Part 2 of 2
Schools and the BibleHuxley was also a major influence in the direction taken by British schools: in November 1870 he was voted onto the London School Board.[106] In primary schooling, he advocated a wide range of disciplines, similar to what is taught today: reading, writing, arithmetic, art, science, music, etc. In secondary education he recommended two years of basic liberal studies followed by two years of some upper-division work, focusing on a more specific area of study. A practical example of the latter is his famous 1868 lecture On a Piece of Chalk which was first published as an essay in Macmillan's Magazine in London later that year.[107] The piece reconstructs the geological history of Britain from a simple piece of chalk and demonstrates science as "organized common sense".
Huxley supported the reading of the Bible in schools. This may seem out of step with his agnostic convictions, but he believed that the Bible's significant moral teachings and superb use of language were relevant to English life. "I do not advocate burning your ship to get rid of the cockroaches".[108] However, what Huxley proposed was to create an edited version of the Bible, shorn of "shortcomings and errors... statements to which men of science absolutely and entirely demur... These tender children [should] not be taught that which you do not yourselves believe".[109][110] The Board voted against his idea, but it also voted against the idea that public money should be used to support students attending church schools. Vigorous debate took place on such points, and the debates were minuted in detail. Huxley said "I will never be a party to enabling the State to sweep the children of this country into denominational schools".[111][112] The Act of Parliament which founded board schools permitted the reading of the Bible, but did not permit any denominational doctrine to be taught.
It may be right to see Huxley's life and work as contributing to the secularisation of British society which gradually occurred over the following century. Ernst Mayr said "It can hardly be doubted that [biology] has helped to undermine traditional beliefs and value systems"[113]—and Huxley more than anyone else was responsible for this trend in Britain. Some modern Christian apologists consider Huxley the father of antitheism, though he himself maintained that he was an agnostic, not an atheist. He was, however, a lifelong and determined opponent of almost all organised religion throughout his life, especially the "Roman Church... carefully calculated for the destruction of all that is highest in the moral nature, in the intellectual freedom, and in the political freedom of mankind".[112][114] In the same line of thought, in an article in Popular Science, Huxley used the expression "the so-called Christianity of Catholicism," explaining: "I say 'so-called' not by way of offense, but as a protest against the monstruous assumption that Catholic Christianity is explicitly or implicitly contained in any trust-worthy record of the teaching of Jesus of Nazareth."[115]
In 1893, during preparation for the second Romanes Lecture, Huxley expressed his disappointment at the shortcomings of 'liberal' theology, describing its doctrines as 'popular illusions', and the teachings they replaced 'faulty as they are, appear to me to be vastly nearer the truth'.[116]
Vladimir Lenin remarked (in Materialism and empirio-criticism) "In Huxley's case... agnosticism serves as a fig-leaf for materialism" (see also the Debate with Wilberforce above).
Adult educationThomas Henry Huxley, c. 1885, from carte de visiteHuxley's interest in education went still further than school and university classrooms; he made a great effort to reach interested adults of all kinds: after all, he himself was largely self-educated. There were his lecture courses for working men, many of which were published afterwards, and there was the use he made of journalism, partly to earn money but mostly to reach out to the literate public. For most of his adult life he wrote for periodicals—the Westminster Review, the Saturday Review, the Reader, the Pall Mall Gazette, Macmillan's Magazine, the Contemporary Review. Germany was still ahead in formal science education, but interested people in Victorian Britain could use their initiative and find out what was going on by reading periodicals and using the lending libraries.[117][118]
In 1868 Huxley became Principal of the South London Working Men's College in Blackfriars Road. The moving spirit was a portmanteau worker, Wm. Rossiter, who did most of the work; the funds were put up mainly by F.D. Maurice's Christian Socialists.[119][120] At sixpence for a course and a penny for a lecture by Huxley, this was some bargain; and so was the free library organised by the college, an idea which was widely copied. Huxley thought, and said, that the men who attended were as good as any country squire.[121]
The technique of printing his more popular lectures in periodicals which were sold to the general public was extremely effective. A good example was "The Physical Basis of Life", a lecture given in Edinburgh on 8 November 1868. Its theme—that vital action is nothing more than "the result of the molecular forces of the protoplasm which displays it"—shocked the audience, though that was nothing compared to the uproar when it was published in the Fortnightly Review for February 1869. John Morley, the editor, said "No article that had appeared in any periodical for a generation had caused such a sensation".[122] The issue was reprinted seven times and protoplasm became a household word; Punch added 'Professor Protoplasm' to his other soubriquets.
