sinn, one of Germany’s most publicly prominent economists, is often portrayed by outsiders as an extreme case of the German obsession with moral hazard issues, and at his retirement, the conservative Bavarian minister president Horst Seehofer celebrated him as a “Great Ordo-liberal” (which he distinguished from “narrow neo-liberals” and Milton Friedman’s “Chicago boys”); but Sinn himself instead tries to present himself as simply a classical economist.

Some Ordoliberalism survived in think tanks and in the economic research institutes that are a feature of the German intellectual landscape and constitute a bridge between academia and politics. In particular, the Hamburg Weltwirtschaftsinstitut and the Cologne Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft have been quite consistently Ordoliberal in outlook, while the Berlin German Institute for Economic Research (DIW) has long been Keynesian. The German Council of Economic Experts (Sachverständigenrat), which was set up by Ludwig Erhard in 1963, and which is intended to inform and educate the public rather than specifically to advise the government, often thinks of itself as emphasizing microeconomic foundations rather than macroeconomic interventionism and sees itself as embodying the legacy of Ordoliberalism.17 But in general, Ordoliberalism has a bad reputation, especially outside Germany, with the Financial Times journalist Wolfgang Münchau excoriating “the wacky economics of Germany’s parallel universe”: “German economists,” as he put it, “roughly fall into two groups: those that have not read Keynes, and those that have not understood Keynes.”18 It would indeed be peculiar if a whole country fell prey to a collective ideological imbecilism.

The traditions of the postwar era certainly exercise a substantial, almost subconscious, appeal to many Germans, and especially to German policy makers in the Bundesbank and perhaps also the Finance Ministry. It is also conspicuously represented in the economics pages of the major German newspaper the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) and powerfully reinforced by the fundamentally even more liberal Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung. The FAZ is generally considered to be moderately right of center, but even the moderately left Süddeutsche Zeitung devotes space to the German economic tradition. In particular, since 2009, both these large German newspapers have worried about the moral hazard implications of euro rescue measures. Those traditions represent what Keynes famously called “the gradual encroachment of ideas” that rendered politicians and practical men as “slaves of some defunct economist.” As the Bundesbank had a major input in the design of the European monetary union, some commentators speak of the “Ordoliberalization of Europe.”19

But there is also something of a political pushback against the residues of Ordoliberalism. German officials in some Berlin ministries like to voice their dissent from alleged “fundamentalists” in the Bundesbank.20 The government also started to distance itself from the Council of Economic Advisers, complaining that the economists there were too dogmatic and inflexible and were looking “too much through German spectacles” and to taking into account the weakness of demand in peripheral Europe. The Social Democratic Party (SPD) economics minister Sigmar Gabriel pointedly delayed supporting the renomination of the chairman of the economic advisers, Christoph Schmidt. The council had provoked the government by criticizing many of the policies of the coalition government and demanding a return to more Erhard-style market-friendly policies. The SPD’s general secretary complained that the council was proceeding in an unscientific way.21

In the course of the euro debt crisis, German critics of the euro and the various rescue packages and measures liked to present themselves as the voice of the economics profession. “Economics professors” in Germany came to have a sort of ideological definition. They were the five professors who conducted a complaint against the Greek rescue package in 2009 (Wilhelm Hankel, Wilhelm Nölling, Karl Albrecht Schachtschneider, Dieter Spethmann, and Joachim Starbatty—only one of these was really an academic professor of economics, and he was retired).22 They were the 172 professors who in July 2012 signed a letter to the FAZ attacking the banking union plan.23 Or another group of five who together with other groups and with over 37,000 individual complainants organized by the Left Party in 2012 launched a constitutional complaint against ECB bond purchases.24 The phenomenon of economics professors even eventually appeared as a new political party: Bernd Lucke (an economics professor from Hamburg) and Konrad Adam (a retired FAZ journalist) formed an anti-euro protest party, the Alternative für Deutschland (AfD), which polled surprisingly strongly in the European Parliament elections of 2014. These organized mobilizations of economics professors were not truly representative of the economics profession in Germany, but they wanted to give the impression that they were. Later, the economic professors were forced out of the AfD, which turned in a radical right direction.

Ordoliberalism in a European Context

The lineage from the Ordoliberals of the immediate postwar era to the modern politics of the euro does not only run in a solely German, or national, direction. Some of the background to the reversal of the German stance from etatism to an assertion of the liberal principles of economics occurred on a European level. One of the most interesting attempts to promote new economic thinking on a European level took place in Paris in August 1938. Twenty-six economists and other intellectuals, from all over Europe, had been summoned by the French philosopher Louis Rougier to discuss Walter Lippmann’s 1937 book The Good Society. In that book, Lippmann had defended political and economic liberalism in the face of a rising worldwide tide of illiberal antiparliamentary movements based on centralized economic planning: communism, fascism, National Socialism. The meeting included two figures who would be prominent in developing the German approach to Ordoliberalism, Wilhelm Röpke and Alexander Rüstow, although interestingly (and characteristically in the light of the historical moment) none of the participants were described as German: Rüstow was described as coming from Turkey, where he lived in exile, and Röpke as “école autrichienne, Austrian school,” along with Ludwig von Mises. Some of the most influential postwar French economic figures participated, Jacques Rueff, Raymond Aron, and Robert Marjolin.25

After 1945, the development of the European Union lends itself to the kind of analysis that the Ordoliberal school undertook immediately after World War II of the problem of the proliferation of rules and the tendency to augment or even replace general laws with particular decrees. Designed on Ordoliberal principles, as Bundesbank president Jens Weidmann recently pointed out, because of the need to observe rules in a federal setting, the European Union is vulnerable as a result of the ever more complex rules that after the financial crisis seem necessary to ensure its functioning.26 As Eucken warned, the elaboration of such detailed rules opens the way to the assertion of particular interests and the undermining of the collective project.


The elements of the German economic intellectual tradition can be summed up as follows:

1. A focus on the legal, moral, and political foundation of free markets in agreed rules, which may be treaties or laws or also common or shared understandings.27

2. A strong emphasis on responsibility and accountability. Participants in the market and those in the political process both have a responsibility. For market participants, the responsibility is a financial one—they need to pay the price of failure; politicians are accountable to voters. In short, as a Bundesbank official recently put it, those who have control and take risks also need to face the consequences of their actions.28

3. A concern with the potential for moral hazard arising out of lender of last resort activities. The IMF package for Mexico in 1994–5 was heavily criticized by German officials as encouraging reckless behavior on financial markets by increasing the likelihood of future rescue operations.

4. A concern that lender of last resort (LLR) action may corrupt or pollute monetary policy, because a central bank that has an LLR obligation might be force to give financial sector stability priority over price stability.

5. A belief that firm or binding rules are needed to shield monetary policy from fiscal dominance, namely, the view that government, by raising the permanent level of expenditures without at the same time raising taxes, can affect the current and future flows of the monetary base and, hence, of the money stock and of the inflation rate.29

6. A strict approach to government debt and to debt ceilings. Germany pioneered an approach that it now proposes to Europeanize, with a 2009 law mandating a deficit limit at the federal level of 0.35 percent of GDP by 2016 and an elimination of deficits for states by 2020. German think tanks like the idea of a Europeanization of fiscal rules enforced by some sort of fiscal or debt council.30

7. Growth is not achieved by the provision of additional money or resources but by structural reforms.31 Additional money is a sort of trickery, doomed to failure, and analogous to trying to pull yourself out of a swamp by pulling on your bootstraps.

8. A belief that present virtue—or austerity—is rewarded by future benefits.

French Economic Tradition

France too began the postwar era by rejecting the economic orthodoxies of its past and by seeking to Europeanize its new priorities. The economist and economic historian Alfred Sauvy characterized the old economics, which emphasized the limitations on government action, as contributing to “Malthusianism,” low growth and stagnation. Low growth and stagnation had weakened France politically, socially, and also militarily. The obsession with balanced budgets had led to a cutting of defense expenditures that made France more vulnerable. The architect of the “super-deflation” of the 1930s, Pierre Laval, was also the man who after 1940 went furthest in the political compromise with Hitler. Malthusianism thus was held to bear the ultimate responsibility for the military collapse of 1940 and the end of the French Republic.

Part of the Malthusian picture had been French unwillingness to take John Maynard Keynes seriously. Keynes was not a popular figure in France, doubtless because of his well-known criticism of the 1919 Versailles Treaty, and in pre-1940 French debates, the role of the state was not seen primarily in terms of macroeconomic stimulus. The new postwar French alternative to Malthusianism particularly emphasized the need for the state to coordinate and plan investment. An unplanned or spontaneous market order was likely to lead to underinvestment and low growth. There was thus a need for planisme.

The new concern always sat uneasily with many of the views of the most prominent French economists. Jacques Rueff had gone to London with General de Gaulle but remained an advocate of an enlightened liberalism as well as of monetary orthodoxy: he pleaded continually for a version of the gold standard. The later Nobel Prize laureate Maurice Allais made his reputation with a 1943 book, A la Recherche d’une Discipline Economique. L’Economie Pure, in which he sought to find a solution to “the fundamental problem of any economy”: how to promote the greatest feasible economic efficiency while ensuring a distribution of income that would be generally acceptable. Though it is sometimes claimed that Allais’s approach to capital and time preference laid the foundations for subsequent planning, he always considered himself an economic liberal. He attended the first meeting of the Mont Pélerin Society in 1947, and though he refused to sign the Statement of Aims, he wrote to Hayek that he wished to express his “profound agreement with economic and political liberty.” His dissent was based on the view that land should be held as national property: in every other respect, he was a classical liberal.32

-- Chapter 3: Historical Roots of German-French Differences, from The Euro and the Battle of Ideas, by Markus K. Brunnermeier, Harold James & Jean-Pierre Landau, 2016


Image
UNESCO
Image
Abbreviation UNESCO
Formation 4 November 1946; 72 years ago
Type United Nations specialised agency
Legal status Active
Headquarters Paris, France
Head
Director-General
Audrey Azoulay
Parent organization
United Nations Economic and Social Council
Website http://www.unesco.org
UN emblem blue.svg United Nations portal

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO[1]; French: Organisation des Nations unies pour l'éducation, la science et la culture) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) based in Paris. Its declared purpose is to contribute to promoting international collaboration in education, sciences, and culture in order to increase universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the United Nations Charter.[2] It is the successor of the League of Nations' International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.[3]

UNESCO has 193 member states and 11 associate members.[4] Most of its field offices are "cluster" offices covering three or more countries; national and regional offices also exist.

UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs: education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and communication/information. Projects sponsored by UNESCO include literacy, technical, and teacher-training programs, international science programs, the promotion of independent media and freedom of the press, regional and cultural history projects, the promotion of cultural diversity, translations of world literature, international cooperation agreements to secure the world's cultural and natural heritage (World Heritage Sites) and to preserve human rights, and attempts to bridge the worldwide digital divide. It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.[5]

UNESCO's aim is "to contribute to the building of peace, the eradication of poverty, sustainable development and intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture, communication and information".[6] Other priorities of the organization include attaining quality Education For All and lifelong learning, addressing emerging social and ethical challenges, fostering cultural diversity, a culture of peace and building inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication.[7]

The broad goals and objectives of the international community—as set out in the internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)—underpin all UNESCO strategies and activities.

History

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Flag of UNESCO

UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, to elect a Commission to study feasibility.[8][9] This new body, the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC) was indeed created in 1922. On 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education (IBE) began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development.[10] However, the onset of World War II largely interrupted the work of these predecessor organizations.

After the signing of the Atlantic Charter and the Declaration of the United Nations, the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME) began meetings in London which continued from 16 November 1942 to 5 December 1945. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an international organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States and the USSR. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944. Upon the proposal of CAME and in accordance with the recommendations of the United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO), held in San Francisco in April–June 1945, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London 1–16 November 1945 with 44 governments represented. The idea of UNESCO was largely developed by Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom, who had a great deal of influence in its development.[11] At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, and a Preparatory Commission was established.[12] The Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCO's Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state.[13]

The first General Conference took place from 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General.[14] The Constitution was amended in November 1954 when the General Conference resolved that members of the Executive Board would be representatives of the governments of the States of which they are nationals and would not, as before, act in their personal capacity.[15] This change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the ICIC, in how member states would work together in the organization's fields of competence. As member states worked together over time to realize UNESCO's mandate, political and historical factors have shaped the organization's operations in particular during the Cold War, the decolonization process, and the dissolution of the USSR.

Among the major achievements of the organization is its work against racism, for example through influential statements on race starting with a declaration of anthropologists (among them was Claude Lévi-Strauss) and other scientists in 1950[16] and concluding with the 1978 Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice.[17] In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO saying that some of the organization's publications amounted to "interference" in the country's "racial problems."[18] South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela.

UNESCO's early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947.[19] This project was followed by expert missions to other countries, including, for example, a mission to Afghanistan in 1949.[20] In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory and universal.[21] In 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults.[22] Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, led member governments to commit to achieving basic education for all by 2015.[23]

UNESCO's early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960.[24] The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam. During the 20-year campaign, 22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan), Fes (Morocco), Kathmandu (Nepal), Borobudur (Indonesia) and the Acropolis (Greece). The organization's work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.[25] The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978.[26] Since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 (Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage[27]) and 2005 (Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions[28]).

An intergovernmental meeting of UNESCO in Paris in December 1951 led to the creation of the European Council for Nuclear Research, which was responsible for establishing the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)[29] later on, in 1954.

Arid Zone programming, 1948–1966, is another example of an early major UNESCO project in the field of natural sciences.[30] In 1968, UNESCO organized the first intergovernmental conference aimed at reconciling the environment and development, a problem which continues to be addressed in the field of sustainable development. The main outcome of the 1968 conference was the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme.[31]

In the field of communication, the "free flow of ideas by word and image" has been in UNESCO's constitution from its beginnings, following the experience of the Second World War when control of information was a factor in indoctrinating populations for aggression.[32] In the years immediately following World War II, efforts were concentrated on reconstruction and on the identification of needs for means of mass communication around the world. UNESCO started organizing training and education for journalists in the 1950s.[33] In response to calls for a "New World Information and Communication Order" in the late 1970s, UNESCO established the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems,[34] which produced the 1980 MacBride report (named after the Chair of the Commission, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate Seán MacBride).[35] The same year, UNESCO created the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), a multilateral forum designed to promote media development in developing countries.[36][37] In 1991, UNESCO's General Conference endorsed the Windhoek Declaration on media independence and pluralism, which led the UN General Assembly to declare the date of its adoption, 3 May, as World Press Freedom Day.[38] Since 1997, UNESCO has awarded the UNESCO / Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize every 3 May. In the lead up to the World Summit on the Information Society in 2003 (Geneva) and 2005 (Tunis), UNESCO introduced the Information for All Programme.

UNESCO admitted Palestine as a member in 2011.[39][40] Laws passed in the United States in 1990 and 1994 mean that it cannot contribute financially to any UN organisation that accepts Palestine as a full member.[41] As a result, it withdrew its funding which accounted for about 22% of UNESCO's budget.[42] Israel also reacted to Palestine's admittance to UNESCO by freezing Israeli payments to the UNESCO and imposing sanctions to the Palestinian Authority,[43] stating that Palestine's admittance would be detrimental "to potential peace talks".[44] Two years after they stopped paying their dues to UNESCO, US and Israel lost UNESCO voting rights in 2013 without losing the right to be elected; thus, the US was elected as a member of the Executive Board for the period 2016–19.[45]

Activities

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UNESCO offices in Brasília

UNESCO implements its activities through the five programme areas: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, and communication and information.

• Education: UNESCO supports research in comparative education; and provide expertise and fosters partnerships to strengthen national educational leadership and the capacity of countries to offer quality education for all. This includes the
o UNESCO Chairs, an international network of 644 UNESCO Chairs, involving over 770 institutions in 126 countries
o Environmental Conservation Organisation
o Convention against Discrimination in Education adopted in 1960
o Organization of the International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA) in an interval of 12 years
o Publication of the Education for All Global Monitoring Report
o Publication of the Four Pillars of Learning seminal document
o UNESCO ASPNet, an international network of 8,000 schools in 170 countries

UNESCO does not accredit institutions of higher learning.[46]

• UNESCO also issues public statements to educate the public:
o Seville Statement on Violence: A statement adopted by UNESCO in 1989 to refute the notion that humans are biologically predisposed to organised violence.
• Designating projects and places of cultural and scientific significance, such as:
o Global Geoparks Network
o Biosphere reserves, through the Programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB), since 1971
o City of Literature; in 2007, the first city to be given this title was Edinburgh, the site of Scotland's first circulating library.[47] In 2008, Iowa City, Iowa became the City of Literature.
o Endangered languages and linguistic diversity projects
o Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
o Memory of the World International Register, since 1997
o Water resources management, through the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), since 1965
o World Heritage Sites
o World Digital Library
• Encouraging the "free flow of ideas by images and words" by:
o Promoting freedom of expression, including freedom of the press and freedom of information legislation, through the Division of Freedom of Expression and Media Development,[48] including the International Programme for the Development of Communication[49]
o Promoting the safety of journalists and combatting impunity for those who attack them,[50] through coordination of the UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity[51]
o Promoting universal access to and preservation of information and open solutions for sustainable development through the Knowledge Societies Division,[52]including the Memory of the World Programme[53] and Information for All Programme[54]
o Promoting pluralism, gender equality and cultural diversity in the media
o Promoting Internet Universality and its principles, that the Internet should be (I) human Rights-based, (ii) Open, (iii) Accessible to all, and (iv) nurtured by Multi-stakeholder participation (summarized as the acronym R.O.A.M.)[55]
o Generating knowledge through publications such as World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development,[56] the UNESCO Series on Internet Freedom,[57] and the Media Development Indicators,[58] as well as other indicator-based studies.
• Promoting events, such as:
o International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World: 2001–2010, proclaimed by the UN in 1998
o World Press Freedom Day, 3 May each year, to promote freedom of expression and freedom of the press as a basic human right and as crucial components of any healthy, democratic and free society.
o Criança Esperança in Brazil, in partnership with Rede Globo, to raise funds for community-based projects that foster social integration and violence prevention.
o International Literacy Day
o International Year for the Culture of Peace
o Health Education for Behavior Change program in partnership with the Ministry of Education of Kenya which was financially supported by the Government of Azerbaijan to promote health education among 10-19-year-old young people who live in informal camp in Kibera, Nairobi. The project was carried out between September 2014 - December 2016.[59]
• Founding and funding projects, such as:
o Migration Museums Initiative: Promoting the establishment of museums for cultural dialogue with migrant populations.[60]
o UNESCO-CEPES, the European Centre for Higher Education: established in 1972 in Bucharest, Romania, as a de-centralized office to promote international co-operation in higher education in Europe as well as Canada, USA and Israel. Higher Education in Europe is its official journal.
o Free Software Directory: since 1998 UNESCO and the Free Software Foundation have jointly funded this project cataloguing free software.
o FRESH Focussing Resources on Effective School Health.[61]
o OANA, Organization of Asia-Pacific News Agencies
o International Council of Science
o UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors
o ASOMPS, Asian Symposium on Medicinal Plants and Spices, a series of scientific conferences held in Asia
o Botany 2000, a programme supporting taxonomy, and biological and cultural diversity of medicinal and ornamental plants, and their protection against environmental pollution
o The UNESCO Collection of Representative Works, translating works of world literature both to and from multiple languages, from 1948 to 2005
o GoUNESCO, an umbrella of initiatives to make heritage fun supported by UNESCO, New Delhi Office[62]

The UNESCO transparency portal has been designed to enable public access to information regarding Organization's activities, such as its aggregate budget for a biennium, as well as links to relevant programmatic and financial documents. These two distinct sets of information are published on the IATI registry, respectively based on the IATI Activity Standard and the IATI Organization Standard.