The topic had been stimulated by Huxley seeing the cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells, which is indeed a sensational sight. For these audiences Huxley's claim that this activity should not be explained by words such as vitality, but by the working of its constituent chemicals, was surprising and shocking. Today we would perhaps emphasise the extraordinary structural arrangement of those chemicals as the key to understanding what cells do, but little of that was known in the nineteenth century.
When the Archbishop of York thought this 'new philosophy' was based on Auguste Comte's positivism, Huxley corrected him: "Comte's philosophy [is just] Catholicism minus Christianity" (Huxley 1893 vol 1 of Collected Essays Methods & Results 156). A later version was "[positivism is] sheer Popery with M. Comte in the chair of St Peter, and with the names of the saints changed". (lecture on The scientific aspects of positivism Huxley 1870 Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews p. 149). Huxley's dismissal of positivism damaged it so severely that Comte's ideas withered in Britain.
Huxley and the humanitiesDuring his life, and especially in the last ten years after retirement, Huxley wrote on many issues relating to the humanities.[123][124][125][126]
Perhaps the best known of these topics is Evolution and Ethics, which deals with the question of whether biology has anything particular to say about moral philosophy. Both Huxley and his grandson Julian Huxley gave Romanes Lectures on this theme.[127][128][129] For a start, Huxley dismisses religion as a source of moral authority. Next, he believes the mental characteristics of man are as much a product of evolution as the physical aspects. Thus, our emotions, our intellect, our tendency to prefer living in groups and spend resources on raising our young are part and parcel of our evolution, and therefore inherited.
Despite this, the details of our values and ethics are not inherited: they are partly determined by our culture, and partly chosen by ourselves. Morality and duty are often at war with natural instincts; ethics cannot be derived from the struggle for existence: "Of moral purpose I see not a trace in nature. That is an article of exclusively human manufacture."[130] It is therefore our responsibility to make ethical choices (see Ethics and Evolutionary ethics). This seems to put Huxley as a compatibilist in the Free Will vs Determinism debate. In this argument Huxley is diametrically opposed to his old friend Herbert Spencer.
Huxley's dissection of Rousseau's views on man and society is another example of his later work. The essay undermines Rousseau's ideas on man as a preliminary to undermining his ideas on the ownership of property. Characteristic is: "The doctrine that all men are, in any sense, or have been, at any time, free and equal, is an utterly baseless fiction."[131]
Huxley's method of argumentation (his strategy and tactics of persuasion in speech and print) is itself much studied.[132] His career included controversial debates with scientists, clerics and politicians; persuasive discussions with Royal Commissions and other public bodies; lectures and articles for the general public, and a mass of detailed letter-writing to friends and other correspondents. A large number of textbooks have excerpted his prose for anthologies.[133]
Royal and other commissionsHuxley worked on ten Royal and other commissions (titles somewhat shortened here).[134] The Royal Commission is the senior investigative forum in the British constitution. A rough analysis shows that five commissions involved science and scientific education; three involved medicine and three involved fisheries. Several involve difficult ethical and legal issues. All deal with possible changes to law and/or administrative practice.
Royal Commissions• 1862: Trawling for herrings on the coast of Scotland.
• 1863–65: Sea fisheries of the United Kingdom.
• 1870–71: The Contagious Diseases Acts.
• 1870–75: Scientific instruction and the advancement of science.
• 1876: The practice of subjugating live animals to scientific experiments (vivisection).
• 1876–78: The universities of Scotland.
• 1881–82: The Medical Acts. [i.e. the legal framework for medicine]
• 1884: Trawl, net and beam trawl fishing.
Other commissions• 1866: On the Royal College of Science for Ireland.
• 1868: On science and art instruction in Ireland.
FamilySee also: Huxley family
Pencil drawing of Huxley by his daughter, MarianHuxley with his grandson Julian in 1893Marian (Mady) Huxley, by her husband John CollierIn 1855, he married Henrietta Anne Heathorn (1825–1915), an English émigrée whom he had met in Sydney. They kept correspondence until he was able to send for her. They had five daughters and three sons:
• Noel Huxley (1856–60), died aged 4.
• Jessie Oriana Huxley (1858[135] −1927), married architect Fred Waller in 1877.
• Marian Huxley (1859–87), married artist John Collier in 1879.
• Leonard Huxley, (1860–1933) author, father of Julian, Aldous and Andrew Huxley.
• Rachel Huxley (1862–1934) married civil engineer Alfred Eckersley in 1884; he died 1895. They were parents of the physicist Thomas Eckersley and the first BBC Chief Engineer Peter Eckersley.
• Henrietta (Nettie) Huxley (1863–1940), married Harold Roller, travelled Europe as a singer.
• Henry Huxley (1865–1946), became a fashionable general practitioner in London.
• Ethel Huxley (1866–1941), married artist John Collier (widower of sister) in 1889.