There have been proposals to establish two new UNESCO lists. The first proposed list will focus on movable cultural heritage such as artifacts, paintings, and biofacts. The list may include cultural objects, such as the Jōmon Venus of Japan, the Mona Lisa of France, the Gebel el-Arak Knife of Egypt, The Ninth Wave of Russia, the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük of Turkey, the David (Michelangelo) of Italy, the Mathura Herakles of India, the Manunggul Jar of the Philippines, the Crown of Baekje of South Korea, The Hay Wain of the United Kingdom and the Benin Bronzes of Nigeria. The second proposed list will focus on the world's living species, such as the Komodo Dragon of Indonesia, the Panda of China, the Bald eagle of North American countries, the Aye-aye of Madagascar, the Asiatic Lion of India, the Kakapo of New Zealand, and the Mountain tapir of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.[63][64]

Media

UNESCO and its specialized institutions issue a number of magazines.

The UNESCO Courier magazine states its mission to "promote UNESCO's ideals, maintain a platform for the dialogue between cultures and provide a forum for international debate." Since March 2006 it is available online, with limited printed issues. Its articles express the opinions of the authors which are not necessarily the opinions of UNESCO. There was a hiatus in publishing between 2012 and 2017.[65]

In 1950, UNESCO initiated the quarterly review Impact of Science on Society (also known as Impact) to discuss the influence of science on society. The journal ceased publication in 1992.[66] UNESCO also published Museum International Quarterly from the year 1948.

Official UNESCO NGOs

UNESCO has official relations with 322 international non-governmental organizations (NGOs).[67] Most of these are what UNESCO calls "operational"; a select few are "formal".[68] The highest form of affiliation to UNESCO is "formal associate", and the 22 NGOs[69] with formal associate (ASC) relations occupying offices at UNESCO are:

Abbr / Organization

IB International Baccalaureate
CCIVS Co-ordinating Committee for International Voluntary Service
EI Education International
IAU International Association of Universities
IFTC International Council for Film, Television and Audiovisual Communication
ICPHS International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies which publishes Diogenes
ICSU International Council for Science
ICOM International Council of Museums
ICSSPE International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education
ICA International Council on Archives
ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites
IFJ International Federation of Journalists
IFLA International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
IFPA International Federation of Poetry Associations
IMC International Music Council
IPA International Police Association
INSULA International Scientific Council for Island Development
ISSC International Social Science Council
ITI International Theatre Institute
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
IUTAO International Union of Technical Associations and Organizations
UIA Union of International Associations
WAN World Association of Newspapers
WFEO World Federation of Engineering Organizations
WFUCA World Federation of UNESCO Clubs, Centres and Associations

Image
UNESCO Institute for Water Education in Delft

Institutes and centres

The institutes are specialized departments of the organization that support UNESCO's programme, providing specialized support for cluster and national offices.

Abbr / Name / Location

IBE International Bureau of Education Geneva[70]
UIL UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning Hamburg[71]
IIEP UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning Paris (headquarters) and Buenos Aires and Dakar (regional offices)[72]
IITE UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education Moscow[73]
IICBA UNESCO International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa Addis Ababa[74]
IESALC UNESCO International Institute for Higher Education in Latin America and the Caribbean Caracas[75]
UNESCO-UNEVOC UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training Bonn[76]
UNESCO-IHE UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education Delft[77]
ICTP International Centre for Theoretical Physics Trieste[78]
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics Montreal[79]

Prizes

UNESCO awards 22 prizes[80] in education, science, culture and peace:

• Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize
• L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science
• UNESCO/King Sejong Literacy Prize
• UNESCO/Confucius Prize for Literacy
• UNESCO/Emir Jaber al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah Prize to promote Quality Education for Persons with Intellectual Disabilities
• UNESCO King Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa Prize for the Use of Information and Communication Technologies in Education
• UNESCO/Hamdan Bin Rashid Al-Maktoum Prize for Outstanding Practice and Performance in Enhancing the Effectiveness of Teachers
• UNESCO/Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science
• UNESCO/Institut Pasteur Medal for an outstanding contribution to the development of scientific knowledge that has a beneficial impact on human health
• UNESCO/Sultan Qaboos Prize for Environmental Preservation
• Great Man-Made River International Water Prize for Water Resources in Arid Zones presented by UNESCO (title to be reconsidered)
• Michel Batisse Award for Biosphere Reserve Management
• UNESCO/Bilbao Prize for the Promotion of a Culture of Human Rights
• UNESCO Prize for Peace Education
• UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize for the Promotion of Tolerance and Non-Violence
• UNESCO/International José Martí Prize
• UNESCO/Avicenna Prize for Ethics in Science
• UNESCO/Juan Bosch Prize for the Promotion of Social Science Research in Latin America and the Caribbean
• Sharjah Prize for Arab Culture
• Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguarding and Management of Cultural Landscapes (UNESCO-Greece)
• IPDC-UNESCO Prize for Rural Communication
• UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize
• UNESCO/Jikji Memory of the World Prize
• UNESCO-Equatorial Guinea International Prize for Research in the Life Sciences
• Carlos J. Finlay Prize for Microbiology

Inactive prizes

• International Simón Bolívar Prize (inactive since 2004)
• UNESCO Prize for Human Rights Education
• UNESCO/Obiang Nguema Mbasogo International Prize for Research in the Life Sciences (inactive since 2010)
• UNESCO Prize for the Promotion of the Arts

International Days observed at UNESCO

International Days observed at UNESCO is provided in the table given below[81]

Date / Name

27 January International Day of Commemoration in Memory of the Victims of the Holocaust
13 February World Radio Day
21 February International Mother Language Day
8 March International Women's Day
20 March International Francophonie Day
21 March International Day of Nowruz
21 March World Poetry Day
21 March International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
22 March World Day for Water
23 April World Book and Copyright Day
30 April International Jazz Day
3 May World Press Freedom Day
21 May World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development
22 May International Day for Biological Diversity
25 May Africa Day / Africa Week
5 June World Environment Day
8 June World Oceans Day
17 June World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought
9 August International Day of the World's Indigenous People
12 August International Youth Day
23 August International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition
8 September International Literacy Day
15 September International Day of Democracy
21 September International Day of Peace
28 September International Day for the Universal Access to Information
2 October International Day of Non-Violence
5 October World Teachers' Day
2nd Wednesday in October International Day for Disaster Reduction
17 October International Day for the Eradication of Poverty
20 October World Statistics Day
27 October World Day for Audiovisual Heritage
2 November International Day to End Impunity for Crimes Against Journalists[82]
10 November World Science Day for Peace and Development
3rd Thursday in November World Philosophy Day
16 November International Day for Tolerance
19 November International Men's Day
25 November International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women
29 November International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People
1 December World AIDS Day
10 December Human Rights Day
18 December International Migrants Day

Member states

Main article: Member states of UNESCO

As of January 2019, UNESCO has 193 member states and 11 associate members.[83] Some members are not independent states and some members have additional National Organizing Committees from some of their dependent territories.[84] UNESCO state parties are the United Nations member states (except Liechtenstein, United States[85] and Israel[86]), as well as Cook Islands, Niue and Palestine.[87][88] The United States and Israel left UNESCO on 31 December 2018.[89]

Governing bodies

Director-General


There has been no elected UNESCO Director-General from Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central and North Asia, Middle East, North Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, South Africa, Australia-Oceania, and South America since inception.

The Directors-General of UNESCO came from West Europe (5), Central America (1), North America (2), West Africa (1), East Asia (1), and East Europe (1). Out of the 11 Directors-General since inception, women have held the position only twice. Qatar, the Philippines, and Iran are proposing for a Director-General bid by 2021 or 2025. There have never been a Middle Eastern or Southeast Asian UNESCO Director-General since inception. The ASEAN bloc and some Pacific and Latin American nations support the possible bid of the Philippines, which is culturally Asian, Oceanic, and Latin. Qatar and Iran, on the other hand, have fragmented support in the Middle East. Egypt, Israel, and Madagascar are also vying for the position but have yet to express a direct or indirect proposal. Both Qatar and Egypt lost in the 2017 bid against France.

The list of the Directors-General of UNESCO since its establishment in 1946 is as follows:[90]

Name / Country / Term

Audrey Azoulay France 2017–present
Irina Bokova Bulgaria 2009–2017
Koïchiro Matsuura Japan 1999–2009
Federico Mayor Zaragoza Spain 1987–99
Amadou-Mahtar M'Bow Senegal 1974–87
René Maheu France 1961–74; acting 1961
Vittorino Veronese Italy 1958–61
Luther Evans United States 1953–58
John Wilkinson Taylor United States acting 1952–53
Jaime Torres Bodet Mexico 1948–52
Julian Huxley United Kingdom 1946–48

General Conference

This is the list of the sessions of the UNESCO General Conference held since 1946:[91]

Session / Location / Year / Chaired by / from

39th Paris 2017 Zohour Alaoui[92] Morocco
38th Paris 2015 Stanley Mutumba Simataa[93] Namibia
37th[94] Paris 2013 Hao Ping China
36th Paris 2011 Katalin Bogyay Hungary
35th Paris 2009 Davidson Hepburn Bahamas
34th Paris 2007 George N. Anastassopoulos Greece
33rd Paris 2005 Musa Bin Jaafar Bin Hassan Oman
32nd Paris 2003 Michael Omolewa Nigeria
31st Paris 2001 Ahmad Jalali Iran
30th Paris 1999 Jaroslava Moserová Czech Republic
29th Paris 1997 Eduardo Portella Brazil
28th Paris 1995 Torben Krogh Denmark
27th Paris 1993 Ahmed Saleh Sayyad Yemen
26th Paris 1991 Bethwell Allan Ogot Kenya
25th Paris 1989 Anwar Ibrahim Malaysia
24th Paris 1987 Guillermo Putzeys Alvarez Guatemala
23rd Sofia 1985 Nikolai Todorov Bulgaria
22nd Paris 1983 Saïd Tell Jordan
4th extraordinary Paris 1982
21st Belgrade 1980 Ivo Margan Yugoslavia
20th Paris 1978 Napoléon LeBlanc Canada
19th Nairobi 1976 Taaita Toweett Kenya
18th Paris 1974 Magda Jóború Hungary
3rd extraordinary Paris 1973
17th Paris 1972 Toru Haguiwara Japan
16th Paris 1970 Atilio Dell'Oro Maini Argentina
15th Paris 1968 William Eteki Mboumoua Cameroon
14th Paris 1966 Bedrettin Tuncel Turkey
13th Paris 1964 Norair Sisakian Soviet Union
12th Paris 1962 Paulo de Berrêdo Carneiro Brazil
11th Paris 1960 Akale-Work Abte-Wold Ethiopia
10th Paris 1958 Jean Berthoin France
9th New Delhi 1956 Abul Kalam Azad India
8th Montevideo 1954 Justino Zavala Muñiz Uruguay
2nd extraordinary Paris 1953
7th Paris 1952 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan India
6th Paris 1951 Howland H. Sargeant United States
5th Florence 1950 Stefano Jacini Italy
4th Paris 1949 Edward Ronald Walker Australia
1st extraordinary Paris 1948
3rd Beirut 1948 Hamid Bey Frangie Lebanon
2nd Mexico City 1947 Manuel Gual Vidal Mexico
1st Paris 1946 Léon Blum France
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Executive Board

Term: 2017–19[95]

Group I (9 seats)
France
Greece
Italy
Spain
United Kingdom

Group II (7 seats)
Lithuania
Russia
Serbia
Slovenia

Group III (10 seats)
Brazil
Haiti
Mexico
Nicaragua
Paraguay

Group IV (12 seats)
India
Iran
Malaysia
Pakistan
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Vietnam

Group V(a) (13 seats)
Cameroon
Ivory Coast
Ghana
Kenya
Nigeria
Senegal
South Africa

Group V(b) (7 seats)
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Sudan

2014–17[96]

Group I (9 seats)
Germany
Netherlands
Sweden

Group II (7 seats)
Albania
Estonia
Ukraine

Group III (10 seats)
Argentina
Belize
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Trinidad and Tobago

Group IV (12 seats)
Bangladesh
China
India
Japan
Nepal
Turkmenistan

Group V(a) (13 seats)
Chad
Guinea
Mauritius
Mozambique
Togo
Uganda

Group V(b) (7 seats)
Algeria
Egypt
Kuwait
Morocco

2012–15

Group I (9 seats)
Austria
France
Italy
India
Spain
United Kingdom
United States

Group II (7 seats)
Czech Republic
Montenegro
Russia
North Macedonia

Group III (10 seats)
Brazil
Cuba
Ecuador
Mexico

Group IV (12 seats)
Afghanistan
Indonesia
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
South Korea
Thailand

Group V(a) (13 seats)
Angola
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Malawi
Mali
Namibia
Nigeria

Group V(b) (7 seats)
Jordan
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates

Offices and headquarters

Image
The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.

UNESCO headquarters are located at Place de Fontenoy in Paris, France.

UNESCO's field offices across the globe are categorized into four primary office types based upon their function and geographic coverage: cluster offices, national offices, regional bureaus and liaison offices.

Field offices by region

The following list of all UNESCO Field Offices is organized geographically by UNESCO Region and identifies the members states and associate members of UNESCO which are served by each office.[97]

Africa

• Abidjan – National Office to Côte d'Ivoire
• Abuja – National Office to Nigeria
• Accra – Cluster Office for Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Togo
• Addis Ababa – Liaison Office with the African Union and with the Economic Commission for Africa
• Bamako – Cluster Office for Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali and Niger
• Brazzaville – National Office to the Republic of the Congo
• Bujumbura – National Office to Burundi
• Dakar – Regional Bureau for Education in Africa and Cluster Office for Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, and Senegal
• Dar es Salaam – Cluster Office for Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles and Tanzania
• Harare – Cluster Office for Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe
• Juba – National Office to South Sudan
• Kinshasa – National Office to the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Libreville – Cluster Office for the Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Sao Tome and Principe
• Maputo – National Office to Mozambique
• Nairobi – Regional Bureau for Sciences in Africa and Cluster Office for Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan and Uganda
• Windhoek – National Office to Namibia
• Yaoundé – Cluster Office to Cameroon, Central African Republic and Chad

Arab States

• Amman – National Office to Jordan
• Beirut – Regional Bureau for Education in the Arab States and Cluster Office to Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Palestine
• Cairo – Regional Bureau for Sciences in the Arab States and Cluster Office for Egypt, Libya and Sudan
• Doha – Cluster Office to Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
• Iraq – National Office for Iraq (currently located in Amman, Jordan)
• Khartoum – National Office to Sudan
• Manama - Arab Regional Centre for World Heritage
• Rabat – Cluster Office to Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia
• Ramallah – National Office to the Palestinian Territories

Asia and Pacific

See also: UNESCO Asia Pacific Heritage Awards

• Apia – Cluster Office to Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Tokelau (Associate Member)
• Bangkok – Regional Bureau for Education in Asia and the Pacific and Cluster Office to Thailand, Burma, Laos, Singapore and Vietnam
• Beijing – Cluster Office to North Korea, Japan, Mongolia, the People's Republic of China and South Korea
• Dhaka – National Office to Bangladesh
• Hanoi – National Office to Vietnam
• Islamabad – National Office to Pakistan
• Jakarta – Regional Bureau for Sciences in Asia and the Pacific and Cluster Office to the Philippines, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and East Timor
• Manila - National Office to the Philippines
• Kabul – National Office to Afghanistan
• Kathmandu – National Office to Nepal
• New Delhi – Cluster Office to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives and Sri Lanka
• Phnom Penh – National Office to Cambodia
• Tashkent – National Office to Uzbekistan
• Tehran – Cluster Office to Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and Turkmenistan

Europe and North America

• Almaty – Cluster Office to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
• Brussels – Liaison Office to the European Union and its subsidiary bodies in Brussels
• Geneva – Liaison Office to the United Nations in Geneva
• New York City – Liaison Office to the United Nations in New York
• Moscow – Cluster Office to Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova and Russia
• Venice – Regional Bureau for Sciences and Culture in Europe

Latin America and the Caribbean

Image
Carondelet Palace, Presidential Palace – with changing of the guards. The Historic Center of Quito, Ecuador, is one of the largest, least-altered and best-preserved historic centers in the Americas.[98] This center was, together with the historic centre of Kraków in Poland, the first to be declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 18 September 1978.

• Brasilia – National Office to Brazil[99]
• Guatemala City – National Office to Guatemala
• Havana – Regional Bureau for Culture in Latin America and the Caribbean and Cluster Office to Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti and Aruba
• Kingston – Cluster Office to Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago as well as the associate member states of British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Curaçao and Sint Maarten
• Lima – National Office to Peru
• Mexico City – National Office to Mexico
• Montevideo – Regional Bureau for Sciences in Latin America and the Caribbean and Cluster Office to Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay
• Port-au-Prince – National Office to Haiti
• Quito – Cluster Office to Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela[100]
• San José – Cluster Office to Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama
• Santiago de Chile – Regional Bureau for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean and National Office to Chile

Controversies

New World Information and Communication order


UNESCO has been the centre of controversy in the past, particularly in its relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, Singapore and the former Soviet Union. During the 1970s and 1980s, UNESCO's support for a "New World Information and Communication Order" and its MacBride report calling for democratization of the media and more egalitarian access to information was condemned in these countries as attempts to curb freedom of the press. UNESCO was perceived as a platform for communists and Third World dictators to attack the West, in contrast to accusations made by the USSR in the late 1940s and early 1950s.[101] In 1984, the United States withheld its contributions and withdrew from the organization in protest, followed by the United Kingdom in 1985.[102] Singapore withdrew also at the end of 1985, citing rising membership fees.[103] Following a change of government in 1997, the UK rejoined. The United States rejoined in 2003, followed by Singapore on 8 October 2007.[104]

Israel

Israel was admitted to UNESCO in 1949, one year after its creation. Israel has maintained its membership since 1949. In 2010, Israel designated the Cave of the Patriarchs, Hebron and Rachel's Tomb, Bethlehem as National Heritage Sites and announced restoration work, prompting criticism from the Obama administration and protests from Palestinians.[105] In October 2010, UNESCO's Executive Board voted to declare the sites as "al-Haram al-Ibrahimi/Tomb of the Patriarchs" and "Bilal bin Rabah Mosque/Rachel's Tomb" and stated that they were "an integral part of the occupied Palestinian Territories" and any unilateral Israeli action was a violation of international law.[106] UNESCO described the sites as significant to "people of the Muslim, Christian and Jewish traditions", and accused Israel of highlighting only the Jewish character of the sites.[107] Israel in turn accused UNESCO of "detach[ing] the Nation of Israel from its heritage", and accused it of being politically motivated.[108] The Rabbi of the Western Wall said that Rachel's tomb had not previously been declared a holy Muslim site.[109] Israel partially suspended ties with UNESCO. Israeli Deputy Foreign Minister Danny Ayalon declared that the resolution was a "part of Palestinian escalation". Zevulun Orlev, chairman of the Knesset Education and Culture Committee, referred to the resolutions as an attempt to undermine the mission of UNESCO as a scientific and cultural organization that promotes cooperation throughout the world.[110][111]

On 28 June 2011, UNESCO's World Heritage Committee, at Jordan's insistence, censured[clarification needed] Israel's decision to demolish and rebuild the Mughrabi Gate Bridge in Jerusalem for safety reasons. Israel stated that Jordan had signed an agreement with Israel stipulating that the existing bridge must be dismantled for safety reasons; Jordan disputed the agreement, saying that it was only signed under U.S. pressure. Israel was also unable to address the UNESCO committee over objections from Egypt.[112]

In January 2014, days before it was scheduled to open, UNESCO Director-General, Irina Bokova, "indefinitely postponed" and effectively cancelled an exhibit created by the Simon Wiesenthal Center entitled "The People, The Book, The Land: The 3,500-year relationship between the Jewish people and the Land of Israel." The event was scheduled to run from 21 January through 30 January in Paris. Bokova cancelled the event after representatives of Arab states at UNESCO argued that its display would "harm the peace process".[113] The author of the exhibition, Professor Robert Wistrich of the Hebrew University's Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Anti-Semitism, called the cancellation an "appalling act," and characterized Bokova's decision as "an arbitrary act of total cynicism and, really, contempt for the Jewish people and its history." UNESCO amended the decision to cancel the exhibit within the year, and it quickly achieved popularity and was viewed as a great success.[114]

On January 1, 2019, Israel formally left UNESCO in pursuance of the US withdrawal over the perceived continuous anti-Israel bias.

Occupied Palestine Resolution

Main article: Occupied Palestine Resolution

On 13 October 2016, UNESCO passed a resolution on East Jerusalem that condemned Israel for "aggressions" by Israeli police and soldiers and "illegal measures" against the freedom of worship and Muslims' access to their holy sites, while also recognizing Israel as the occupying power. Palestinian leaders welcomed the decision.[115] While the text acknowledged the "importance of the Old City of Jerusalem and its walls for the three monotheistic religions", it referred to the sacred hilltop compound in Jerusalem's Old City only by its Muslim name "Al-Haram al-Sharif", Arabic for Noble Sanctuary. In response, Israel denounced the UNESCO resolution for its omission of the words "Temple Mount" or "Har HaBayit," stating that it denies Jewish ties to the key holy site.[115][116] After receiving criticism from numerous Israeli politicians and diplomats, including Benjamin Netanyahu and Ayelet Shaked, Israel froze all ties with the organization.[117][118] The resolution was condemned by Ban Ki-moon and the Director-General of UNESCO, Irina Bokova, who said that Judaism, Islam and Christianity have clear historical connections to Jerusalem and "to deny, conceal or erase any of the Jewish, Christian or Muslim traditions undermines the integrity of the site.[119][120] Al-Aqsa Mosque is also Temple Mount, whose Western Wall is the holiest place in Judaism."[121] It was also rejected by the Czech Parliament which said the resolution reflects a "hateful anti-Israel sentiment",[122] and hundreds of Italian Jews demonstrated in Rome over Italy's abstention.[122] On 26 October, UNESCO approved a reviewed version of the resolution, which also criticized Israel for its continuous "refusal to let the body's experts access Jerusalem's holy sites to determine their conservation status."[123] Despite containing some softening of language following Israeli protests over a previous version, Israel continued to denounce the text.[124] The resolution refers to the site Jews and Christians refer to as the Temple Mount, or Har HaBayit in Hebrew, only by its Arab name — a significant semantic decision also adopted by UNESCO's executive board, triggering condemnation from Israel and its allies. U.S. Ambassador Crystal Nix Hines stated: "This item should have been defeated. These politicized and one-sided resolutions are damaging the credibility of UNESCO."[125]

In October 2017, the United States and Israel announced they would withdraw from the organization, citing in-part anti-Israel bias.[126][127]

Palestine

Palestinian youth magazine controversy


In February 2011, an article was published in a Palestinian youth magazine in which a teenage girl described one of her four role-models as Adolf Hitler. In December 2011, UNESCO, which partly funded the magazine, condemned the material and subsequently withdrew support.[128]

Islamic University of Gaza controversy

In 2012, UNESCO decided to establish a chair at the Islamic University of Gaza in the field of astronomy, astrophysics, and space sciences,[129] fueling controversy and criticism. Israel bombed the school in 2008 stating that they develop and store weapons there, which Israel restated in criticizing UNESCO's move.[130][131]

The head, Kamalain Shaath, defended UNESCO, stating that "the Islamic University is a purely academic university that is interested only in education and its development".[132][133][134] Israeli ambassador to UNESCO Nimrod Barkan planned to submit a letter of protest with information about the university's ties to Hamas, especially angry that this was the first Palestinian university that UNESCO chose to cooperate with.[135] The Jewish organization B'nai B'rith criticized the move as well.[136]

Wikileaks

On 16 and 17 February 2012, UNESCO held a conference entitled "The Media World after WikiLeaks and News of the World."[137] Despite all six panels being focused on WikiLeaks, no member of WikiLeaks staff was invited to speak. After receiving a complaint from WikiLeaks spokesman Kristinn Hrafnsson, UNESCO invited him to attend, but did not offer a place on any panels.[citation needed] The offer also came only a week before the conference, which was held in Paris, France. Many of the speakers featured, including David Leigh and Heather Brooke, had spoken out openly against WikiLeaks and its founder Julian Assange in the past.[138] WikiLeaks released a press statement on 15 February 2012 denouncing UNESCO which stated, "UNESCO has made itself an international human rights joke. To use 'freedom of expression' to censor WikiLeaks from a conference about WikiLeaks is an Orwellian absurdity beyond words."[139]

Che Guevara

In 2013, UNESCO announced that the collection "The Life and Works of Ernesto Che Guevara" became part of the Memory of the World Register. US Congresswoman Ileana Ros-Lehtinen condemned this decision, saying that the organization acts against its own ideals:[140]

This decision is more than an insult to the families of those Cubans who were lined up and summarily executed by Che and his merciless cronies but it also serves as a direct contradiction to the UNESCO ideals of encouraging peace and universal respect for human rights.


UN Watch also condemned this selection by UNESCO.[141]

Listing Nanjing Massacre documents

In 2015, Japan threatened to halt funding for UNESCO over the organization's decision to include documents relating to the 1937 Nanjing massacre in the latest listing for its "Memory of the World" program.[142] In October 2016, Japanese Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida confirmed that Japan's 2016 annual funding of ¥4.4 billion had been suspended although denied any direct link with the Nanjing document controversy.[143]

US withdrawals

The United States withdrew from UNESCO in 1984, citing the "highly politicized" nature of the organisation, its ostensible "hostility toward the basic institutions of a free society, especially a free market and a free press," as well as its "unrestrained budgetary expansion," and poor management under then Director General Amadou-Mahter M'Bow of Senegal.[144]

On 19 September 1989, former U.S. Congressman Jim Leach stated before a Congressional subcommittee:[145]

The reasons for the withdrawal of the United States from UNESCO in 1984 are well-known; my view is that we overreacted to the calls of some who wanted to radicalize UNESCO, and the calls of others who wanted the United States to lead in emasculating the UN system. The fact is UNESCO is one of the least dangerous international institutions ever created. While some member countries within UNESCO attempted to push journalistic views antithetical to the values of the west, and engage in Israel bashing, UNESCO itself never adopted such radical postures. The U.S. opted for empty-chair diplomacy, after winning, not losing, the battles we engaged in… It was nuts to get out, and would be nuttier not to rejoin.


Leach concluded that the record showed Israel bashing, a call for a new world information order, money management, and arms control policy to be the impetus behind the withdrawal; he asserted that before departing from UNESCO, a withdrawal from the IAEA had been pushed on him.[145] On 1 October 2003, the U.S. rejoined UNESCO.[144]

On 12 October 2017, the United States notified UNESCO that it will again withdraw from the organization on 31 December 2018 and will seek to establish a permanent observer mission beginning in 2019. The Department of State cited "mounting arrears at UNESCO, the need for fundamental reform in the organization, and continuing anti-Israel bias at UNESCO."[126] Israel praised the withdrawal decision as "brave" and "moral."[144]

The United States has not paid over $600 million in dues[146] since it stopped paying its $80 million annual UNESCO dues when Palestine became a full member in 2011. Israel and the US were among the 14 votes against the membership out of 194 member countries.[147]

Turkish–Kurdish conflict

On May 25, 2016, the noted Turkish poet and human rights activist Zülfü Livaneli resigned as Turkey's only UNESCO goodwill ambassador. He highlighted human rights situation in Turkey and destruction of historical Sur district of Diyarbakir, the largest city in Kurdish-majority southeast Turkey, during fighting between the Turkish army and Kurdish militants as the main reasons for his resignation. Livaneli said: "To pontificate on peace while remaining silent against such violations is a contradiction of the fundamental ideals of UNESCO."[148]

Atatürk

In 1981, UNESCO and the UN celebrated the Atatürk Centennial, despite his involvement in the Greek genocide and in suppressing the Dersim rebellion.

Products and services

• UNESDOC[149] – Contains over 146,000 UNESCO documents in full text published since 1945 as well as metadata from the collections of the UNESCO Library and documentation centres in field offices and institutes.

Information processing tools

UNESCO develops, maintains and disseminates, free of charge, two interrelated software packages for database management (CDS/ISIS [not to be confused with UK police software package ISIS]) and data mining/statistical analysis (IDAMS).[150]

• CDS/ISIS – a generalised information storage and retrieval system. The Windows version may run on a single computer or in a local area network. The JavaISIS client/server components allow remote database management over the Internet and are available for Windows, Linux and Macintosh. Furthermore, GenISIS allows the user to produce HTML Web forms for CDS/ISIS database searching. The ISIS_DLL provides an API for developing CDS/ISIS based applications.
• OpenIDAMS – a software package for processing and analysing numerical data developed, maintained and disseminated by UNESCO. The original package was proprietary but UNESCO has initiated a project to provide it as open-source.[151]
• IDIS – a tool for direct data exchange between CDS/ISIS and IDAMS

See also

• United Nations portal
• Academic Mobility Network
• UNESCO Reclining Figure 1957–58, sculpture by Henry Moore
• UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
• WikiProject UNESCO

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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

Postby admin » Sun Aug 18, 2019 2:49 am

Elisabeth Rotten (1882-1964): A frantic activist of the humanitarian and educational cause and citizen of the world
by Martine Ruchat
Published on 09/04/2018

NOTICE: THIS WORK MAY BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT

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For his 70th birthday, in 1952, Walter Robert Corti wrote an article in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung of February 15th for the birthday of Elisabeth Rotten, describing this meeting which brings together the faithful of the "educational province" - a nod to Goethe and his book The Life of Wilhelm Meister - ie: John Dewey, Maria Montessori, Martin Buber, Adolphe Ferriere and Bernard Drzewieski. At first, he wears a fighter, a courageous, who holds the "torch of this pedagogy", but also a modest, tender and fragile soul of this "citizen of freedom and freedom". mind. It is therefore necessary to explain his progress, his covenants, his support (and they are very present that day), his sorrows as well. Through her correspondence, she is also an active woman or even an activist who reveals herself, great letter-writer who does not spend a day without writing letters if not articles (early morning until past midnight) at the risk of disturbing her sleep as she often tells her friend Corti. In a letter of August 30, 1946 to Corti she speaks of her as being hektisch, a word that could be translated as hectic, over-excited, frantic or feverish.

Elisabeth Friederike was born February 15, 1882 in Berlin of Swiss and Protestant parents. His father is an engineer. Their house is open to Swiss students in difficulty. She went to school in this city. Then she undertakes studies in German, philosophy and modern languages ​​(she speaks perfect German, French and English: her correspondence attests!). During her training she has the opportunity to hear lectures by two great German pedagogues: Hermann Lietz and Gustav Wynecken. She also studied in Heidelberg, Montpellier and Marburg, where she defended her doctoral thesis in philosophy on Goethe's archetypes and the Platonic idea, and in 1913 she went on to teach at the University of Cambridge, which is already a prestigious university.

Explodes the First World War; She then settled in Switzerland in Saanen, in the Bernese Pre-Alps, from where she wrote a large part of her correspondence.

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She works with the Swiss Red Cross in the prisoner of war agency set up by Dr. Frédéric Ferrière to help prisoners of war, before returning to Berlin and managing the Office for Relief for "Alien enemies" (Office relief for "foreign enemies") set up by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). There, she devoted herself to assisting German prisoners of war and founded, with Professor Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze, the Office of Assistance and Information to expatriate Germans and foreigners in Germany. In 1915, she participated in The Hague in the creation of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom). Also in 1915, she attended the International Women's Congress in The Hague and collaborated on the founding of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.

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Congress of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom in The Hague in 1915

She keeps contacts with this association by participating in several of its congresses, notably in 1919 in Zurich. That year she co-founded (notably with Albert Einstein) an important German pacifist organization, the Bund Neues Vaterland, which later became the German League for Human Rights (Deutsche Liga für Menschenrechte). She took over the management of the small monthly magazine Der Neue Bund "to help out", as she wrote to Corti from her house in Saanen on December 5, 1944. She took part, after the first world war, in international aid. Quakers as a young Swiss girl from abroad.

In 1919, she was in Geneva for the International Conference on Education giving a lecture on "The Essays of a New Education in Germany", which caused a sensation. That same year she became a member of the presidium of the German League for the League of Nations (Deutsche Liga für Völkerbund) until 1933, a pacifist association that advocated for the project of a future League of Nations. She collaborated closely with the Society of Friends, the Quakers, from 1919 to 1923, in a large Quakerspeisung (Quakerspeisung) program in Central Europe.

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"Quakerspeisung" (Quaker feedings) Food Relief Program, after the first war, especially for children

She joined society in 1930: she became Quaker. She participates in Hans Wehberg's review, Friedenswarte, giving her the benefit, writes Corti again in her 1952 article, of her "amazing ability as a translator".

In this pacifist and social spirit, Elisabeth Rotten engages in the post-war educational movements aiming at a renewal of education, notably in the Bund entschiedener Schulreformer (Union of Radical School Reformers) movement. It will work until 1933 to several attempts of educational reforms in Germany. In 1920, she was editor of the militant journal for reform, Internationale Erziehungs-Rundschau. She also directed the Deutschen Liga für Völkerbund until 1921, as well as the International Journal of Education of the 1920s and 1921s.

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She thus meets many great figures of the pedagogy with which she initiates epistolary exchanges provided. She is a friend of Carleton Washburne. In 1921, she founded, at the first congress of the new education in Calais in 1921, with Adolphe Ferrière, Beatrice Ensor, John Dewey, Maria Montessori and Alexander Sutherland Neill to name only them, the International League for Education New, of which she will be vice-president until 1949, which brings together progressive educators and pedagogues.

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She is founder and editor of the German version of the magazine For the New Era, Das werdende Zeitalter, and English, The New Era, with Ensor and Neil. In 1924, she participated in the creation of the International School of Geneva and the following year of the International Bureau of Education (BIE) with Adolphe Ferrière, Édouard Claparède and Pierre Bovet in particular. She will be the first assistant director with Adolphe Ferrière. She established contacts with several women involved in pacifist and childhood causes, including Marie Butts, secretary general of the BIE, also a member of the Society of Friends (Quakers). It is logically at the center of the group photo of the seventh international conference of the International League for New Education (or New Education Fellowship) in 1936 that she appears alongside Ferrière:

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And in 1937, she founded the Swiss Montessori Association with Jean Piaget; she was vice-president until her death in 1964. She said she was "Montessorian". It is impossible to name all the names of the "greatest of the time" with which she was linked, notes Corti again in her article of 1952. She is the author of many articles and books.

In 1934, from Berlin, she returned to settle in Saanen, from where she pursued all her militant engagements (feminist, pacifist, pedagogical) by giving lectures (especially on the pacifist dimension of education), writing articles and abundant correspondence with certain personalities and organizations. Many of his letters are real action programs, numbered point by point and with strong color underlining.

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In December 1944, by a letter to Corti, she proposes to enter this adventure of the creation of the Village Pestalozzi occupying there very quickly an essential place, not only of promoter and publicist, but also of support to the one who will become her Great friend: Walter Robert Corti. But also with Marie Meierhofer.

In 1947, she was found at 60, a teacher at the High School of Education in Berlin and in 1948, delegate of the Swiss Don for Victims of War for Germany from the office for cultural exchange of the "Swiss Don". From this place, she particularly looks after the children's communities that are sponsored by the Swiss Don: Children's village Pax; Gaudiopolis; Otwock and Ziros in Greece. In April 1948, in a letter to Bernard Drzewieski of Unesco, she wrote the list of communities in the perspective of the conference (list found in the archives of Adolphe Ferrière at the Fondation Archives J.-J. Rousseau Foundation in Geneva). She took part in the Trogen Conferences of July 1948 and promoted the headquarters of FICE, of which she was briefly secretary. In 1950 with Marie Meierhofer and Walter Corti, they initiate the national committee of the FICE.

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Elisabeth Rotten taking notes during the Children's Village Directors Conference in Trogen in July 1948

She will continue to present the children's village Pestalozzi in articles, conferences and participate by a greedy correspondence to all developments in its history, until his death.

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Elisabeth Rotten's visit to Trogen in the 1950s

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Elisabeth Rotten's visit to Trogen in the 1950s

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Elisabeth Rotten's visit to Trogen in the 1950s

Upon the resignation of Corti from the Presidency of the Pestalozzi Village Association, and the creation of the Pestalozzi Village Foundation headed by Walter Stampfli, Corti in his address (transcribed in the 1950 annual report) will say about Elisabeth Rotten "The happiness of having met her is one of the most precious favors that life has bestowed on me. She has become, in my advanced days, my greatest master. How good it was to be able to preside over a circle of friends so admirable! ".

She died in London on May 2, 1964 at the age of 82. She is buried in Saanen.

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_______________

Sources [1]

Manuscript, Zentralbibliothek, Zurich

Nachl. Rotten 4.1.1

Nachlass Elisabeth Rotten (im Walter Nachlass Robert Corti) 15.2.1882 - 2.5.1964

Fondation Archives J.-J. Rousseau Foundation

Corti, WR Elisabeth Rotten siebzigjährig, Neue Zurcher Zeitung 15 February 1952 AdF / C / 1/17

IOE Archives, London

WEF / A / II / 64 Elisabeth Rotten, 1928, 1949-1964

Bibliography

Annual report Pestalozzi Children's Village , 1950

Haenggeli-Jenni, Béatrice, "The International League for New Education: a militant network at the crossroads of pacifist and feminist networks of the inter-war period (1920-1940)", in Carole Carribon , Dominique Picco e al ., Networks of women, women in networks (XVI-XXI century) , Bordeaux University Press, 2017, p. 295-314

Haenggeli-Jenni, Beatrice, For the New Era: a journal-crossroads between science and activist (1922-1940) . Doctoral Thesis: Univ. Geneva, 2011.

Site

Elisabeth Friederike Rotten, Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.

http://www.pestalozzi.ch/fr/qui-sommes- ... th-rotten/

[1] Articles and letters in German have been freely translated by Bernard Walter (Orient, Vaud, Switzerland).
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Re: Freda Bedi, by Wikipedia

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Martin Buber
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 8/17/19

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For his 70th birthday, in 1952, Walter Robert Corti wrote an article in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung of February 15th for the birthday of Elisabeth Rotten, describing this meeting which brings together the faithful of the "educational province" ... ie: John Dewey, Maria Montessori, Martin Buber, Adolphe Ferriere and Bernard Drzewieski.