Huxley's relationships with his relatives and children were genial by the standards of the day—so long as they lived their lives in an honourable manner, which some did not. After his mother, his eldest sister Lizzie was the most important person in his life until his own marriage. He remained on good terms with his children, more than can be said of many Victorian fathers. This excerpt from a letter to Jessie, his eldest daughter is full of affection:
"Dearest Jess, You are a badly used young person—you are; and nothing short of that conviction would get a letter out of your still worse used Pater, the bête noir of whose existence is letter-writing. Catch me discussing the Afghan question with you, you little pepper-pot! No, not if I know it..." [goes on nevertheless to give strong opinions of the Afghans, at that time causing plenty of trouble to the British Raj—see Second Anglo-Afghan War] "There, you plague—ever your affec. Daddy, THH." (letter 7 December 1878, Huxley L 1900)[136]
Huxley's descendants include children of Leonard Huxley:
• Sir Julian Huxley FRS was the first Director of UNESCO and a notable evolutionary biologist and humanist.
• Aldous Huxley was a famous author (Brave New World 1932, Eyeless in Gaza 1936, The Doors of Perception 1954).
• Sir Andrew Huxley OM PRS won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1963. He was the second Huxley to become President of the Royal Society.
Other significant descendants of Huxley, such as Sir Crispin Tickell, are treated in the Huxley family.
Mental problems in the familyBiographers have sometimes noted the occurrence of mental illness in the Huxley family. His father became "sunk in worse than childish imbecility of mind",[137] and later died in Barming Asylum; brother George suffered from "extreme mental anxiety"[138] and died in 1863 leaving serious debts. Brother James, a well known psychiatrist and Superintendent of Kent County Asylum, was at 55 "as near mad as any sane man can be";[139] and there is more. His favourite daughter, the artistically talented Mady (Marian), who became the first wife of artist John Collier, was troubled by mental illness for years. She died of pneumonia in her mid-twenties.[140][141]
About Huxley himself we have a more complete record. As a young apprentice to a medical practitioner, aged thirteen or fourteen, Huxley was taken to watch a post-mortem dissection. Afterwards he sank into a 'deep lethargy' and though Huxley ascribed this to dissection poisoning, Bibby[142] and others may be right to suspect that emotional shock precipitated the depression. Huxley recuperated on a farm, looking thin and ill.
The next episode we know of in Huxley's life when he suffered a debilitating depression was on the third voyage of HMS Rattlesnake in 1848.[143] Huxley had further periods of depression at the end of 1871,[144] and again in 1873.[145] Finally, in 1884 he sank into another depression, and this time it precipitated his decision to retire in 1885, at the age of 60.[146] This is enough to indicate the way depression (or perhaps a moderate bi-polar disorder) interfered with his life, yet unlike some of the other family members, he was able to function extremely well at other times.
The problems continued sporadically into the third generation. Two of Leonard's sons suffered serious depression: Trevennen committed suicide in 1914 and Julian suffered a breakdown in 1913,[147] and five more later in life.
SatiresDarwin's ideas and Huxley's controversies gave rise to many cartoons and satires. It was the debate about man's place in nature that roused such widespread comment: cartoons are so numerous as to be almost impossible to count; Darwin's head on a monkey's body is one of the visual clichés of the age. The "Great Hippocampus Question" attracted particular attention:
• "Monkeyana" (Punch vol. 40, 18 May 1861). Signed 'Gorilla', this turned out to be by Sir Philip Egerton MP, amateur naturalist, fossil fish collector and—Richard Owen's patron![148] The last two stanzas include a reference to Huxley's comment that "Life is too short to occupy oneself with the slaying of the slain more than once.":[149]
Next HUXLEY replies
That OWEN he lies
And garbles his Latin quotation;
That his facts are not new,
His mistakes not a few,
Detrimental to his reputation.
To twice slay the slain
By dint of the Brain
(Thus HUXLEY concludes his review)
Is but labour in vain,
unproductive of gain,
And so I shall bid you "Adieu"!
• "The Gorilla's Dilemma" (Punch 1862, vol. 43, p. 164). First two lines:
Say am I a man or a brother,
Or only an anthropoid ape?
• Report of a sad case recently tried before the Lord Mayor, Owen versus Huxley.[150] Lord Mayor asks whether either side is known to the police:
Policeman X—Huxley, your Worship, I take to be a young hand, but very vicious; but Owen I have seen before. He got into trouble with an old bone man, called Mantell, who never could be off complaining as Owen prigged his bones. People did say that the old man never got over it, and Owen worritted him to death; but I don't think it was so bad as that. Hears as Owen takes the chair at a crib in Bloomsbury. I don't think it will be a harmonic meeting altogether. And Huxley hangs out in Jermyn Street.