-- Elisabeth Rotten (1882-1964): A frantic activist of the humanitarian and educational cause and citizen of the world, by Martine Ruchat


The most moving anecdote about Buber was that which his educator friend Elisabeth Rotten related in the introduction to her selection from the revelations of Sister Mechtild von Magdeburg. Speaking directly to Buber, she reminded him of how, six years before, a small circle of his close friends were gathered at his house in lively conversation around his table and how this conversation elicited from Buber a statement that she often found illuminating her way in the years since. "'One must also love the evil,' you said to us, 'yes -- but in the way that the evil wants to be loved.' Your glance said to us still more than your words alone could have said. We had been speaking of the Quakers' belief in the good in all men and of our strong attraction to it but also of the danger of losing sight of the reality of evil.... Your simple words, your embracing glance solved this dark and tormenting riddle of life that had oppressed us."

A significant counterpart to Buber's statement on evil narrated by Elisabeth Rotten is found in his comment on Max Brod's contribution to the special Buber issue of Der Jude. Speaking to Brod of three of his novels, Buber protested: "One may not voluntarily accept evil into one's life. Evil enters our lives entirely willy nilly. To defend ourselves against it, we should always will only to penetrate the impure with the pure. The result will probably be an interpenetration of both elements; still one ought not anticipate that result by saying 'Yes' to the evil in advance." Hermann Hesse testified to the enormous impact on his life of Buber's Hasidic tales; the Christian theologian Friedrich Thieberger wrote of the new biblical belief that he and Buber shared, and many prominent Zionists, such as Leo Hermann, Adolf Bohm, Markus Reiner, Robert Weltsch, Ernst Simon, Viktor Kellner, Felix Weltsch, and Siegfried Lehmann, founder of the Jewish National Home, wrote of Buber's contributions to Zionism and Judaism. Hugo Bergmann contributed a philosophical study of "Concept and Reality" in the thought of Buber and the German Idealist philosopher J.G. Fichte. Several letters from the early correspondence between Buber and Chaim Weizmann were also published in this issue. One contributor even told of how Buber at fifty outran his companions when they left his house for a spontaneous run in the night! "The life of people in this age sucks dry with mighty drafts, strikes out with mighty thrusts," reflected the distinguished writer Arnold Zweig. "But it would have no depth were there not here and there on the earth persons who sit like this man Buber in Heppenheim and give it that tiy injection of iodine without which its fire, spirit, and central creativity would be a mere mechanical process."

-- Martin Buber's Life and Work, by Maurice Friedman


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Martin Buber
Born February 8, 1878
Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Died June 13, 1965 (aged 87)
Jerusalem, Israel
Era 20th-century philosophy
Region Western philosophy
School Continental philosophy
Existentialism
Main interests
Ontologyphilosophical anthropology
Notable ideas
Ich-Du (I–Thou) and Ich-Es (I–It)
Influences: Immanuel KantZhuangziSøren KierkegaardFriedrich NietzscheLudwig FeuerbachRalph Waldo EmersonPierre-Joseph ProudhonSigmund FreudJacob L. MorenoWilhelm DiltheyGeorg SimmelRudolf Bultmann
Influenced: Abraham Joshua HeschelWalter KaufmannGabriel MarcelFranz RosenzweigHans Urs von BalthasarFritz PerlsLaura PerlsJohn BergerEmil Brunner[1]

Martin Buber (Hebrew: מרטין בּוּבֶּר‎; German: Martin Buber; Yiddish: מארטין בובער‎‎; February 8, 1878 – June 13, 1965) was an Austrian philosopher best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of existentialism centered on the distinction between the I–Thou relationship and the I–It relationship.[2] Born in Vienna, Buber came from a family of observant Jews, but broke with Jewish custom to pursue secular studies in philosophy. In 1902, he became the editor of the weekly Die Welt, the central organ of the Zionist movement, although he later withdrew from organizational work in Zionism. In 1923, Buber wrote his famous essay on existence, Ich und Du (later translated into English as I and Thou), and in 1925, he began translating the Hebrew Bible into the German language.

He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature ten times, and Nobel Peace Prize seven times.[3]

Biography

Martin (Hebrew name: מָרְדֳּכַי, Mordechaj) Buber was born in Der Franz-Josefs-Kai 45 [de]/Heinrichsgasse 8 [de][4][5][6][7][8], der Innere Stadt [de] (1 Wien), City of Vienna, to an Orthodox Jewish family. He was a son of Castiel "Karl" Salomon Buber (Hebrew: קסטיאל "קאַרל" שְׁלֹמֹה בּוּבּר‎‎, Yiddish: קסטיאל בּן-שְׁלֹמֹה בּוּבּער‎‎, 1848, Lemberg–1935, Lemberg[9][10]), the son of Salomon Buber, and Elise Wurgast (Yiddish: עליזע וווּרגאַסט‎‎, 1858, Odessa–?[11]). Buber was a direct descendant of the 16th-century rabbi Meir Katzenellenbogen, known as the Maharam of Padua. Karl Marx is another notable relative.[12] After the divorce of his parents when he was three years old, he was raised by his grandfather in Lvov.[12] His grandfather Salomon Buber (1827, Lemberg–1906, Lemberg[13]), was a scholar of Midrash and Rabbinic Literature. At home, Buber spoke Yiddish and German. In 1892, Buber returned to his father's house in Lemberg, today's Lviv, Ukraine.

Despite Buber's connection to the Davidic line as a descendant of Katzenellenbogen, a personal religious crisis led him to break with Jewish religious customs. He began reading Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche.[14] The latter two, in particular, inspired him to pursue studies in philosophy. In 1896, Buber went to study in Vienna (philosophy, art history, German studies, philology).

In 1898, he joined the Zionist movement, participating in congresses and organizational work. In 1899, while studying in Zürich, Buber met his future wife, Paula (Judith) Buber [de] (née Winkler[15]), a "brilliant Catholic writer from a Bavarian peasant family"[16] who later converted to Judaism.[17]

Buber, initially, supported and celebrated the Great War as a 'world historical mission' for Germany along with Jewish intellectuals to civilize the Near East.[18] While in Vienna, during and after World War I, some researchers claim he was influenced by the writings of Jacob L. Moreno, particularly the use of the term ‘encounter’.[19][20]

In 1930, Buber became an honorary professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main, but resigned from his professorship in protest immediately after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an increasingly important body as the German government forbade Jews from public education. In 1938, Buber left Germany and settled in Jerusalem, Mandate Palestine, receiving a professorship at Hebrew University and lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology.

Buber's wife Paula died in 1958, and he died at his home in the Talbiya neighborhood of Jerusalem on June 13, 1965. They had two children: a son, Rafael Buber (husband of Margarete Buber-Neumann née Thüring [de]), and a daughter, Eva Strauss-Steinitz (wife of Ludwig Strauß [de]).[12]

Major themes

Buber's evocative, sometimes poetic, writing style marked the major themes in his work: the retelling of Hasidic and Chinese tales, Biblical commentary, and metaphysical dialogue. A cultural Zionist, Buber was active in the Jewish and educational communities of Germany and Israel.[21] He was also a staunch supporter of a binational solution in Palestine, and, after the establishment of the Jewish state of Israel, of a regional federation of Israel and Arab states. His influence extends across the humanities, particularly in the fields of social psychology, social philosophy, and religious existentialism.[22]

Buber's attitude toward Zionism was tied to his desire to promote a vision of "Hebrew humanism".[23] According to Laurence J. Silberstein, the terminology of "Hebrew humanism" was coined to "distinguish [Buber's] form of nationalism from that of the official Zionist movement" and to point to how "Israel's problem was but a distinct form of the universal human problem. Accordingly, the task of Israel as a distinct nation was inexorably linked to the task of humanity in general".[24]

Zionist views

Approaching Zionism from his own personal viewpoint, Buber disagreed with Theodor Herzl about the political and cultural direction of Zionism. Herzl envisioned the goal of Zionism in a nation-state, but did not consider Jewish culture or religion necessary. In contrast, Buber believed the potential of Zionism was for social and spiritual enrichment. For example, Buber argued that following the formation of the Israeli state, there would need to be reforms to Judaism: "We need someone who would do for Judaism what Pope John XXIII has done for the Catholic Church".[25] Herzl and Buber would continue, in mutual respect and disagreement, to work towards their respective goals for the rest of their lives.

In 1902, Buber became the editor of the weekly Die Welt, the central organ of the Zionist movement. However, a year later he became involved with the Jewish Hasidim movement. Buber admired how the Hasidic communities actualized their religion in daily life and culture. In stark contrast to the busy Zionist organizations, which were always mulling political concerns, the Hasidim were focused on the values which Buber had long advocated for Zionism to adopt. In 1904, he withdrew from much of his Zionist organizational work, and devoted himself to study and writing. In that year, he published his thesis, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Individuationsproblems, on Jakob Böhme and Nikolaus Cusanus.[26]

In the early 1920s, Martin Buber started advocating a binational Jewish-Arab state, stating that the Jewish people should proclaim "its desire to live in peace and brotherhood with the Arab people, and to develop the common homeland into a republic in which both peoples will have the possibility of free development".[27]

Buber rejected the idea of Zionism as just another national movement, and wanted instead to see the creation of an exemplary society; a society which would not, he said, be characterized by Jewish domination of the Arabs. It was necessary for the Zionist movement to reach a consensus with the Arabs even at the cost of the Jews remaining a minority in the country. In 1925, he was involved in the creation of the organization Brit Shalom (Covenant of Peace), which advocated the creation of a binational state, and throughout the rest of his life, he hoped and believed that Jews and Arabs one day would live in peace in a joint nation. In 1942, he co‑founded the Ihud party, which advocated a bi-nationalist program. Nevertheless, he was connected with decades of friendship to Zionists and philosophers such as Chaim Weizmann, Max Brod, Hugo Bergman, and Felix Weltsch, who were close friends of his from old European times in Prague, Berlin, and Vienna to the Jerusalem of the 1940s through the 1960s.

After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Buber advocated Israel's participation in a federation of "Near East" states wider than just Palestine.[28]

Literary and academic career

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Martin Buber's house (1916–38) in Heppenheim, Germany. Now the headquarters of the ICCJ.

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Martin Buber and Rabbi Binyamin in Palestine (1920–30)

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Buber (left) and Judah Leon Magnes testifying before the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in Jerusalem (1946)

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Buber in the Jewish Quarter in Jerusalem, prior to 1948

From 1906 until 1914, Buber published editions of Hasidic, mystical, and mythic texts from Jewish and world sources. In 1916, he moved from Berlin to Heppenheim.

During World War I, he helped establish the Jewish National Committee[29] to improve the condition of Eastern European Jews. During that period he became the editor of Der Jude (German for "The Jew"), a Jewish monthly (until 1924). In 1921, Buber began his close relationship with Franz Rosenzweig. In 1922, he and Rosenzweig co-operated in Rosenzweig's House of Jewish Learning, known in Germany as Lehrhaus.[30]

In 1923, Buber wrote his famous essay on existence, Ich und Du (later translated into English as I and Thou). Though he edited the work later in his life, he refused to make substantial changes. In 1925, he began, in conjunction with Franz Rosenzweig, translating the Hebrew Bible into German. He himself called this translation Verdeutschung ("Germanification"), since it does not always use literary German language, but instead attempts to find new dynamic (often newly invented) equivalent phrasing to respect the multivalent Hebrew original. Between 1926 and 1930, Buber co-edited the quarterly Die Kreatur ("The Creature").[31]

In 1930, Buber became an honorary professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main. He resigned in protest from his professorship immediately after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. On October 4, 1933, the Nazi authorities forbade him to lecture. In 1935, he was expelled from the Reichsschrifttumskammer (the National Socialist authors' association). He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an increasingly important body, as the German government forbade Jews to attend public education.[32] The Nazi administration increasingly obstructed this body.

Finally, in 1938, Buber left Germany, and settled in Jerusalem, then capital of Mandate Palestine. He received a professorship at Hebrew University, there lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology. The lectures he gave during the first semester were published in the book The problem of man (Das Problem des Menschen);[33][34] in these lectures he discusses how the question "What is Man?" became the central one in philosophical anthropology.[35] He participated in the discussion of the Jews' problems in Palestine and of the Arab question – working out of his Biblical, philosophic, and Hasidic work.

He became a member of the group Ihud, which aimed at a bi-national state for Arabs and Jews in Palestine. Such a binational confederation was viewed by Buber as a more proper fulfillment of Zionism than a solely Jewish state. In 1946, he published his work Paths in Utopia,[36] in which he detailed his communitarian socialist views and his theory of the "dialogical community" founded upon interpersonal "dialogical relationships".

After World War II, Buber began lecture tours in Europe and the United States. In 1952, he argued with Jung over the existence of God.[37]

Philosophy

Buber is famous for his thesis of dialogical existence, as he described in the book I and Thou. However, his work dealt with a range of issues including religious consciousness, modernity, the concept of evil, ethics, education, and Biblical hermeneutics.[38]

Buber rejected the label of "philosopher" or "theologian", claiming he was not interested in ideas, only personal experience, and could not discuss God, but only relationships to God.[39]

Politically, Buber's social philosophy on points of prefiguration aligns with that of anarchism, though Buber explicitly disavowed the affiliation in his lifetime and justified the existence of a state under limited conditions.[40][41]

Dialogue and existence

In I and Thou, Buber introduced his thesis on human existence. Inspired by Feuerbach's The Essence of Christianity and Kierkegaard's Single One, Buber worked upon the premise of existence as encounter.[42] He explained this philosophy using the word pairs of Ich-Du and Ich-Es to categorize the modes of consciousness, interaction, and being through which an individual engages with other individuals, inanimate objects, and all reality in general. Theologically, he associated the first with the Jewish Jesus and the second with the apostle Paul (formerly Saul of Tarsus, a Jew).[43] Philosophically, these word pairs express complex ideas about modes of being—particularly how a person exists and actualizes that existence. As Buber argues in I and Thou, a person is at all times engaged with the world in one of these modes.

The generic motif Buber employs to describe the dual modes of being is one of dialogue (Ich-Du) and monologue (Ich-Es).[44] The concept of communication, particularly language-oriented communication, is used both in describing dialogue/monologue through metaphors and expressing the interpersonal nature of human existence.

Ich-Du

Ich‑Du ("I‑Thou" or "I‑You") is a relationship that stresses the mutual, holistic existence of two beings. It is a concrete encounter, because these beings meet one another in their authentic existence, without any qualification or objectification of one another. Even imagination and ideas do not play a role in this relation. In an I–Thou encounter, infinity and universality are made actual (rather than being merely concepts).[44] Buber stressed that an Ich‑Du relationship lacks any composition (e. g., structure) and communicates no content (e. g., information). Despite the fact that Ich‑Du cannot be proven to happen as an event (e. g., it cannot be measured), Buber stressed that it is real and perceivable. A variety of examples are used to illustrate Ich‑Du relationships in daily life—two lovers, an observer and a cat, the author and a tree, and two strangers on a train. Common English words used to describe the Ich‑Du relationship include encounter, meeting, dialogue, mutuality, and exchange.

One key Ich‑Du relationship Buber identified was that which can exist between a human being and God. Buber argued that this is the only way in which it is possible to interact with God, and that an Ich‑Du relationship with anything or anyone connects in some way with the eternal relation to God.

To create this I–Thou relationship with God, a person has to be open to the idea of such a relationship, but not actively pursue it. The pursuit of such a relation creates qualities associated with It‑ness, and so would prevent an I‑You relation, limiting it to I‑It. Buber claims that if we are open to the I–Thou, God eventually comes to us in response to our welcome. Also, because the God Buber describes is completely devoid of qualities, this I–Thou relationship lasts as long as the individual wills it. When the individual finally returns to the I‑It way of relating, this acts as a barrier to deeper relationship and community.

Ich-Es

The Ich-Es ("I‑It") relationship is nearly the opposite of Ich‑Du.[44] Whereas in Ich‑Du the two beings encounter one another, in an Ich‑Es relationship the beings do not actually meet. Instead, the "I" confronts and qualifies an idea, or conceptualization, of the being in its presence and treats that being as an object. All such objects are considered merely mental representations, created and sustained by the individual mind. This is based partly on Kant's theory of phenomenon, in that these objects reside in the cognitive agent’s mind, existing only as thoughts. Therefore, the Ich‑Es relationship is in fact a relationship with oneself; it is not a dialogue, but a monologue.

In the Ich-Es relationship, an individual treats other things, people, etc., as objects to be used and experienced. Essentially, this form of objectivity relates to the world in terms of the self – how an object can serve the individual’s interest.

Buber argued that human life consists of an oscillation between Ich‑Du and Ich‑Es, and that in fact Ich‑Du experiences are rather few and far between. In diagnosing the various perceived ills of modernity (e. g., isolation, dehumanization, etc.), Buber believed that the expansion of a purely analytic, material view of existence was at heart an advocation of Ich‑Es relations - even between human beings. Buber argued that this paradigm devalued not only existents, but the meaning of all existence.

Hasidism and mysticism

Buber was a scholar, interpreter, and translator of Hasidic lore. He viewed Hasidism as a source of cultural renewal for Judaism, frequently citing examples from the Hasidic tradition that emphasized community, interpersonal life, and meaning in common activities (e. g., a worker's relation to his tools). The Hasidic ideal, according to Buber, emphasized a life lived in the unconditional presence of God, where there was no distinct separation between daily habits and religious experience. This was a major influence on Buber's philosophy of anthropology, which considered the basis of human existence as dialogical.

In 1906, Buber published Die Geschichten des Rabbi Nachman, a collection of the tales of the Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a renowned Hasidic rebbe, as interpreted and retold in a Neo-Hasidic fashion by Buber. Two years later, Buber published Die Legende des Baalschem (stories of the Baal Shem Tov), the founder of Hasidism.[30]

Buber's interpretation of the Hasidic tradition, however, has been criticized by Chaim Potok for its romanticization. In the introduction to Buber's Tales of the Hasidim, Potok claims that Buber overlooked Hasidism's "charlatanism, obscurantism, internecine quarrels, its heavy freight of folk superstition and pietistic excesses, its tzadik worship, its vulgarized and attenuated reading of Lurianic Kabbalah". Even more severe is the criticism that Buber de-emphasized the importance of the Jewish Law in Hasidism.

Awards and recognition

• In 1951, Buber received the Goethe award of the University of Hamburg.
• In 1953, he received the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade.
• In 1958, he was awarded the Israel Prize in the humanities.[45]
• In 1961, he was awarded the Bialik Prize for Jewish thought.[46]
• In 1963, he won the Erasmus Prize in Amsterdam.

Published works

Original writings (German)


• Die Geschichten des Rabbi Nachman (1906)
• Die fünfzigste Pforte (1907)
• Die Legende des Baalschem (1908)
• Ekstatische Konfessionen (1909)
• Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten (1911)
• Daniel – Gespräche von der Verwirklichung (1913)
• Die jüdische Bewegung – gesammelte Aufsätze und Ansprachen 1900–1915(1916)
• Vom Geist des Judentums – Reden und Geleitworte (1916)
• Die Rede, die Lehre und das Lied – drei Beispiele (1917)
• Ereignisse und Begegnungen (1917)
• Der grosse Maggid und seine Nachfolge(1922)
• Reden über das Judentum (1923)
• Ich und Du (1923)
o Translation: I and Thou by Walter Kaufmann (Touchstone: 1970)
• Das Verborgene Licht (1924)
• Die chassidischen Bücher (1928)
• Aus unbekannten Schriften (1928)
• Zwiesprache (1932)
• Kampf um Israel – Reden und Schriften 1921–1932 (1933)
• Hundert chassidische Geschichten (1933)
• Die Troestung Israels : aus Jeschajahu, Kapitel 40 bis 55 (1933); with Franz Rosenzweig
• Erzählungen von Engeln, Geistern und Dämonen (1934)
• Das Buch der Preisungen (1935); with Franz Rosenzweig
• Deutung des Chassidismus – drei Versuche (1935)
• Die Josefslegende in aquarellierten Zeichnungen eines unbekannten russischen Juden der Biedermeierzeit (1935)
• Die Schrift und ihre Verdeutschung (1936); with Franz Rosenzweig
• Aus Tiefen rufe ich Dich – dreiundzwanzig Psalmen in der Urschrift (1936)
• Das Kommende : Untersuchungen zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Messianischen Glaubens – 1. Königtum Gottes (1936 ?)
• Die Stunde und die Erkenntnis – Reden und Aufsätze 1933–1935 (1936)
• Zion als Ziel und als Aufgabe – Gedanken aus drei Jahrzehnten – mit einer Rede über Nationalismus als Anhang (1936)
• Worte an die Jugend (1938)
• Moseh (1945)
• Dialogisches Leben – gesammelte philosophische und pädagogische Schriften (1947)
• Der Weg des Menschen : nach der chassidischen Lehre (1948)
• Das Problem des Menschen (1948, Hebrew text 1942)
• Die Erzählungen der Chassidim (1949)
• Gog und Magog – eine Chronik (1949, Hebrew text 1943)
• Israel und Palästina – zur Geschichte einer Idee (1950, Hebrew text 1944)
• Der Glaube der Propheten (1950)
• Pfade in Utopia (1950)
• Zwei Glaubensweisen (1950)
• Urdistanz und Beziehung (1951)
• Der utopische Sozialismus (1952)
• Bilder von Gut und Böse (1952)
• Die Chassidische Botschaft (1952)
• Recht und Unrecht – Deutung einiger Psalmen (1952)
• An der Wende – Reden über das Judentum (1952)
• Zwischen Gesellschaft und Staat (1952)
• Das echte Gespräch und die Möglichkeiten des Friedens (1953)
• Einsichten : aus den Schriften gesammelt (1953)
• Reden über Erziehung (1953)
• Gottesfinsternis – Betrachtungen zur Beziehung zwischen Religion und Philosophie (1953)
o Translation Eclipse of God: Studies in the Relation Between Religion and Philosophy (Harper and Row: 1952)
• Hinweise – gesammelte Essays (1953)
• Die fünf Bücher der Weisung – Zu einer neuen Verdeutschung der Schrift(1954); with Franz Rosenzweig
• Die Schriften über das dialogische Prinzip (Ich und Du, Zwiesprache, Die Frage an den Einzelnen, Elemente des Zwischenmenschlichen) (1954)
• Sehertum – Anfang und Ausgang (1955)
• Der Mensch und sein Gebild (1955)
• Schuld und Schuldgefühle (1958)
• Begegnung – autobiographische Fragmente (1960)
• Logos : zwei Reden (1962)
• Nachlese (1965)
Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten included the first German translation ever made of Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio. Alex Page translated the Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten as "Chinese Tales", published in 1991 by Humanities Press.[47]

Collected works

Werke 3 volumes (1962–1964)
• I Schriften zur Philosophie (1962)
• II Schriften zur Bibel (1964)
• III Schriften zum Chassidismus (1963)
Martin Buber Werkausgabe (MBW). Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften / Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, ed. Paul Mendes-Flohr & Peter Schäfer with Martina Urban; 21 volumes planned (2001–)

Correspondence

Briefwechsel aus sieben Jahrzehnten 1897–1965 (1972–1975)
• I : 1897–1918 (1972)
• II : 1918–1938 (1973)
• III : 1938–1965 (1975)
Several of his original writings, including his personal archives, are preserved in the National Library of Israel, formerly the Jewish National and University Library, located on the campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem[48]

See also

• Existential therapy
• Guilt
• Humanistic psychology
• Intersubjectivity
• Contextual therapy
• André Neher
• List of Israel Prize recipients
• List of Bialik Prize recipients
• Jewish existentialism

References

1. Livingstone, E. A. (2013). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 79. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199659623.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-965962-3.
2. "Island of Freedom - Martin Buber". Roberthsarkissian.com.
3. "Nomination Database". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2017-01-24.
4. "Gedenktafel Martin Buber – Wien Geschichte Wiki". Geschichtewiki.wien.gv.at.
5. "Buber Gedenktafel". Viennatouristguide.at.
6. "Martin Buber und Wien". David.juden.at.
7. "Franz-Josefs-Kai 45 – City ABC". Cityabc.at.
8. "Bild der Woche – Martin-Buber-Geburtshaus". Ojm.at. Retrieved 9 August2019.
9. "Kalman Carl Buber". Geni.com. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
10. "Martin Buber". Geni.com. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
11. "Elise Buber". Geni.com. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
12. Neil Rosenstein (1990), The Unbroken Chain: Biographical Sketches and Genealogy of Illustrious Jewish Families from the 15th–20th Century, 1, 2 (revised ed.), New York: CIS, ISBN 0-9610578-4-X
13. "Salomon (Solomon) Buber". Geni.com. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
14. Wood, Robert E (1 December 1969). Martin Buber's Ontology: An Analysis of I and Thou. Northwestern University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8101-0650-5.
15. "Paula Judith Buber". Geni.com. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
16. The Pity of It All: A History of Jews in Germany 1743-1933. P. 238. (2002) ISBN 0-8050-5964-4
17. "The Existential Primer". Tameri. Retrieved August 28, 2011.
18. Elon, Amos. (2002). The Pity of It All: A History of Jews in Germany, 1743–1933. New York: Metropolitan Books. Henry Holt and Company. pp. 318-319. ISBN 0-8050-5964-4.
19. "Jacob Levy Moreno's encounter term: a part of a social drama" (PDF). Psykodramainstitutt.no. pp. 9–10. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
20. "Moreno's Influence on Martin Buber's Dialogical Philosophy". Blatner.com. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
21. Buber 1996, p. 92.
22. Buber 1996, p. 34.
23. Schaeder, Grete (1973). The Hebrew humanism of Martin Buber. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-8143-1483-X.
24. Silberstein, Laurence J (1989). Martin Buber's Social and Religious Thought: Alienation and the quest for meaning. New York: New York University Press. p. 100. ISBN 0-8147-7886-0.
25. Hodes, Aubrey (1971). Martin Buber: An Intimate Portrait. p. 174. ISBN 0-670-45904-6.
26. Stewart, Jon (1 May 2011). Kierkegaard and Existentialism. Ashgate. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-4094-2641-7.
27. "Jewish Zionist Education". IL: Jafi. May 15, 2005. Archived from the originalon December 22, 2009. Retrieved August 28, 2011.
28. Buber, Martin (2005) [1954]. "We Need The Arabs, They Need Us!". In Mendes-Flohr, Paul (ed.). A Land of Two Peoples. University of Chicago. ISBN 0-226-07802-7.
29. "Martin Buber". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
30. Jump up to:a b Zank, Michael (31 August 2006). New perspectives on Martin Buber. Mohr Siebeck. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-16-148998-3.
31. Buber, Martin; Biemann, Asher D (2002). The Martin Buber reader: essential writings. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-312-29290-4.
32. Buber, Martin (15 February 2005). Mendes-Flohr, Paul R (ed.). A land of two peoples: Martin Buber on Jews and Arabs. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-07802-1.
33. Buber, Martin (1991), "Martin Buber: A Biographical Sketch", in Schaeder, Grete (ed.), The letters of Martin Buber: a life of dialogue, p. 52, ISBN 978-0-8156-0420-4
34. Buber, Martin, Biemann, Asher D (ed.), The Martin Buber reader: essential writings, p. 12
35. Schaeder, Grete (1973), The Hebrew humanism of Martin Buber, p. 29
36. Buber, Martín (September 1996). Paths in Utopia. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0421-1.
37. Schneider, Herbert W, "The historical significance of Buber's philosophy", The philosophy of Martin Buber, p. 471, ...the retort he actually made, namely, that a scientist should not make judgments beyond his science. Such an insistence on hard and fast boundaries among sciences is not in the spirit of Buber's empiricism
38. Friedman, Maurice S (July 1996). Martin Buber and the human sciences. SUNY Press. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-7914-2876-4.
39. Vermes, Pamela (1988). Buber. London: Peter Hablan. p. vii. ISBN 1-870015-08-8.
40. Brody, Samuel Hayim (2018). "The True Front: Buber and Landauer on Anarchism and Revolution". Martin Buber's Theopolitics. Indiana University Press. pp. 37–40. ISBN 978-0-253-03537-0.
41. Silberstein, Laurence J. (1990). Martin Buber's Social and Religious Thought: Alienation and the Quest for Meaning. NYU Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-8147-7910-1.
42. Buber, Martin (2002) [1947]. Between Man and Man. Routledge. pp. 250–51.
43. Langton, Daniel (2010). The Apostle Paul in the Jewish Imagination. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–71.
44. Jump up to:a b c Kramer, Kenneth; Gawlick, Mechthild (November 2003). Martin Buber's I and thou: practicing living dialogue. Paulist Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8091-4158-6.
45. "Recipients" (in Hebrew). Israel Prize. 1958. Archived from the original on February 8, 2012.
46. "List of Bialik Prize recipients 1933–2004" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv Municipality. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-17.
47. Chiang, Lydia Sing-Chen. Collecting The Self: Body And Identity In Strange Tale Collections Of Late Imperial China (Volume 67 of Sinica Leidensia). BRILL, 2005. ISBN 9004142037, 9789004142039. p. 62.
48. "Archivbestände in der Jewish National and University Library" (PDF). Uibk.ac.at. Retrieved 9 August 2019.

Sources

Biographies


• Zink, Wolfgang (1978), Martin Buber – 1878/1978.
• Coen, Clara Levi (1991), Martin Buber.
• Friedman, Maurice (1981), Martin Buber’s Life and Work: The Early Years, 1878-1923.
• Friedman, Maurice (1983), Martin Buber’s Life and Work: The Middle Years, 1923-1945.
• Friedman, Maurice (1984), Martin Buber’s Life and Work: The Later Years, 1945-1965.

Further reading

• Schilpp, Paul Arthur; Friedman, Maurice (1967), The philosophy of Martin Buber.
• Horwitz, Rivka (1978), Buber's way to "I and thou" – an historical analysis and the first publication of Martin Buber's lectures "Religion als Gegenwart".
• Cohn, Margot; Buber, Rafael (1980), Martin Buber – a bibliography of his writings, 1897–1978.
• Israel, Joachim (2010), Martin Buber – Dialogphilosophie in Theorie und Praxis.
• Margulies, Hune (2017), Will and Grace: Meditations on the Dialogical Philosophy of Martin Buber.
• Nelson, Eric S. (2017). Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781350002555.

External links

• Literature by and about Martin Buber in University Library JCS Frankfurt am Main: Digital Collections Judaica
• Martin Buber at Curlie
• Martin Buber Homepage
• Martin Buber – The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article by Sarah Scott
• Zank, Michael. "Martin Buber". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Martin Buber, the Anarchist
• Spiritual Community dedicated to Buber's I–Thou philosophy
• Martin Buber's Utopian Israel
• Martin Buber's Final Legacy: "The Knowledge of Man"; by Maurice Friedman.
• Buber's Philosophy as the Basis for Dialogical Psychotherapy and Contextual Therapy; by Maurice Friedman.
• I, thou, and we: A dialogical approach to couples therapy
• Dialogical and Person-Centred Approach to Psychotherapy
• Communitarian Elements in Select Works of Martin Buber
• The Martin Buber Institute for Dialogical Ecology
• Martin Buber speaks at the Drew University Convocation in 1957. Use the Selected Speakers drop-down to choose Buber, Martin
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John Dewey
by Wikipedia
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Memorandum Number Seven: The Order's Objectives For Education

We can deduce The Order's objectives for education from evidence already presented and by examining the work and influence of John Dewey, the arch creator of modern educational theory.


How do we do this? We first need to examine Dewey's relationship with The Order. Then compare Dewey's philosophy with Hegel and with the philosophy and objectives of modern educational practice.

These educational objectives have not, by and large, been brought about by governmental action. In fact, if the present state of education had been brought about by legislation, it would have been challenged on the grounds of unconstitutionality.

On the contrary, the philosophy and practice of today's system has been achieved by injection of massive private funds by foundations under influence, and sometimes control, of The Order. This implementation we will describe in a future volume, How The Order Controls Foundations. In fact, the history of the implementation of Dewey's objectives is also the history of the larger foundations, i.e., Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller, Peabody, Sloan, Slater and Twentieth Century.

How John Dewey Relates To The Order

John Dewey worked for his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University from 1882-86 under Hegelian philosopher George Sylvester Morris. Morris in turn had his doctorate from University of Berlin and studied under the same teachers as Daniel Gilman, i.e., Adolph Trendelenberg and Hermann Ulrici.


Neither Morris nor Dewey were members of The Order, but the link is clear. Gilman hired Morris, knowing full well that Hegelianism is a totally integrated body of knowledge and easy to recognize. It is as different from the British empirical school of John Stuart Mill as night and day.

John Dewey's psychology was taken from G. Stanley Hall, the first American student to receive a doctorate from Wilhelm Wundt at University of Leipzig. Gilman knew exactly what he was getting when he hired Hall. With only a dozen faculty members, all were hired personally by the President.

In brief, philosophy and psychology came to Dewey from academics hand-picked by The Order.

From Johns Hopkins Dewey went as Professor of Philosophy to University of Michigan and in 1886 published Psychology, a blend of Hegelian philosophy applied to Wundtian experimental psychology. It sold well. In 1894 Dewey went to University of Chicago and in 1902 was appointed Director of the newly founded -- with Rockefeller money -- School of Education.

The University of Chicago itself had been founded in 1890 with Rockefeller funds -- and in a future volume we will trace this through Frederick Gates (of Hartford, Connecticut), and the Pillsbury family (The Order). The University of Chicago and Columbia Teachers' College were the key training schools for modern education.

The Influence Of Dewey

Looking back at John Dewey after 80 years of his influence, he can be recognized as the pre-eminent factor in the collectivization, or Hegelianization, of American Schools.
Dewey was consistently a philosopher of social change. That's why his impact has been so deep and pervasive. And it is in the work and implementation of the ideas of John Dewey that we can find the objective of The Order.

When The Order brought G. Stanley Hall from Leipzig to Johns Hopkins University, John Dewey was already there, waiting to write his doctoral dissertation on "The Psychology of Kant." Already a Hegelian in philosophy, he acquired and adapted the experimental psychology of Wundt and Hall to his concept of education for social change. To illustrate this, here's a quote from John Dewey in My Pedagogic Creed:

"The school is primarily a social institution. Education being a social process, the school is simply that form of community life in which all those agencies are concentrated that will be most effective in bringing the child to share in the inherited resources of the race, and to use his own powers for social ends. Education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living."


What we learn from this is that Dewey's education is not child centered but State centered, because for the Hegelian, "social ends" are always State ends.

This is where the gulf of misunderstanding between modern parents and the educational system begins. Parents believe a child goes to school to learn skills to use in the adult world, but Dewey states specifically that education is "not a preparation for future living." The Dewey educational system does not accept the role of developing a child's talents but, contrarily, only to prepare the child to function as a unit in an organic whole -- in blunt terms a cog in the wheel of an organic society. Whereas most Americans have moral values rooted in the individual, the values of the school system are rooted in the Hegelian concept of the State as the absolute. No wonder there is misunderstanding!

The Individual Child

When we compare Hegel, John Dewey, and today's educational thinkers and doers, we find an extraordinary similarity.

For Hegel the individual has no value except as he or she performs a function for society:

"The State is the absolute reality and the individual himself has objective existence, truth and morality only in his capacity as a member of the State."


John Dewey tried to brush the freedom of the individual to one side. In an article, "Democracy and Educational Administration" (School & Society, XVL, 1937, p. 457) Dewey talks about the "lost individual," and then restates Hegel in the following way: "freedom is the participation of every mature human being in formation of the values that regulate the living of men together." This is pure Hegel, i.e., man finds freedom only in obedience to the State. As one critic, Horace M. Kallen stated, John Dewey had a "blindness to the sheer individuality of individuals."

In other words, for Dewey man has no individual rights. Man exists only to serve the State. This is directly contradictory to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution with the preamble "We the people." They then go on to define the rights of the state which are always subordinate and subject to the will of "We the people."

This, of course, is why modern educationists have great difficulty in introducing the Constitution into school work. Their ideas follow Hegel and Dewey and indirectly the objectives of The Order. For example:

"An attempt should be made to redress the present overemphasis on individualism in current programs ... students need to develop a sense of community and collective identity." (Educational Leadership, May 1982, William B. Stanley, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Curriculum and Instruction, Louisiana State University).


The Purpose Of Education

What then is the purpose of education, if the individual has no rights and exists only for the State?

There was no need for Hegel to describe education, and so far as we know there is no statement purely on education in Hegel's writings. It is unnecessary. For Hegel every quality of an individual exists only at the mercy and will of the State. This approach is reflected in political systems based on Hegel whether it be Soviet Communism or Hitlerian national socialism. John Dewey follows Hegel's organic view of society. For example:

"Education consists either in the ability to use one's powers in a social direction or else in ability to share in the experience of others and thus widen the individual consciousness to that of the race" (Lectures For The First Course In Pedagogy).


This last sentence is reminiscent of the Hitlerian philosophy of race (i.e., right Hegelianism).

And today's educators reflect this approach. Here's a quote from Assemblyman John Vasconcellos of California, who also happens to be Chairman of the Joint Committee on the Master Plan for Higher Education and the Education Goals Committee for the California State Assembly -- a key post:

"It is now time for a new vision of ourselves, of man, of human nature and of human potential, and a new theory of politics and institutions premised upon that vision. What is that vision of Man? That the natural, whole, organismic human being is loving ... that man's basic thrust is towards community" (quoted in Rex Myles, Brotherhood and Darkness, p. 347).


What is this "widen(ing) the individual consciousness" (Dewey) and "thrust ... towards community" (Vasconcellos)?

Stripped of the pedantic language it is new world order, a world organic society. But there is no provision for a global organic order within the Constitution. In fact, it is illegal for any government officer or elected official to move the United States towards such an order as it would clearly be inconsistent with the Constitution. To be sure, Dewey was not a government official, but Vasconcellos has taken an oath of allegiance to the Constitution.

The popular view of a global order is probably that we had better look after our problems at home before we get involved in these esoteric ideas. Political corruption, pitifully low educational standards, and insensitive bureaucracy are probably of more concern to Americans.

It's difficult to see what the new world order has to do with education of children, but it's there in the literature. Fichte, Hegel's predecessor from whom many of his philosophical ideas originated, had a definite concept of a League of Nations (Volkerbund) and the idea of a league to enforce peace. Fichte asserted "As this federation spreads further and gradually embraces the whole earth, perpetual peace begins, the only lawful relation among states ..."