(Tom Huxley's 'low set' included Hooker 'in the green and vegetable line' and 'Charlie Darwin, the pigeon-fancier'; Owen's 'crib in Bloomsbury' was the British Museum, of which Natural History was but one department. Jermyn Street is known for its shops of men's clothing, possibly implying that Huxley was a dandy.)
Huxley (right) and Richard Owen inspect a "water baby" in Edward Linley Sambourne's 1881 illustration• The Water Babies, a fairy tale for a land baby by Charles Kingsley (serialised in Macmillan's Magazine 1862–63, published in book form, with additions, in 1863). Kingsley had been among first to give a favourable review to Darwin's On the Origin of Species, having "long since... learnt to disbelieve the dogma of the permanence of species",[151] and the story includes a satire on the reaction to Darwin's theory, with the main scientific participants appearing, including Richard Owen and Huxley. In 1892 Thomas Henry Huxley's five-year-old grandson Julian saw the illustration by Edward Linley Sambourne (right) and wrote his grandfather a letter asking:
Dear Grandpater—Have you seen a Waterbaby? Did you put it in a bottle? Did it wonder if it could get out? Could I see it some day?—Your loving Julian.
Huxley wrote back:
My dear Julian—I could never make sure about that Water Baby... My friend who wrote the story of the Water Baby was a very kind man and very clever. Perhaps he thought I could see as much in the water as he did—There are some people who see a great deal and some who see very little in the same things.
When you grow up I dare say you will be one of the great-deal seers, and see things more wonderful than the Water Babies where other folks can see nothing.
Cultural references• Huxley appears alongside Charles Darwin and Samuel Wilberforce in the play Darwin in Malibu, written by Crispin Whittell, and is portrayed by Toby Jones in the 2009 film Creation.
• Huxley is referred to as the tutor of the main character, Edward Prendick, in H. G. Wells' science fiction novel The Island of Dr Moreau, published in 1896.
• Horse Feathers (1932 Marx Brothers film)—Groucho Marx is Prof. Quincy Adams Wagstaff, Dean of Huxley College, while its rival team is Darwin College.
• Huxley is referenced in the Leviathan series, with a flying fabricated beast named after the man.
• Hexley, the unofficial mascot of the Darwin operating system, is named (with an intended misspelling) after Huxley.[152]
• His statement, "Logical consequences are the Scarecrows of fools and the Beacons of wise men", is quoted by the escape artist character Charles Evan Jeffers, a man with an ironically educated and dignified air about him, played by Roscoe Lee Browne, in the eleventh episode of Season One of Barney Miller.
See also• European and American voyages of scientific exploration
References1. Adrian J. Desmond, Huxley: From Devil's Disciple to Evolution's High Priest, Addison-Wesley, 1994, 1915, p. 651 n. 8.
2. Encyclopædia Britannica Online 2006
3. Livingstone, David. "Myth 17. That Huxley Defeated Wilberforce in Their Debate over Evolution and Religion," in Numbers, Ronald L., ed. Galileo goes to jail and other myths about science and religion. No. 74. Harvard University Press, 2009, 152-160.
4. Huxley, T. H. (Feb, 1889). II. Agnosticism. In Christianity and Agnosticism: A controversy. New York, NY: The Humboldt Publishing Co. Retrieved from
https://archive.org/stream/agnosticism0 ... t_djvu.txt5. Huxley T. H. 1889. Agnosticism: a rejoinder. In Collected Essays vol 5 Science and Christian tradition. Macmillan, London.
6. Lightman, B. (1987) The Origins of Agnosticism: Victorian Unbelief and the Limits of Knowledge.. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/94.2.4447. Poulton E. B. 1909. Charles Darwin and the origin of species. London.
8. Lankester E. Ray 1895. The Right Hon. T. H. Huxley. Athenaeum, 6 July. Lankester commented that Huxley was "only accidentally a zoologist".
9. Desmond 1997 'Huxley in perspective', 235–261, an outstanding summary of Huxley in his social & historical context, scarcely mentions his zoological work.
10. Jin, Xiaoxing (December 2018). "Translation and transmutation: the Origin of Species in China". The British Journal for the History of Science. 52: 117–141.
11. Bibby, amongst others, queried this account, which owes its origin to Leonard Huxley's biography (1900). Bibby, Cyril. 1959. T. H. Huxley: scientist, humanist and educator. Watts, London. p. 3–4
12. Biography in the Encyclopædia Britannica Online
13. Victorian Scientific Naturalism: Community, Identity, Continuity. (2014). Edited by Bernard Lightman, Gowan Dawson. University of Chicago Press, p.210.
14. Desmond 1994
15. Huxley 1900
16. Chesney, Kellow 1970. The Victorian underworld. Temple Smith, London; Pelican 1972, pp. 105, 421.
17. The cut-price anatomy schools and Robert Knox are well treated in Desmond's account of materialist medical dissidents of the 1820s and 30s: Desmond A. 1989. The politics of evolution: morphology, medicine and reform in radical London. Chicago.
18. Desmond 1994 p. 35
19. Huxley 1935
20. Di Gregorio 1984
21. Huxley 1859
22. Tyndall 1896 pp. 7, 9, 66, 71.
23. Holland 2007 pp. 153–5
24. Foster & Lankester 1898–1903
25. MacGillivray 1852
26. "Thomas Henry Huxley | British biologist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
27. Desmond 1997 p. 230
28. Bibby 1959
29. Desmond, 1997 & Huxley in perspective p. 235
30. Bibby 1972
31. Desmond 1998 p. 431
32. "T.H. Huxley (1825 - 1895)". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
33. Desmond & Moore 1991
34. Desmond 1997
35. Lyons 1999 p. 11
36. Desmond A. 1982. Archetypes and ancestors: palaeontology in Victorian London 1850–1875. Muller, London.
37. Clack 2002
38. Huxley 1861 pp. 67–84
39. Foster & Lankester 1898–1903 pp. 163–187
40. Paul 2002 p. 171–224.
41. Prum 2003 pp. 550–561.
42. Desmond 1997 p. 88
43. Huxley 1877
44. Huxley 1854 p.425–439.
45. Huxley 1855 p. 82–85.
46. Browne 1995
47. Desmond 1994 p. 222.
48. Browne 2002
49. Darwin & Wallace 1858
50. Huxley 1900 vol. 1, p.189.
51. Huxley & 1893-94a pp. 1–20
52. Foster & Lankester 1898–1903 p. 400.
53. Owen 1860
54. Wilberforce 1860
55. Darwin, Francis (ed) 1887. The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter. Murray, London, volume 2.
56. A more complete version is available in Wikiquote
57. Jensen, J. Vernon 1991. Thomas Henry Huxley: communicating for science. U. of Delaware Press, Newark. p. 209, note 67.
58. Desmond & Moore 1991 p. 493
59. Wollaston AFR 1921. Life of Alfred Newton: late Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Cambridge University 1866–1907, with a Preface by Sir Archibald Geikie OM. Dutton, NY. pp. 118–120.
60. Jensen, J. Vernon 1991. Thomas Henry Huxley: communicating for science. U. of Delaware Press, Newark. [Chapter 3 is an excellent survey, and its notes gives references to all the eyewitness accounts except Newton: see notes 61, 66, 67, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90, 93, 95: pp. 208–211]
61. Huxley to Dr FD Dyster, 9 September 1860, Huxley Papers 15.117.
62. Browne 2002 p. 118.
63. Huxley 1900 Chapter 14
64. Desmond 1994 pp. 276–281.
65. Lucas 1979 p. 313–330. A pro-Wilberforce account; lists many sources, but not Alfred Newton's letter to his brother. Many of Lucas' points are treated adversely in Jensen 1991, for example, note 77, p. 209.
66. Gould 1991 Chapter 26 'Knight takes Bishop?' is Gould's take on the Huxley-Wilberforce debate.
67. Darwin F. (ed) 1897–99. Life and letters of Charles Darwin. 2 vols, Murray, London. I, 156-7 Darwin to Huxley: "It is of enormous importance the showing the world that a few first-rate men are not afraid of expressing their opinion."
68. Darwin F. and A.C.Seward (eds) 1903. More letters of Charles Darwin. 2 vols, Murray, London. II, 204 Leonard Huxley: "The importance... lay in the open resistance that was made to authority".
69. Jensen, J. Vernon 1991. Thomas Henry Huxley: communicating for science. U. of Delaware Press, Newark. p. 83-86.
70. Foster & Lankester 1898–1903 p. 538–606.
71. Huxley 1862b
72. Darwin 1859, p. 490.
73. Owen 1858 p. 1–37.
74. Burkhardt & 1984 onwards (continuing series)
75. Cosans 2009 pp. 109–111
76. For the full text of the addendum see s:The cerebral structure of man and apes
77. Athenaeum 21 September 1861, p. 498. [key sentence italicised]
78. Huxley 1862a, pp. 420–422
79. Huxley, Thomas Henry. "On the geographical distribution of the chief modifications of mankind". The Journal of the Ethnological Society of London (1869-1870) 2.4 (1870): 404-412.