The National Education Association, the lobby for education, produced a program for the 1976 Bicentennial entitled "A Declaration Of Interdependence: Education For A Global Community."

On page 6 of this document we find:

"We are committed to the idea of Education for Global Community. You are invited to help turn the commitment into action and mobilizing world education for development of a world community."


An objective almost parallel to Hegel is in Self Knowledge And Social Action by Obadiah Silas Harris, Associate Professor of Educational Management and Development New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico:

"When community educators say that community education takes into consideration the total individual and his total environment, they mean precisely this: the field of community education includes the individual in his total psycho-physical structure and his entire ecological climate with all its ramifications -- social, political, economical, cultural, spiritual, etc. It seeks to integrate the individual within himself (sic) and within his community until the individual becomes a cosmic soul and the community the world."


And on page 84 of the same book:

"The Cosmic soul ... the whole human race is going to evolve an effective soul of its own -- the cosmic soul of the race. That is the future of human evolution. As a result of the emergence of the universal soul, there will be a great unification of the entire human race, ushering into existence a new era, a new dawn of unique world power."


This last quote sounds even more like Adolph Hitler than Assemblyman John Vasconcellos. It has the same blend of the occult, the ethnic and absolutism.

In conclusion we need only quote the Constitution, the basic body of law under which the United States is governed.

The generally held understanding of the Constitution on the relationship between the individual and the State is that the individual is Supreme, the State exists only to serve individuals and the State has no power except by express permission of the people.

This is guaranteed by Amendments IX and X of the Constitution.

Amendment IX reads,

"The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the People."


Note, the "retained". And,

Amendment X reads,

"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."


In brief, the proposals of John Dewey and his followers are unconstitutional. They would never have seen the light of day in American schoolrooms unless they had been promoted by The Order with its enormous power.

Image
Mind Blank - The Order's Objective For Education

-- America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones, by Antony C. Sutton


Image
John Dewey
Born October 20, 1859
Burlington, Vermont, United States
Died June 1, 1952 (aged 92)
New York, New York, United States
Alma mater University of Vermont
Johns Hopkins University
Era 20th-century philosophy
Region Western philosophy
School Pragmatism
Instrumentalism[1]
Institutions University of Michigan
University of Chicago
University of Chicago Laboratory Schools
Columbia University
Main interests
Philosophy of education, epistemology, journalism, ethics
Notable ideas
Reflective thinking[2]
American Association of University Professors
Immediate empiricism
Inquiry into Moscow show trials about Trotsky
Educational progressivism
Occupational psychosis
Influences: Plato · Locke · Rousseau · Kant · Hegel · Darwin · Peirce · Green · William James · Mead · George · Ward · Wundt · Parker
Influenced: Influenced[hide]
Veblen · B.R. Ambedkar · Santayana · Martin · Kaplan · Hu Shih · Hook · Greene · Richard McKeon · Margaret Naumburg · Putnam · Chomsky · Habermas · Rorty · West · Park · Durkheim · Herbert Schneider · Mills

John Dewey (/ˈduːi/; October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey is one of the primary figures associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the fathers of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Dewey as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century.[3] A well-known public intellectual, he was also a major voice of progressive education and liberalism.[4][5] Although Dewey is known best for his publications about education, he also wrote about many other topics, including epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art, logic, social theory, and ethics. He was a major educational reformer for the 20th century.

The overriding theme of Dewey's works was his profound belief in democracy, be it in politics, education, or communication and journalism. As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, "Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my mind synonymous."[6]

Known for his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—to be major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. Dewey asserted that complete democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being accountable for the policies they adopt.

Life and works

John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont to a family of modest means.[7] He was one of four boys born to Archibald Sprague Dewey and Lucina Artemisia Rich Dewey. Their second son was also named John, but he died in an accident on January 17, 1859. The second John Dewey was born October 20, 1859, forty weeks after the death of his older brother. Like his older, surviving brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, where he was initiated into Delta Psi, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa[8] in 1879. A significant professor of Dewey's at the University of Vermont was Henry Augustus Pearson Torrey (H. A. P. Torrey), the son-in-law and nephew of former University of Vermont president Joseph Torrey. Dewey studied privately with Torrey between his graduation from Vermont and his enrollment at Johns Hopkins University.[9][10]

After two years as a high-school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania and one year as an elementary-school teacher in the small town of Charlotte, Vermont, Dewey decided that he was unsuited for teaching primary or secondary school. After studying with George Sylvester Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, Herbert Baxter Adams, and G. Stanley Hall, Dewey received his Ph.D. from the School of Arts & Sciences at Johns Hopkins University. In 1884, he accepted a faculty position at the University of Michigan (1884–88 and 1889–94) with the help of George Sylvester Morris. His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled "The Psychology of Kant." In 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago (1894–1904) where he developed his belief in Rational Empiricism, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy. His time at the University of Chicago resulted in four essays collectively entitled Thought and its Subject-Matter, which was published with collected works from his colleagues at Chicago under the collective title Studies in Logical Theory (1903). During that time Dewey also initiated the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he was able to actualize the pedagogical beliefs that provided material for his first major work on education, The School and Society (1899). Disagreements with the administration ultimately caused his resignation from the university, and soon thereafter he relocated near the East Coast. In 1899, Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association (A.P.A.). From 1904 until his retirement in 1930 he was professor of philosophy at Columbia University.[11] In 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. He was a longtime member of the American Federation of Teachers.

Along with the historians Charles A. Beard and James Harvey Robinson, and the economist Thorstein Veblen, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School. Dewey's most significant writings were "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896), a critique of a standard psychological concept and the basis of all his further work; Democracy and Education (1916), his celebrated work on progressive education; Human Nature and Conduct (1922), a study of the function of habit in human behavior;[12] The Public and its Problems (1927), a defense of democracy written in response to Walter Lippmann's The Phantom Public (1925); Experience and Nature (1925), Dewey's most "metaphysical" statement; Impressions of Soviet Russia and the Revolutionary World (1929), a glowing travelogue from the nascent USSR;[13] Art as Experience (1934), Dewey's major work on aesthetics; A Common Faith (1934), a humanistic study of religion originally delivered as the Dwight H. Terry Lectureship at Yale; Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938), a statement of Dewey's unusual conception of logic; Freedom and Culture (1939), a political work examining the roots of fascism; and Knowing and the Known (1949), a book written in conjunction with Arthur F. Bentley that systematically outlines the concept of trans-action, which is central to his other works (see Transactionalism). While each of these works focuses on one particular philosophical theme, Dewey included his major themes in most of what he published. He published more than 700 articles in 140 journals, and approximately 40 books.

Reflecting his immense influence on 20th-century thought, Hilda Neatby wrote "Dewey has been to our age what Aristotle was to the later Middle Ages, not a philosopher, but the philosopher."[14]

Dewey married Alice Chipman in 1886 shortly after Chipman graduated with her PhB from the University of Michigan. The two had six children: Frederick Archibald Dewey, Evelyn Riggs Dewey, Morris (who died young), Gordon Chipman Dewey, Lucy Alice Chipman Dewey, and Jane Mary Dewey.[15][16] Alice Chipman died in 1927 at the age of 68; weakened by a case of malaria contracted during a trip to Turkey in 1924 and a heart attack during a trip to Mexico City in 1926, she died from cerebral thrombosis on July 13, 1927.[17] Dewey married Estelle Roberta Lowitz Grant, "a longtime friend and companion for several years before their marriage" on December 11, 1946.[18][19] At Roberta's behest, the couple adopted two siblings, Lewis (changed to John, Jr.) and Shirley.[20] John Dewey died of pneumonia on June 1, 1952 at his home in New York City after years of ill-health.[21][22] and was cremated the next day.[23]

The United States Postal Service honored Dewey with a Prominent Americans series 30¢ postage stamp in 1968.[24]

Visits to China and Japan

Image
John Dewey and Hu Shih, circa 1938–1942.

In 1919, Dewey and his wife traveled to Japan on sabbatical leave. Though Dewey and his wife were well received by the people of Japan during this trip, Dewey was also critical of the nation's governing system and claimed that the nation's path towards democracy was "ambitious but weak in many respects in which her competitors are strong."[25] He also stated that "the real test has not yet come. But if the nominally democratic world should go back on the professions so profusely uttered during war days, the shock will be enormous, and bureaucracy and militarism might come back."[25]

During his trip to Japan, Dewey was invited by Peking University to visit China, probably at the behest of his former students, Hu Shih and Chiang Monlin. Dewey and his wife Alice arrived in Shanghai on April 30, 1919,[26] just days before student demonstrators took to the streets of Peking to protest the decision of the Allies in Paris to cede the German held territories in Shandong province to Japan. Their demonstrations on May Fourth excited and energized Dewey, and he ended up staying in China for two years, leaving in July 1921.[27]

In these two years, Dewey gave nearly 200 lectures to Chinese audiences and wrote nearly monthly articles for Americans in The New Republic and other magazines. Well aware of both Japanese expansionism into China and the attraction of Bolshevism to some Chinese, Dewey advocated that Americans support China's transformation and that Chinese base this transformation in education and social reforms, not revolution. Hundreds and sometimes thousands of people attended the lectures, which were interpreted by Hu Shih. For these audiences, Dewey represented "Mr. Democracy" and "Mr. Science," the two personifications which they thought of representing modern values and hailed him as "Second Confucius". Perhaps Dewey's biggest impact, however, was on the forces for progressive education in China, such as Hu Shih and Chiang Monlin, who had studied with him, and Tao Xingzhi, who had studied at Teachers College, Columbia University.[28]

Their letters from China and Japan describing their experiences to their family were published in 1920, edited by their daughter Evelyn.[29] During and after his visit his commentaries on China would be published in such periodicals as the New Republic, Asia, the China Review, and sometimes in newspapers like the Baltimore Sun. Though discussing Chinese philosophy but rarely, one article in 1922, "As the Chinese Think", discusses the teachings of Laozi and Confucius in an attempt to improve understanding of the Chinese in international business relations.[30]

Visit to Southern Africa

Dewey and his daughter Jane went to South Africa in July 1934, at the invitation of the World Conference of New Education Fellowship in Cape Town and Johannesburg, where he delivered several talks. The conference was opened by the South African Minister of Education Jan Hofmeyr, and Deputy Prime Minister Jan Smuts. Other speakers at the conference included Max Eiselen and Hendrik Verwoerd, who would later become prime minister of the Nationalist government that introduced Apartheid.[31] John and Jane's expenses were paid by the Carnegie Foundation. He also traveled to Durban, Pretoria and Victoria Falls in what was then Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and looked at schools, talked to pupils, and gave lectures to the administrators and teachers. In August 1934, Dewey accepted an honorary degree from the University of the Witwatersrand.[32]

Functional psychology

See also: History of psychology

At the University of Michigan, Dewey published his first two books, Psychology (1887), and Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888), both of which expressed Dewey's early commitment to British neo-Hegelianism. In Psychology, Dewey attempted a synthesis between idealism and experimental science.[1]

While still professor of philosophy at Michigan, Dewey and his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts and George Herbert Mead, together with his student James Rowland Angell, all influenced strongly by the recent publication of William James' Principles of Psychology (1890), began to reformulate psychology, emphasizing the social environment on the activity of mind and behavior rather than the physiological psychology of Wilhelm Wundt and his followers.

By 1894, Dewey had joined Tufts, with whom he would later write Ethics (1908) at the recently founded University of Chicago and invited Mead and Angell to follow him, the four men forming the basis of the so-called "Chicago group" of psychology.

Their new style of psychology, later dubbed functional psychology, had a practical emphasis on action and application. In Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which appeared in Psychological Review in 1896, he reasons against the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends on how one considers the situation, and defends the unitary nature of the sensory motor circuit. While he does not deny the existence of stimulus, sensation, and response, he disagreed that they were separate, juxtaposed events happening like links in a chain. He developed the idea that there is a coordination by which the stimulation is enriched by the results of previous experiences. The response is modulated by sensorial experience.

Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1899.

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In 1984, the American Psychological Association announced that Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878–1972) had become the first psychologist to be commemorated on a United States postage stamp. However, psychologists Gary Brucato and John D. Hogan later made the case that this distinction actually belonged to John Dewey, who had been celebrated on an American stamp 17 years earlier. While some psychology historians consider Dewey more of a philosopher than a bona fide psychologist,[33] the authors noted that Dewey was a founding member of the A.P.A., served as the A.P.A.'s eighth president in 1899, and was the author of an 1896 article on the reflex arc which is now considered a basis of American functional psychology.[34]

Dewey also expressed interest in work in the psychology of visual perception performed by Dartmouth research professor Adelbert Ames Jr. He had great trouble with listening, however, because it is known Dewey could not distinguish musical pitches—in other words was tone deaf.[35]

Pragmatism, instrumentalism, consequentialism

Dewey sometimes referred to his philosophy as instrumentalism rather than pragmatism, and would have recognized the similarity of these two schools to the newer school named consequentialism. He defined with precise brevity the criterion of validity common to these three schools, which lack agreed-upon definitions:

But in the proper interpretation of "pragmatic," namely the function of consequences as necessary tests of the validity of propositions, provided these consequences are operationally instituted and are such as to resolve the specific problem evoking the operations, the text that follows is thoroughly pragmatic.[36]


His concern for precise definition led him to detailed analysis of careless word usage, reported in Knowing and the Known in 1949.

Epistemology

Main article: Knowing and the Known

The terminology problem in the fields of epistemology and logic is partially due, according to Dewey and Bentley,[37] to inefficient and imprecise use of words and concepts that reflect three historic levels of organization and presentation.[38] In the order of chronological appearance, these are:

• Self-Action: Prescientific concepts regarded humans, animals, and things as possessing powers of their own which initiated or caused their actions.
• Interaction: as described by Newton, where things, living and inorganic, are balanced against something in a system of interaction, for example, the third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Transaction: where modern systems of descriptions and naming are employed to deal with multiple aspects and phases of action without any attribution to ultimate, final, or independent entities, essences, or realities.

A series of characterizations of Transactions indicate the wide range of considerations involved.[39]

Logic and method

Dewey sees paradox in contemporary logical theory. Proximate subject matter garners general agreement and advancement, while the ultimate subject matter of logic generates unremitting controversy. In other words, he challenges confident logicians to answer the question of the truth of logical operators. Do they function merely as abstractions (e.g., pure mathematics) or do they connect in some essential way with their objects, and therefore alter or bring them to light?[40]

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Grave of Dewey and his wife in an alcove on the north side of the Ira Allen Chapel in Burlington, Vermont. The only grave on the University of Vermont campus

Logical positivism also figured in Dewey's thought. About the movement he wrote that it "eschews the use of 'propositions' and 'terms', substituting 'sentences' and 'words'." ("General Theory of Propositions", in Logic: The Theory of Inquiry) He welcomes this changing of referents "in as far as it fixes attention upon the symbolic structure and content of propositions." However, he registers a small complaint against the use of "sentence" and "words" in that without careful interpretation the act or process of transposition "narrows unduly the scope of symbols and language, since it is not customary to treat gestures and diagrams (maps, blueprints, etc.) as words or sentences." In other words, sentences and words, considered in isolation, do not disclose intent, which may be inferred or "adjudged only by means of context."[40]

Yet Dewey was not entirely opposed to modern logical trends. Concerning traditional logic, he states:

Aristotelian logic, which still passes current nominally, is a logic based upon the idea that qualitative objects are existential in the fullest sense. To retain logical principles based on this conception along with the acceptance of theories of existence and knowledge based on an opposite conception is not, to say the least, conductive to clearness—a consideration that has a good deal to do with existing dualism between traditional and the newer relational logics.


Louis Menand argues in The Metaphysical Club that Jane Addams had been critical of Dewey's emphasis on antagonism in the context of a discussion of the Pullman strike of 1894. In a later letter to his wife, Dewey confessed that Addams' argument was:

... the most magnificent exhibition of intellectual & moral faith I ever saw. She converted me internally, but not really, I fear. ... When you think that Miss Addams does not think this as a philosophy, but believes it in all her senses & muscles—Great God ... I guess I'll have to give it [all] up & start over again.


He went on to add:

I can see that I have always been interpreting dialectic wrong end up, the unity as the reconciliation of opposites, instead of the opposites as the unity in its growth, and thus translated the physical tension into a moral thing ... I don't know as I give the reality of this at all, ... it seems so natural & commonplace now, but I never had anything take hold of me so.[41]


In a letter to Addams, clearly influenced by his conversation with her, Dewey wrote:

Not only is actual antagonizing bad, but the assumption that there is or may be antagonism is bad—in fact, the real first antagonism always comes back to the assumption.


Aesthetics

Main article: Art as Experience

Art as Experience (1934) is Dewey's major writing on aesthetics.

It is, in accordance with his place in the Pragmatist tradition that emphasizes community, a study of the individual art object as embedded in (and inextricable from) the experiences of a local culture. In the original illustrated edition, Dewey drew on the modern art and world cultures collection assembled by Albert C. Barnes at the Barnes Foundation, whose own ideas on the application of art to one's way of life was influenced by Dewey's writing. Barnes was particularly influenced by "Democracy and Education" (1916) and then attended Dewey's seminar on political philosophy at Columbia University in the fall semester of 1918

On philanthropy, women and democracy

Dewey founded the University of Chicago laboratory school, supported educational organizations, and supported settlement houses especially Jane Addams' Hull House.[42]

Through his work at the Hull House serving on its first board of trustees, Dewey was not only an activist for the cause but also a partner working to serve the large immigrant community of Chicago and women's suffrage. Dewey experienced the lack of children's education while contributing in the classroom at the Hull House and the lack of education and skills of immigrant women.[43] Stengel argues:

Addams is unquestionably a maker of democratic community and pragmatic education; Dewey is just as unquestionably a reflector. Through her work at Hull House, Addams discerned the shape of democracy as a mode of associated living and uncovered the outlines of an experimental approach to knowledge and understanding; Dewey analyzed and classified the social, psychological and educational processes Addams lived.[42]


His leading views on democracy included:

First, Dewey believed that democracy is an ethical ideal rather than merely a political arrangement. Second, he considered participation, not representation, the essence of democracy. Third, he insisted on the harmony between democracy and the scientific method: ever-expanding and self-critical communities of inquiry, operating on pragmatic principles and constantly revising their beliefs in light of new evidence, provided Dewey with a model for democratic decision making ... Finally, Dewey called for extending democracy, conceived as an ethical project, from politics to industry and society.[44]


This helped to shape his understanding of human action and the unity of human experience.

Dewey believed that a woman's place in society was determined by her environment and not just her biology. On women he says, "You think too much of women in terms of sex. Think of them as human individuals for a while, dropping out the sex qualification, and you won't be so sure of some of your generalizations about what they should and shouldn't do".[43] John Dewey's support helped to increase the support and popularity of Jane Addams' Hull House and other settlement houses as well. With growing support, involvement of the community grew as well as the support for the women's suffrage movement.

As commonly argued by Dewey's greatest critics, he was not able to come up with strategies in order to fulfill his ideas that would lead to a successful democracy, educational system, and a successful women's suffrage movement. While knowing that traditional beliefs, customs, and practices needed to be examined in order to find out what worked and what needed improved upon, it was never done in a systematic way.[43] "Dewey became increasingly aware of the obstacles presented by entrenched power and alert to the intricacy of the problems facing modern cultures".[44] With the complex of society at the time, Dewey was criticized for his lack of effort in fixing the problems.

With respect to technological developments in a democracy:

Persons do not become a society by living in physical proximity any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others.


His work on democracy influenced B.R. Ambedkar, one of his students, who later became one of the founding fathers of independent India.[45][46][47][48]

On education and teacher education

Main article: Democracy and Education

Dewey's educational theories were presented in My Pedagogic Creed (1897), The School and Society (1900), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Democracy and Education (1916), Schools of To-morrow (c1915) with Evelyn Dewey, and Experience and Education (1938). Several themes recur throughout these writings. Dewey continually argues that education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place. In addition, he believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning.

The ideas of democracy and social reform are continually discussed in Dewey's writings on education. Dewey makes a strong case for the importance of education not only as a place to gain content knowledge, but also as a place to learn how to live. In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good. He notes that "to prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities" (My Pedagogic Creed, Dewey, 1897). In addition to helping students realize their full potential, Dewey goes on to acknowledge that education and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. He notes that "education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction".

In addition to his ideas regarding what education is and what effect it should have on society, Dewey also had specific notions regarding how education should take place within the classroom. In The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Dewey discusses two major conflicting schools of thought regarding educational pedagogy. The first is centered on the curriculum and focuses almost solely on the subject matter to be taught. Dewey argues that the major flaw in this methodology is the inactivity of the student; within this particular framework, "the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened" (1902, p. 13).[49] He argues that in order for education to be most effective, content must be presented in a way that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new knowledge.

At the same time, Dewey was alarmed by many of the "child-centered" excesses of educational-school pedagogues who claimed to be his followers, and he argued that too much reliance on the child could be equally detrimental to the learning process. In this second school of thought, "we must take our stand with the child and our departure from him. It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both quality and quantity of learning" (Dewey, 1902, pp. 13–14). According to Dewey, the potential flaw in this line of thinking is that it minimizes the importance of the content as well as the role of the teacher.

In order to rectify this dilemma, Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student. He notes that "the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction" (Dewey, 1902, p. 16). It is through this reasoning that Dewey became one of the most famous proponents of hands-on learning or experiential education, which is related to, but not synonymous with experiential learning. He argued that "if knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind" (Dewey, 1916/2009, pp. 217–18).[50] Dewey's ideas went on to influence many other influential experiential models and advocates. Problem-Based Learning (PBL), for example, a method used widely in education today, incorporates Dewey's ideas pertaining to learning through active inquiry.[51]

Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. Throughout the history of American schooling, education's purpose has been to train students for work by providing the student with a limited set of skills and information to do a particular job. The works of John Dewey provide the most prolific examples of how this limited vocational view of education has been applied to both the K–12 public education system and to the teacher training schools who attempted to quickly produce proficient and practical teachers with a limited set of instructional and discipline-specific skills needed to meet the needs of the employer and demands of the workforce. In The School and Society (Dewey, 1899) and Democracy of Education (Dewey, 1916), Dewey claims that rather than preparing citizens for ethical participation in society, schools cultivate passive pupils via insistence upon mastery of facts and disciplining of bodies. Rather than preparing students to be reflective, autonomous and ethical beings capable of arriving at social truths through critical and intersubjective discourse, schools prepare students for docile compliance with authoritarian work and political structures, discourage the pursuit of individual and communal inquiry, and perceive higher learning as a monopoly of the institution of education (Dewey, 1899; 1916).

For Dewey and his philosophical followers, education stifles individual autonomy when learners are taught that knowledge is transmitted in one direction, from the expert to the learner. Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process. For Dewey, "The thing needful is improvement of education, not simply by turning out teachers who can do better the things that are not necessary to do, but rather by changing the conception of what constitutes education" (Dewey, 1904, p. 18). Dewey's qualifications for teaching—a natural love for working with young children, a natural propensity to inquire about the subjects, methods and other social issues related to the profession, and a desire to share this acquired knowledge with others—are not a set of outwardly displayed mechanical skills. Rather, they may be viewed as internalized principles or habits which "work automatically, unconsciously" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15). Turning to Dewey's essays and public addresses regarding the teaching profession, followed by his analysis of the teacher as a person and a professional, as well as his beliefs regarding the responsibilities of teacher education programs to cultivate the attributes addressed, teacher educators can begin to reimagine the successful classroom teacher Dewey envisioned.

Professionalization of teaching as a social service

For many, education's purpose is to train students for work by providing the student with a limited set of skills and information to do a particular job. As Dewey notes, this limited vocational view is also applied to teacher training schools who attempt to quickly produce proficient and practical teachers with a limited set of instructional and discipline skills needed to meet the needs of the employer and demands of the workforce (Dewey, 1904). For Dewey, the school and the classroom teacher, as a workforce and provider of a social service, have a unique responsibility to produce psychological and social goods that will lead to both present and future social progress. As Dewey notes, "The business of the teacher is to produce a higher standard of intelligence in the community, and the object of the public school system is to make as large as possible the number of those who possess this intelligence. Skill, ability to act wisely and effectively in a great variety of occupations and situations, is a sign and a criterion of the degree of civilization that a society has reached. It is the business of teachers to help in producing the many kinds of skill needed in contemporary life. If teachers are up to their work, they also aid in the production of character."(Dewey, TAP, 2010, pp. 241–42).

According to Dewey, the emphasis is placed on producing these attributes in children for use in their contemporary life because it is "impossible to foretell definitely just what civilization will be twenty years from now" (Dewey, MPC, 2010, p. 25). However, although Dewey is steadfast in his beliefs that education serves an immediate purpose (Dewey, DRT, 2010; Dewey, MPC, 2010; Dewey, TTP, 2010), he is not ignorant of the impact imparting these qualities of intelligence, skill, and character on young children in their present life will have on the future society. While addressing the state of educative and economic affairs during a 1935 radio broadcast, Dewey linked the ensuing economic depression to a "lack of sufficient production of intelligence, skill, and character" (Dewey, TAP, 2010, p. 242) of the nation's workforce. As Dewey notes, there is a lack of these goods in the present society and teachers have a responsibility to create them in their students, who, we can assume, will grow into the adults who will ultimately go on to participate in whatever industrial or economical civilization awaits them. According to Dewey, the profession of the classroom teacher is to produce the intelligence, skill, and character within each student so that the democratic community is composed of citizens who can think, do and act intelligently and morally.
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A teacher's knowledge

Dewey believed that the successful classroom teacher possesses a passion for knowledge and an intellectual curiosity in the materials and methods they teach. For Dewey, this propensity is an inherent curiosity and love for learning that differs from one's ability to acquire, recite and reproduce textbook knowledge. "No one," according to Dewey, "can be really successful in performing the duties and meeting these demands [of teaching] who does not retain [her] intellectual curiosity intact throughout [her] entire career" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 34). According to Dewey, it is not that the "teacher ought to strive to be a high-class scholar in all the subjects he or she has to teach," rather, "a teacher ought to have an unusual love and aptitude in some one subject: history, mathematics, literature, science, a fine art, or whatever" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35). The classroom teacher does not have to be a scholar in all subjects; rather, a genuine love in one will elicit a feel for genuine information and insight in all subjects taught.

In addition to this propensity for study into the subjects taught, the classroom teacher "is possessed by a recognition of the responsibility for the constant study of school room work, the constant study of children, of methods, of subject matter in its various adaptations to pupils" (Dewey, PST, 2010, p. 37). For Dewey, this desire for the lifelong pursuit of learning is inherent in other professions (e.g. the architectural, legal and medical fields; Dewey, 1904 & Dewey, PST, 2010), and has particular importance for the field of teaching. As Dewey notes, "this further study is not a side line but something which fits directly into the demands and opportunities of the vocation" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 34).

According to Dewey, this propensity and passion for intellectual growth in the profession must be accompanied by a natural desire to communicate one's knowledge with others. "There are scholars who have [the knowledge] in a marked degree but who lack enthusiasm for imparting it. To the 'natural born' teacher learning is incomplete unless it is shared" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35). For Dewey, it is not enough for the classroom teacher to be a lifelong learner of the techniques and subject-matter of education; she must aspire to share what she knows with others in her learning community.

A teacher's skill

The best indicator of teacher quality, according to Dewey, is the ability to watch and respond to the movement of the mind with keen awareness of the signs and quality of the responses he or her students exhibit with regard to the subject-matter presented (Dewey, APT, 2010; Dewey, 1904). As Dewey notes, "I have often been asked how it was that some teachers who have never studied the art of teaching are still extraordinarily good teachers. The explanation is simple. They have a quick, sure and unflagging sympathy with the operations and process of the minds they are in contact with. Their own minds move in harmony with those of others, appreciating their difficulties, entering into their problems, sharing their intellectual victories" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 36). Such a teacher is genuinely aware of the complexities of this mind to mind transfer, and she has the intellectual fortitude to identify the successes and failures of this process, as well as how to appropriately reproduce or correct it in the future.

A teacher's disposition

As a result of the direct influence teachers have in shaping the mental, moral and spiritual lives of children during their most formative years, Dewey holds the profession of teaching in high esteem, often equating its social value to that of the ministry and to parenting (Dewey, APT, 2010; Dewey, DRT, 2010; Dewey, MPC, 2010; Dewey, PST, 2010; Dewey, TTC, 2010; Dewey, TTP, 2010). Perhaps the most important attributes, according to Dewey, are those personal inherent qualities which the teacher brings to the classroom. As Dewey notes, "no amount of learning or even of acquired pedagogical skill makes up for the deficiency" (Dewey, TLS, p. 25) of the personal traits needed to be most successful in the profession.

According to Dewey, the successful classroom teacher occupies an indispensable passion for promoting the intellectual growth of young children. In addition, they know that their career, in comparison to other professions, entails stressful situations, long hours and limited financial reward; all of which have the potential to overcome their genuine love and sympathy for their students. For Dewey, "One of the most depressing phases of the vocation is the number of care worn teachers one sees, with anxiety depicted on the lines of their faces, reflected in their strained high pitched voices and sharp manners. While contact with the young is a privilege for some temperaments, it is a tax on others, and a tax which they do not bear up under very well. And in some schools, there are too many pupils to a teacher, too many subjects to teach, and adjustments to pupils are made in a mechanical rather than a human way. Human nature reacts against such unnatural conditions" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35).

It is essential, according to Dewey, that the classroom teacher has the mental propensity to overcome the demands and stressors placed on them because the students can sense when their teacher is not genuinely invested in promoting their learning (Dewey, PST, 2010). Such negative demeanors, according to Dewey, prevent children from pursuing their own propensities for learning and intellectual growth. It can therefore be assumed that if teachers want their students to engage with the educational process and employ their natural curiosities for knowledge, teachers must be aware of how their reactions to young children and the stresses of teaching influence this process.

The role of teacher education to cultivate the professional classroom teacher

Dewey's passions for teaching—a natural love for working with young children, a natural propensity to inquire about the subjects, methods and other social issues related to the profession, and a desire to share this acquired knowledge with others—are not a set of outwardly displayed mechanical skills. Rather, they may be viewed as internalized principles or habits which "work automatically, unconsciously" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15). According to Dewey, teacher education programs must turn away from focusing on producing proficient practitioners because such practical skills related to instruction and discipline (e.g. creating and delivering lesson plans, classroom management, implementation of an assortment of content-specific methods) can be learned over time during their everyday school work with their students (Dewey, PST, 2010). As Dewey notes, "The teacher who leaves the professional school with power in managing a class of children may appear to superior advantage the first day, the first week, the first month, or even the first year, as compared with some other teacher who has a much more vital command of the psychology, logic and ethics of development. But later 'progress' may with such consist only in perfecting and refining skill already possessed. Such persons seem to know how to teach, but they are not students of teaching. Even though they go on studying books of pedagogy, reading teachers' journals, attending teachers' institutes, etc., yet the root of the matter is not in them, unless they continue to be students of subject-matter, and students of mind-activity. Unless a teacher is such a student, he may continue to improve in the mechanics of school management, but he cannot grow as a teacher, an inspirer and director of soul-life" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15). For Dewey, teacher education should focus not on producing persons who know how to teach as soon as they leave the program; rather, teacher education should be concerned with producing professional students of education who have the propensity to inquire about the subjects they teach, the methods used, and the activity of the mind as it gives and receives knowledge. According to Dewey, such a student is not superficially engaging with these materials, rather, the professional student of education has a genuine passion to inquire about the subjects of education, knowing that doing so ultimately leads to acquisitions of the skills related to teaching. Such students of education aspire for the intellectual growth within the profession that can only be achieved by immersing one's self in the lifelong pursuit of the intelligence, skills and character Dewey linked to the profession.

As Dewey notes, other professional fields, such as law and medicine cultivate a professional spirit in their fields to constantly study their work, their methods of their work, and a perpetual need for intellectual growth and concern for issues related to their profession. Teacher education, as a profession, has these same obligations (Dewey, 1904; Dewey, PST, 2010). As Dewey notes, "An intellectual responsibility has got to be distributed to every human being who is concerned in carrying out the work in question, and to attempt to concentrate intellectual responsibility for a work that has to be done, with their brains and their hearts, by hundreds or thousands of people in a dozen or so at the top, no matter how wise and skillful they are, is not to concentrate responsibility—it is to diffuse irresponsibility" (Dewey, PST, 2010, p. 39). For Dewey, the professional spirit of teacher education requires of its students a constant study of school room work, constant study of children, of methods, of subject matter in its various adaptations to pupils. Such study will lead to professional enlightenment with regard to the daily operations of classroom teaching.

As well as his very active and direct involvement in setting up educational institutions such as the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools (1896) and The New School for Social Research (1919), many of Dewey's ideas influenced the founding of Bennington College and Goddard College in Vermont, where he served on the Board of Trustees. Dewey's works and philosophy also held great influence in the creation of the short-lived Black Mountain College in North Carolina, an experimental college focused on interdisciplinary study, and whose faculty included Buckminster Fuller, Willem de Kooning, Charles Olson, Franz Kline, Robert Duncan, Robert Creeley, and Paul Goodman, among others. Black Mountain College was the locus of the "Black Mountain Poets" a group of avant-garde poets closely linked with the Beat Generation and the San Francisco Renaissance.

On journalism

Main article: The Public and its Problems

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Caricature of Dewey by André Koehne, 2006

Since the mid-1980s, Deweyan ideas have experienced revival as a major source of inspiration for the public journalism movement. Dewey's definition of "public," as described in The Public and its Problems, has profound implications for the significance of journalism in society. As suggested by the title of the book, his concern was of the transactional relationship between publics and problems. Also implicit in its name, public journalism seeks to orient communication away from elite, corporate hegemony toward a civic public sphere. "The 'public' of public journalists is Dewey's public."

Dewey gives a concrete definition to the formation of a public. Publics are spontaneous groups of citizens who share the indirect effects of a particular action. Anyone affected by the indirect consequences of a specific action will automatically share a common interest in controlling those consequences, i.e., solving a common problem.[52]
Since every action generates unintended consequences, publics continuously emerge, overlap, and disintegrate.

In The Public and its Problems, Dewey presents a rebuttal to Walter Lippmann's treatise on the role of journalism in democracy. Lippmann's model was a basic transmission model in which journalists took information given to them by experts and elites, repackaged that information in simple terms, and transmitted the information to the public, whose role was to react emotionally to the news. In his model, Lippmann supposed that the public was incapable of thought or action, and that all thought and action should be left to the experts and elites.

Dewey refutes this model by assuming that politics is the work and duty of each individual in the course of his daily routine. The knowledge needed to be involved in politics, in this model, was to be generated by the interaction of citizens, elites, experts, through the mediation and facilitation of journalism. In this model, not just the government is accountable, but the citizens, experts, and other actors as well.

Dewey also said that journalism should conform to this ideal by changing its emphasis from actions or happenings (choosing a winner of a given situation) to alternatives, choices, consequences, and conditions,[53] in order to foster conversation and improve the generation of knowledge. Journalism would not just produce a static product that told what had already happened, but the news would be in a constant state of evolution as the public added value by generating knowledge. The "audience" would end, to be replaced by citizens and collaborators who would essentially be users, doing more with the news than simply reading it. Concerning his effort to change journalism, he wrote in The Public and Its Problems: "Till the Great Society is converted in to a Great Community, the Public will remain in eclipse. Communication can alone create a great community" (Dewey, p. 142).

Dewey believed that communication creates a great community, and citizens who participate actively with public life contribute to that community. "The clear consciousness of a communal life, in all its implications, constitutes the idea of democracy." (The Public and its Problems, p. 149). This Great Community can only occur with "free and full intercommunication." (p. 211) Communication can be understood as journalism.

On humanism

As an atheist[54] and a secular humanist in his later life, Dewey participated with a variety of humanistic activities from the 1930s into the 1950s, which included sitting on the advisory board of Charles Francis Potter's First Humanist Society of New York (1929); being one of the original 34 signatories of the first Humanist Manifesto (1933) and being elected an honorary member of the Humanist Press Association (1936).[55]

His opinion of humanism is summarized in his own words from an article titled "What Humanism Means to Me", published in the June 1930 edition of Thinker 2:

What Humanism means to me is an expansion, not a contraction, of human life, an expansion in which nature and the science of nature are made the willing servants of human good.[56]


Social and political activism

While Dewey was at the University of Chicago, his letters to his wife Alice and his colleague Jane Addams reveal that he closely followed the 1894 Pullman Strike, in which the employees of the Pullman Palace Car Factory in Chicago decided to go on strike after industrialist George Pullman refused to lower rents in his company town after cutting his workers’ wages by nearly 30 percent. On May 11, 1894, the strike became official, later gaining the support of the members of the American Railway Union, whose leader Eugene V. Debs called for a nationwide boycott of all trains including Pullman sleeping cars. Considering most trains had Pullman cars, the main 24 lines out of Chicago were halted and the mail was stopped as the workers destroyed trains all over the United States. President Grover Cleveland used the mail as a justification to send in the National Guard, and ARU leader Eugene Debs was arrested. Dewey wrote to Alice: “The only wonder is that when the ‘higher classes’ – damn them – take such views there aren’t more downright socialists…. [T]hat a representative journal of the upper classes – damn them again – can take the attitude of that harper’s weekly,” referring to headlines such as “Monopoly” and “Repress the Rebellion,” which claimed, in Dewey’s words, to support the sensational belief that Debs was a “criminal” inspiring hate and violence in the equally “criminal” working classes. He concluded: “It shows what it is to be a higher class. And I fear Chicago Univ. is a capitalistic institution – that is, it too belongs to the higher classes.”[57] Dewey was not a socialist like Debs, but he believed that Pullman and the workers must strive toward a community of shared ends following the work of Jane Addams and George Herbert Mead.

As a major advocate for academic freedom, in 1935 Dewey, together with Albert Einstein and Alvin Johnson, became a member of the United States section of the International League for Academic Freedom,[58] and in 1940, together with Horace M Kallen, edited a series of articles related to the Bertrand Russell Case.