80. Brantlinger, Patrick. Dark vanishings: discourse on the extinction of primitive races, 1800-1930. Cornell University Press, 2003. [1]
81. Variously worded in Huxley 1860a, Huxley 1860b, Huxley 1861, Huxley 1862b and Huxley1887
82. Poulton 1896 chapter 18 gives detailed quotations from Huxley and discussion—Darwin's letters to Huxley being not yet published
83. Huxley, T. H. "The coming of age of 'The origin of species'". (1880) Science. 1, 15-17.
84. Dawkins, Richard (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press.
85. Letters CD to THH in Darwin & Seward 1903 vol 1, pp. 137–8, 225–6, 230–2, 274, 277, 287
86. Cronin 1991 p. 397.
87. Mayr 1982
88. Linder, Doug (2004) "Thomas Huxley"
89. Huxley 1857 p. 241.
90. Tyndall 1896 pp. 338–339, 359, 379–383, 406. "During the summer of 1857 he carefully experimented with coloured liquids on the Mer de Glace and its tributaries..." Philosophical Magazine1857, vol xiv, p. 241.
91. Tyndall 1857 p. 327–346.
92. Jensen 1970 pp. 63–72
93. Desmond 1994 pp. 284, 289–290.
94. Barr 1997 p. 1.
95. Desmond 1997 p. 191.
96. Irvine 1955 Chapter 15
97. Desmond 1997 p. 123.
98. Osborn 1924
99. Desmond 1997 p. 14, 60.
100. Charles Darwin to Asa Gray 1860 in Darwin & Seward 1903 p. 153.
101. Lester 1995 p. 67.
102. Wollaston 1921 p. 102.
103. MacBride 1934 p. 65.
104. Ruse 1997
105. Desmond 1997 p. 273, note 20.
106. Desmond 1997 p. 19–20.
107. On a Piece of Chalk (1868)
108. Said of those who wished to abolish all religious teaching, when really all they wanted was to free education from the Church. THH 1873. Critiques and Addresses p. 90.
109. Huxley & 1893-94b p. 397.
110. Bibby 1959 p. 153.
111. School Board Chronicle vol. 2, p. 326.
112. Bibby 1959 p. 155.
113. Mayr 1982 p. 80.
114. School Board Chronicle vol 2, p. 360.
115. Bonnier Corporation. Popular Science April 1887, Vol. 30, No. 46. ISSN 0161-7370. Scientific and pseudo-scientific realism pp. 789-803
116. Huxley, Leonard (2016). Life and Letters of T H Huxley. 3. Wentworth Press. p. 118. ISBN 9781371175252. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
117. White 2003 p. 69.
118. Note: articles are listed, and some are available, in The Huxley File at Clark University
119. Bibby 1959 p. 33.
120. Desmond 1994 p. 361–362.
121. Desmond 1994 Chapter 19
122. Morley 1917 p. 90.
123. Barr 1997
124. Paradis, James G. T. H. Huxley: Man's place in nature. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln 1978.
125. Peterson, Houston 1932. Huxley: prophet of science. Longmans Green, London.
126. Huxley T. H. 1893-4. Collected essays: vol 4 Science and Hebrew tradition; vol 5 Science and Christian tradition; vol 6 Hume, with helps to the study of Berkeley; vol 7 Man's place in nature; vol 9: Evolution and ethics, and other essays. Macmillan, London.
127. Huxley T.H. and Huxley J. 1947. Evolution and ethics 1893–1943. Pilot, London. In USA as Touchstone for ethics, Harper, N.Y. [includes text from the Romanes lectures of both T. H. Huxley and Julian Huxley]
128. ^ Paradis, James & Williams, George C 1989. Evolution and Ethics: T. H. Huxley's 'Evolution and Ethics', with new essays on its Victorian and sociobiological context. Princeton, N.J.
129. Reed J. R. 'Huxley and the question of morality'. In Barr 1997
130. Huxley 1900 vol. 2, p. 285.
131. Huxley T. H. 1890. The natural inequality of man. Nineteenth Century January; reprinted in Collected Essays vol. 1, p. 290–335.
132. Jensen 1991
133. Jensen 1991, p. 196.
134. Huxley 1900
135. Huxley, T.H. "To Lizzie, March 27, 1858". Letters and Diary: 1858. Clark University. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