As well as defending the independence of teachers and opposing a communist takeover of the New York Teachers' Union,[citation needed] Dewey was involved in the organization that eventually became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, sitting as an executive on the NAACP's early executive board[59]. He was an avid supporter of Henry George's proposal for taxing land values. Of George, he wrote, "No man, no graduate of a higher educational institution, has a right to regard himself as an educated man in social thought unless he has some first-hand acquaintance with the theoretical contribution of this great American thinker."[60] As honorary president of the Henry George School of Social Science, he wrote a letter to Henry Ford urging him to support the school.[61]

He directed the famous Dewey Commission held in Mexico in 1937, which cleared Leon Trotsky of the charges made against him by Joseph Stalin,[62] and marched for women's rights, among many other causes.

In 1939, John Dewey was elected President of the League for Industrial Democracy, an organization with the goal of educating college students about the labor movement. The Student Branch of the L.I.D. would later become Students for a Democratic Society.[63]

Other interests

Dewey's interests and writings included many topics, and according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "a substantial part of his published output consisted of commentary on current domestic and international politics, and public statements on behalf of many causes. (He is probably the only philosopher in this encyclopedia to have published both on the Treaty of Versailles and on the value of displaying art in post offices.)"[64]

In 1917, Dewey met F. M. Alexander in New York City and later wrote introductions to Alexander's Man's Supreme Inheritance (1918), Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual (1923) and The Use of the Self (1932). Alexander's influence is referenced in "Human Nature and Conduct" and "Experience and Nature."[65]

As well as his contacts with people mentioned elsewhere in the article, he also maintained correspondence with Henri Bergson, William M. Brown, Martin Buber, George S. Counts, William Rainey Harper, Sidney Hook, and George Santayana.

Criticism

Dewey is considered the epitome of liberalism by historians,[66][67] and sometimes was portrayed as "dangerously radical."[68] Meanwhile, Dewey was critiqued strongly by American communists because he argued against Stalinism and had philosophical differences with Marx, identifying himself as a democratic socialist.[69]

Historians have examined his religious beliefs. Biographer Steven C. Rockefeller traced Dewey's democratic convictions to his childhood attendance at the Congregational Church, with its strong proclamation of social ideals and the Social Gospel.[70] Historian Edward A. White suggested in Science and Religion in American Thought (1952) that Dewey's work led to the 20th-century rift between religion and science.

Academic awards

• Copernican Citation (1943)
• Doctor "honoris causa" – University of Oslo (1946)
• Doctor "honoris causa" – University of Pennsylvania (1946)
• Doctor "honoris causa" – Yale University (1951)
• Doctor "honoris causa" – University of Rome (1951)

Honors

• John Dewey High School in Brooklyn, New York is named after him.
• John Dewey Academy of Learning in Green Bay, Wisconsin is a charter school named after him.
• The John Dewey Academy in Great Barrington, MA is a college preparatory therapeutic boarding school for troubled adolescents.
• John Dewey Elementary School in Warrensville Hts., Ohio, an Eastern Suburb of Cleveland, Ohio, is named after him.
• John Dewey Elementary School in Flint, Michigan was named after him but the school is now a career training center – the Sylvester Broom Center.
• John Dewey Middle School in Adams County in Denver, Colorado is a junior high school named after him.

Publications

Besides publishing prolifically himself, Dewey also sat on the boards of scientific publications such as Sociometry (advisory board, 1942) and Journal of Social Psychology (editorial board, 1942), as well as having posts at other publications such as New Leader (contributing editor, 1949).

The following publications by John Dewey are referenced or mentioned in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of publications by John Dewey.

• "The New Psychology", Andover Review, 2, 278–89 (1884)
• Psychology (1887)
• Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888)
• "The Ego as Cause" Philosophical Review, 3, 337–41 (1894)
• "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896)
• "My Pedagogic Creed" (1897)
• The School and Society (1899)
• The Child and the Curriculum (1902)
• The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education (1904)
• "The Postulate of Immediate Empiricism" (1905)
• Moral Principles in Education (1909), The Riverside Press Cambridge, Project Gutenberg
• How We Think (1910)
• German Philosophy and Politics (1915)
• Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education (1916)
• Reconstruction in Philosophy (1919)
• China, Japan and the U.S.A. (1921)
• Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology (1922)
• Experience and Nature (1925)
• The Public and its Problems (1927)
• The Quest for Certainty, Gifford Lectures (1929)
• The Sources of a Science of Education (1929), The Kappa Delta Pi Lecture Series
• Individualism Old and New (1930)
• Philosophy and Civilization (1931)
• Ethics, second edition (with James Hayden Tufts) (1932)
• Art as Experience (1934)
• A Common Faith (1934)
• Liberalism and Social Action (1935)
• Experience and Education (1938)
• Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938)
• Freedom and Culture (1939)
• Theory of Valuation (1939). ISBN 0-226-57594-2
• Knowing and the Known (1949)
• Unmodern Philosophy and Modern Philosophy ISBN 0809330792 (Lost in 1947, finally published in 2012)[71]

See also

• The Philosophy of John Dewey, Edited by John J. McDermott. University of Chicago Press, 1981.
• The Essential Dewey: Volumes 1 and 2. Edited by Larry Hickman and Thomas Alexander. Indiana University Press, 1998.
• To those who aspire to the profession of teaching (APT). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (33–36). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.
• The classroom teacher (CRT). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (153–60). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.
• The duties and responsibilities of the teaching profession (DRT). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (245–48). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.
• The educational balance, efficiency and thinking (EET). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (41–45). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.
• My pedagogic creed (MPC). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (24–32). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.
• Professional spirit among teachers (PST). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (37–40). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.
• The teacher and the public (TAP). In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F. (eds.), Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey (214–44). Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.

Dewey's Complete Writings is available in 4 multi-volume sets (38 volumes in all) from Southern Illinois University Press:

• The Early Works: 1892–1898 (5 volumes)
• The Middle Works: 1899–1924 (15 volumes)
• The Later Works: 1925–1953 (17 volumes)
• Supplementary Volume 1: 1884–1951

The Collected Works of John Dewey: 1882–1953', The Correspondence of John Dewey 1871–1952, and The Lectures of John Dewey are available online via monographic purchase to academic institutions and via subscription to individuals, and also in TEI format for university servers in the Past Masters series. (The CD-ROM has been discontinued).

See also

• Center for Dewey Studies
• Democratic education
• Dewey Commission
• Inquiry-based learning
• Instrumental and value-rational action
• John Dewey bibliography
• John Dewey Society
• League for Independent Political Action
• Learning by teaching
• List of American philosophers
• Malting House School
• Pragmatic ethics

Notes

1. Field, Richard. John Dewey in The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Northwest Missouri State University. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
2. John Dewey, How we think (1910), p. 9.
3. Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; Powell, John L., III; Beavers, Jamie; Monte, Emmanuelle (2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–52. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.586.1913. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139.
4. Alan Ryan, John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism, (1995), p. 32
5. Violas, Paul C.; Tozer, Steven; Senese, Guy B. (September 2004). School and Society: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-07-298556-6.
6. Early Works, 1:128 (Southern Illinois University Press) op cited in Douglas R. Anderson, AAR, The Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 61, No. 2 (1993), p. 383
7. Gutek, Gerald L. (2005). Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education: A Biographical Introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-13-113809-4.
8. Who Belongs To Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Beta Kappa website, accessed Oct 4, 2009
9. bio of Dewey from Bowling Green State University Archived 2011-01-02 at the Wayback Machine
10. Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in the United States. New York: Farrar, Staus and Giroux, 2002.
11. The New York Timesedition of January 19, 1953, page 27
12. John Dewey (1922). Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology. Henry Holt & Company. Retrieved February 2, 2018 – via Internet Archive.
13. John Dewey (1929), Impressons of Soviet Russia and the Revolutionary World, The New Republic. Also at Google Books
14. Hilda M. Neatby, So Little for the Mind (Toronto: Clarke Irwin & Co. Ltd., 1953), pp. 22–23.
15. Biography at Muskingum College Archived 2009-03-31 at the Wayback Machine
16. from The Dictionary of Women Worldwide: 25,000 Women Through the Ages
17. Simpson, Douglas J.; Foley, Kathleen C. (2004). "John Dewey and Hubbards, Nova Scotia". Education and Culture. 20 (2): 43–44.
18. Douglas J. Simpson and Kathleen C. Foley, "John Dewey and Hubbards, Nova Scotia," Education and Culture 20(2) (2004): 42, 52
19. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2005-12-31. Retrieved 2006-01-21.
20. Simpson, Douglas J.; Foley, Kathleen C. (2004). "John Dewey and Hubbards, Nova Scotia". Education and Culture. 20 (2): 55–56.
21. "Dr. John Dewey Dead at 92; Philosopher a Noted Liberal – The Father of Progressive Education Succumbs in Home to Pneumonia". New York Times. June 2, 1952. p. 1. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
22. Douglas J. Simpson and Kathleen C. Foley, "John Dewey and Hubbards, Nova Scotia," Education and Culture 20(2) (2004): 58–59
23. "John Dewey Chronology" 1952.06.02
24. Brody, Roger S. "30-cent Dewey". arago.si.edu. Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
25. b http://www.jaas.gr.jp/jjas/PDF/2007/No.18-107.pdf
26. Letters from China and Japan by Harriet Alice Chipman Dewey and John Dewey
27. Jessica Ching-Sze Wang. John Dewey in China: To Teach and to Learn. Albany: State University of New York Press, Suny Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture, 2007. ISBN 9780791472033 pp. 3–5.
28. Wang, pp. 8–10, 13–14.
29. John Dewey, Harriet Alice Chipman Dewey Letters from China and Japan. New York,: E.P. Dutton, 1920; rpr. Project Guttenberg
30. http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/ ... 390561.pdf Published by University of Hawai'i Press. Philosophy East and West, Volume 61, Number 3, July 2011, pp. 468–91. Sor-hoon Tan. The Dao of Politics: Li (Rituals/Rites) and Laws as Pragmatic Tools of Government(Article).
31. Kraak, Andre; Young, Michael (2001). Education in Retrospect: Policy and Implementation since 1990. Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria. ISBN 978-0-7969-1988-5.
32. Martin, Jay (2002). The Education of John Dewey. Columbia University Press. p. 406. ISBN 978-0231116763.
33. Benjamin, L.T. (2003). "Why Can't Psychology Get a Stamp?". Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies. 5 (4): 443–54. doi:10.1023/A:1026071631669.
34. Brucato, G. & Hogan, J.D. (1999, Spring). "Psychologists on postage stamps" The General Psychologist, 34(1):65
35. Zeltner, Philip N. (1975). John Dewey's Aesthetic Philosophy. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 90-6032-029-8.
36. Dewey, john (1938). Logic: The theory of Inquiry. NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. p. iv.
37. John Dewey, Arthur Bentley, (1949). Knowing and the Known. Beacon Press, Boston.
38. John Dewey, Arthur Bentley, (1949). Knowing and the Known. Beacon Press, Boston, pp. 107–09.
39. John Dewey, Arthur Bentley, (1949). Knowing and the Known. Beacon Press, Boston, pp. 121–39.
40. Jump up to:a b Dewey, John (1938). "The Problem of Logical Subject Matter". Logic: The Theory of Inquiry.
41. Louis Menand. The Metaphysical Club p. 313
42. Stengel, Barbara. "Dewey's Pragmatic Poet: Reconstructing Jane Addams's Philosophical Impact". Project Muse: 29–39. Retrieved November 30, 2014.
43. Upin, Jane S. (1993). ""Charlotte Perkins Gilman": Instrumentalism beyond Dewey:Hypatia". Hypatia. 8 (2): 38–63. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1993.tb00090.x. JSTOR 3810336.
44. Westbrook, Robert B. (1992). "John Dewey and American Democracy". The American Historical Review. 97 (3): 919–20. doi:10.2307/2164912. JSTOR 2164912.
45. Ambedkar, Bhimrao. Annihilation of castes. Critical Quest. p. 64. ISBN 978-81-89524-21-0.
46. Behar, Anurag (2016-03-31). "Ambedkar's teacher". livemint.com.
47. "The like-mindedness of Dewey and Ambedkar". Forward Press. 2017-05-19. Retrieved 2018-05-17.
48. "Ambedkar's pragmatism drew heavily on the 1908 'Ethics'". Forward Press. 2018-01-05. Retrieved 2018-05-17.
49. Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books
50. Dewey, J. (2009). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: WLC Books. (Original work published 1916)
51. Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions. Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1(1).
52. Dewey, J. 1927. The Public and its Problems. Henry Holt & Co., New York. p. 126.
53. John Corcoran . Conditions and Consequences. American Philosophy: an Encyclopedia. 2007. Eds. John Lachs and Robert Talisse. New York: Routledge. pp. 124–27.
54. A. G. Rud; Jim Garrison; Lynda Stone, eds. (2009). Dewey at One Hundred Fifty. Purdue University Press. p. 22. ISBN 9781557535504. With respect to his personal beliefs, Dewey wrote to Max Otto that "I feel the gods are pretty dead, tho I suppose I ought to know that however, to be somewhat more philosophical in the matter, if atheism means simply not being a theist, then of course I'm an atheist. But the popular if not the etymological significance of the word is much wider. ... Although he described himself as an atheist in one sense of the term, it is also clear that Dewey was opposed to militant atheism for the same reason that he was opposed to supernaturalism: he thought both positions dogmatic.
55. "John Dewey Chronology" 1934.04.08, 1936.03.12, 1940.09, and 1950.09.11.
56. "What Humanism Means to Me," first published in Thinker 2 (June 1930): 9–12, as part of a series. Dewey: p. lw.5.266 [The Collected Works of John Dewey, 1882–1953, The Electronic Edition]
57. Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club, (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 285-333.
58. American Institute of Physics
59. https://www.naacp.org/nations-premier-c ... anization/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
60. Dewey, J. (1927) An Appreciation of Henry George
61. Dewey, J. (1939) A Letter to Henry Ford Archived 2015-01-13 at the Wayback Machine
62. "Dewey Commission Report"
63. The Cambridge Companion to Dewey, edited by Molly Cochran. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. xvii.
64. "Dewey's Political Philosophy" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
65. F. M. Alexander Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1923 ISBN 0-913111-11-2
66. Alan Ryan, John Dewey and the high tide of American liberalism
67. William Paringer, John Dewey and the paradox of liberal reform (1990) p. 13
68. William R. Caspary, Dewey on Democracy. (2000)
69. Westbrook, Robert B (1993). John Dewey and American Democracy. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8111-6.
70. Stephen Rockefeller, John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism, (1994), p. 13
71. Dewey worked on this book from 1939 before its loss in 1947. For a full account of this publication's history, see Philosophy Now magazine, here (link), accessed 3 June 2014.

References

• Caspary, William R. Dewey on Democracy (2000). Cornell University Press.
• Martin, Jay. The Education of John Dewey. (2003). Columbia University Press
• Rockefeller, Stephen. John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism. (1994). Columbia University Press
• Rud, A. G., Garrison, Jim, and Stone, Lynda (eds.) John Dewey at 150: Reflections for a New Century. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2009.
• Ryan, Alan. John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism. (1995). W.W. Norton.
• Westbrook, Robert B. John Dewey and American Democracy. (1993). Cornell University Press.

Further reading

• Alexander, Thomas. John Dewey's Theory of Art, Experience, and Nature (1987). SUNY Press
• Bernstein, Richard J. John Dewey (1966) Washington Square Press.
• Boisvert, Raymond. John Dewey: Rethinking Our Time. (1997). SUNY Press
• Campbell, James. Understanding John Dewey: Nature and Cooperative Intelligence. (1995) Open Court Publishing Company
• Crick, Nathan. Democracy & Rhetoric: John Dewey on the Arts of Becoming (2010) University of South Carolina Press.
• Fishman, Stephen M. and Lucille McCarthy. John Dewey and the Philosophy and Practice of Hope (2007). University of Illinois Press.
• Garrison, Jim. Dewey and Eros: Wisdom and Desire in the Art of Teaching. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, 2010. Original published 1997 by Teachers College Press.
• Good, James (2006). A Search for Unity in Diversity: The "Permanent Hegelian Deposit" in the Philosophy of John Dewey. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1061-4.
• Hickman, Larry A. John Dewey's Pragmatic Technology (1992). Indiana University Press.
• Hook, Sidney. John Dewey: An Intellectual Portrait (1939)
• Howlett, Charles F., and Audrey Cohan, eds. John Dewey: America's Peace-Minded Educator (Southern Illinois UP, 2016), 305 pp.
• Kannegiesser, H. J. "Knowledge and Science" (1977). The Macmillan Company of Australia PTY Ltd.
• Kengor, Paul (2010). Dupes: How America's Adversaries Have Manipulated Progressives for a Century. Intercollegiate Studies Institute. ISBN 978-1-4976-2085-8.
• Knoll, Michael (2009) From Kidd to Dewey: The Origin and Meaning of "Social Efficiency". Journal of Curriculum Studies 41 (June), 3, pp. 361–91.
• Knoll, Michael (2014) Laboratory School, University of Chicago. D. C. Phillips (ed) Encyclopaedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy, Vol. 2 (London: Sage), pp. 455–58.
• Knoll, Michael (2014) John Dewey as Administrator: The Inglorious End of the Laboratory School in Chicago. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 47 (April), 2, pp. 203–52.
• Lamont, Corliss (1959), (ed., with the assistance of Mary Redmer). Dialogue on John Dewey. Horizon Press
• Morse, Donald J. Faith in Life: John Dewey's Early Philosophy. (2011). Fordham University Press
• Pappas, Gregory. John Dewey's Ethics: Democracy as Experience. (2008) Indiana University Press.
• Pring, Richard (2007). John Dewey: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8403-1.
• Popkewitz, Thomas S. (ed). Inventing the Modern Self and John Dewey: Modernities and the Traveling of Pragmatism in Education. (2005) New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Putnam, Hilary. "Dewey's Logic: Epistemology as Hypothesis". In Words and Life, ed. James Conant. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.
• Ralston, Shane. John Dewey's Great Debates-Reconstructed. (2011). Information Age Publishing.
• Richardson, Henry S (1998). "Truth and ends in Dewey". Canadian Journal of Philosophy. 28 (Supplement 1): 109–47. doi:10.1080/00455091.1998.10717497.
• Rogers, Melvin. The Undiscovered Dewey: Religion, Morality, and the Ethos of Democracy (2008). Columbia University Press.
• Roth, Robert J. John Dewey and Self-Realization. (1962). Prentice Hall
• Rorty, Richard. "Dewey's Metaphysics". In The Consequences of Pragmatism: Essays 1972–1980. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
• Seigfried, Charlene Haddock, (ed.). Feminist Interpretations of John Dewey (2001). Pennsylvania State University Press
• Shook, John. Dewey's Empirical Theory of Knowledge and Reality. (2000). The Vanderbilt Library of American Philosophy
• Sleeper, R.W. The Necessity of Pragmatism: John Dewey's Conception of Philosophy. Introduction by Tom Burke. (2001). University of Illinois Press.
• Talisse, Robert B. A Pragmatist Philosophy of Democracy (2007). Routledge
• Michel Weber and Will Desmond (eds.). Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought (Frankfurt / Lancaster, Ontos Verlag, Process Thought X1 & X2, 2008.
• White, Morton. The Origin of Dewey's Instrumentalism. (1943). Columbia University Press.

External links

• Wikilivres has original media or text related to this article: John Dewey (in the public domain in New Zealand)
• Center for Dewey Studies
o John Dewey Papers, 1858–1970 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Center
o John Dewey Chronology at Southern Illinois University
• Works by John Dewey at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about John Dewey at Internet Archive
• Works by John Dewey at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Dewey in German education – a bibliography
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