136. T. H. Huxley Letters and Diary 1878
137. letter THH to eldest sister Lizzie 1853 HP 31.21
138. THH to Lizzie 1858 HP 31.24
139. THH to Lizzie HP 31.44
140. THH to JT 1887 HP 9.164
141. Desmond 1997 pp. 175–176
142. Bibby 1972 p. 7
143. Huxley 1935 Chapter 5 'Wanderings of a human soul'
144. Desmond 1997 p. 27
145. Desmond 1997 p. 49
146. Desmond 1997 p. 151
147. Clark 1968
148. Desmond 1994 p. 296.
149. The Athenaeum. British Periodicals Limited. 1861. p. 498.
150. Pamphlet, published by George Pycraft, London 1863; Huxley Papers 79.6
151. Darwin 1887 287
152. Hooper, Jon. "Hexley Darwin Mascot History". Retrieved 26 May 2016.
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• Clark, Ronald W. (1968), The Huxleys, London
• Cosans, Christopher (2009), Owen's Ape and Darwin's Bulldog: beyond Darwinism and Creationism, Bloomington: Indiana University Press
• Cronin, Helena (1991), The ant and the peacock: altruism and sexual selection from Darwin to today, Cambridge University Press
• Darwin, Charles (1887), Darwin, Francis(ed.), The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter, 2, London: John Murray
• Darwin, Charles; Wallace, Alfred Russel(1858), "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection", Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology, London, 3 (9), pp. (Read 1 July): 45–62, doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x
• Darwin, Francis; Seward, A.C. (1903), More Letters of Charles Darwin. 2 vols, London: John Murray
• Desmond, Adrian (1994), Huxley: vol 1 The Devil's Disciple, London: Michael Joseph, ISBN 0-7181-3641-1
• Desmond, Adrian (1997), Huxley: vol 2 Evolution's high priest, London: Michael Joseph
• Desmond, Adrian (1998), Huxley: vol 1 and 2, London: Penguin
• Desmond, Adrian; Moore, James (1991), Darwin, London: Joseph
• Di Gregorio, Mario A (1984), T.H. Huxley's place in natural science, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-03062-2
• Duncan, David (1908), Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer. 2 vols, Michael Joseph
• Eve, A.S.; Creasey, C.H. (1945), "Life and work of John Tyndall", Nature, London: Macmillan, 156: 189–190, Bibcode:1945Natur.156..189R, doi:10.1038/156189a0
• Foster, Michael; Lankester, E. Ray (2007), The scientific memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley. 4 vols and supplement, London: Macmillan (published 1898–1903), ISBN 1-4326-4011-9
• Galton, Francis (1892), Hereditary Genius 2nd ed, London, pp. xix
• Gould, Stephen Jay (1991), Bully for Brontosaurus, Random House
• Holland, Linda Z (2007), "A chordate with a difference", Nature, UK: Nature Publishing Group, 447 (447/7141, pp. 153–155): 153–5, Bibcode:2007Natur.447..153H, doi:10.1038/447153a, ISSN 0028-0836, PMID 17495912
• Huxley, Julian (1935), T.H. Huxley's diary of the voyage of HMS Rattlesnake, London: Chatto & Windus
• Huxley, Leonard (1900), The Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley. 2 vols 8vo, London: Macmillan
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1854), "Review of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, tenth edition", British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review (13)
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1855), "On certain zoological arguments commonly adduced in favour of the hypothesis of the progressive development of animal life in time", Proceedings of the Royal Institution 2 (1854–58)
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1857), "untitled letter on theory of glaciers", Philosophical Magazine, xiv: 241
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1859), The Oceanic Hydrozoa, London: The Ray Society, ISBN 0-300-03062-2
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1860a), "On species, and races and their origin", Proc. Roy. Inst. 1858–62 (III): 195
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1860b), "The origin of species", Westminster Review (April)
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1861), "On the zoological relations of man with the lower animals", Natural History Review (new series) (1)
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1862a), "On the fossil remains of Man", Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1858–62), London: The Royal Institution, III
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1862b), On our knowledge of the causes of the phenomena of organic nature, London
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1863), Evidence as to Man's place in nature, London: Williams & Norwood
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1864), "Further remarks on the human remains from the Neanderthal", Natural History Review, London (4): 429–46
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1870), "Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews", Nature, London, 3 (54): 22–23, Bibcode:1870Natur...3...22G, doi:10.1038/003022a0
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1877), American Addresses.
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1887), "On the reception of the 'Origin of Species'", in Darwin, Francis (ed.), Life & Letters of Charles Darwin, London: John Murray
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• Huxley, Thomas Henry (2007), "Preliminary essay upon the systematic arrangement of the fishes of the Devonian epoch.", in Foster, Michael; Lankester, E. Ray (eds.), The scientific memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley. vol 2, London: Macmillan (published 1898–1903), pp. 421–60, ISBN 1-4326-4011-9
• Jensen, J Vernon (1970), "The X Club: fraternity of Victorian scientists", British Journal for the History of Science, 5 (1): 63–72, doi:10.1017/S0007087400010621
• Jensen, J. Vernon (1991), Thomas Henry Huxley: communicating for science., Newark: University of Delaware
• Lester, Joe (1995), E. Ray Lankester:the making of modern British biology (edited, with additions, by Peter J. Bowler), BSHS Monograph #9
• Lucas, John R. (1979), "Wilberforce and Huxley: a legendary encounter", The Historical Journal, Cambridge University Press, 22 (2): 313–30, doi:10.1017/S0018246X00016848, PMID 11617072, retrieved 9 June 2007
• Lyons, Sherrie L (1999), Thomas Henry Huxley: the evolution of a scientist, New York
• MacBride, E.W. (1934), Huxley, London: Duckworth
• MacGillivray, John (1852), Narrative of the voyage of HMS Rattlesnake. 2 vols, London: Boone
• Mackenzie, N; Mackenzie, J, eds. (1982), The diaries of Beatrice Webb vol 1 1873–1892, London: Virago
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• Morley, John (1917), Recollections. 2 vols, Macmillan
• Osborn, Henry Fairfield (1924), Impressions of great naturalists
• Owen, Richard (1858), "On the characters, principles of division, and primary groups of the Class Mammalia", Proc Linnean Society: Zoology (2): 1–37
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• Paradis, James G. (1978), T.H. Huxley: Man's place in nature, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln
• Paul, G (2002), Dinosaurs of the Air, the evolution and loss of flight in dinosaurs and birds, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 171–224, ISBN 0-8018-6763-0
• Peterson, Houston (1932), Huxley: prophet of science, London: Longmans, Green.
• Poulton, Edward Bagnall (1896), Charles Darwin and the theory of natural selection, London: Cassell.(Chapter 18 deals with Huxley and natural selection)
• Pritchard, M. (1994), A directory of London photographers 1891–1908
• Prum, R (2003), "Are current critiques of the theropod origin of birds science? Rebuttal To Feduccia 2002", The Auk, 120 (2): 550–561, doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0550:ACCOTT]2.0.CO;2
• Ruse, Michael (1997), "Thomas Henry Huxley and the status of evolution as science", in Barr, Alan P. (ed.), Thomas Henry Huxley's place in science and letters: centenary essays, Georgia: Athens
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• Tyndall, John; Huxley, Thomas Henry (1857), "On the Structure and Motion of Glaciers", Philosophical Transactions, 147: 327–346, doi:10.1098/rstl.1857.0016
• Tyndall, John (1896), The Glaciers of the Alps (Original edition 1860 ed.), Longmans, Green and Co.
• Webb, Beatrice (1926), My apprenticeship, London: Longmans
• Wilberforce, Samuel (1860), "Darwin's Origin of Species", Quarterly Review (102): 225–64
• Wollaston, A.F.R. (1921), Life of Alfred Newton 1829–1907
• White, Paul (2003), Thomas Huxley: making the 'Man of Science', Cambridge University Press
Further reading
Biographies• Ashforth, Albert. Thomas Henry Huxley. Twayne, New York 1969.
• Ayres, Clarence. Huxley. Norton, New York 1932.
• Clodd, Edward. Thomas Henry Huxley. Blackwood, Edinburgh 1902.
• Huxley, Leonard. Thomas Henry Huxley: a character sketch. Watts, London 1920.
• Irvine, William. Apes, Angels and Victorians. New York 1955.
• Irvine, William. Thomas Henry Huxley. Longmans, London 1960.
• Mitchell, P. Chalmers. Thomas Henry Huxley: a sketch of his life and work London 1901. Available at Project Gutenberg.
• Voorhees, Irving Wilson. The teachings of Thomas Henry Huxley. Broadway, New York 1907.
External links• Works written by or about Thomas Henry Huxley at Wikisource
• Thomas H. Huxley on the Embryo Project Encyclopedia
• The Huxley File at Clark University—Lists his publications, contains much of his writing.
• Stephen, Leslie (1898). "Thomas Henry Huxley" . Studies of a Biographer. 3. London: Duckworth & Co. pp. 188–219.
• Huxley, Thomas Henry (1825–1895) National Library of Australia, Trove, People and Organisation record for Thomas Huxley
• Works by Thomas Henry Huxley at Project Gutenberg
• Science in the Making Huxley's papers in the Royal Society's archives
• Works by or about Thomas Henry Huxley at Internet Archive
• Works by Thomas Henry Huxley at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Huxley review: Darwin on the origin of species The Times, 26 December 1859, p. 8–9.
• Huxley review: Time and life: Mr Darwin's "Origin of species." Macmillan's Magazine 1: 1859 p. 142–148.
• Huxley review: Darwin on the origin of Species, Westminster Review, 17 (n.s.) April 1860 p. 541–570.
• Thomas Henry Huxley at Find a Grave