South Indian literary culture, Excerpt from "Genealogy of the South Indian Deities: An English translation of Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg's original German manuscript with a textual analysis and glossary
by Daniel Jeyaraj
© 2005 Daniel Jeyaraj
pg. 253-256
Sivavakkiyar does not specifically mention his guru parampara or lineage in his work (10). The only hint available is in verse 301 where he says “with the sacred feet of Mūlan who said the three, ten and the three as three I would say the five letters”. If the Mūlan mentioned here refers to Tirumular, the composer of Tirumandiram, he may be indicating to us that he belongs to the mūlavarga, the lineage that claims Tirumular as its preceptor....
He describes the kundalini yoga in a verse which sounds as if he is describing a procedure in alchemy. With six parts of pure silver, four parts of copper, three parts of zinc, two parts of gold, one measure of the sound of the bow, if one blows on these one will reach the frontier (verse 185). Copper represents blood, silver the kundalini sakti or the seminal fluid. Three parts of zinc are the three faults or malas, two parts of gold are the breath flowing through the ida and pingala nādi. When all these are brought together they sound like the twang of the bow. One then reaches the frontier, the state of supreme consciousness.
In another verse, he calls the breath as the bellow and the kundalini sakti as the gold. If only one is capable of blowing the bellow it will expand as a pillar of fire. Then there will be nothing other than the dancing effulgence and oneself (verse 193).
-- Sivavakkiyam -- Songs of a Spiritual Rebel, by Dr. Geetha Anand and Dr. T.N. Ganapathy
The Tirikāla cakkaram and the Genealogia der malabarischen Götter
64 There is one work in particular, of fundamental importance to Ziegenbalg’s account of Hinduism, which is closely linked to the traditions of the Śaiva maṭams and may well have been obtained by Ziegenbalg through his links with them. In the Bibliotheca Malabarica (bm 110), Ziegenbalg names this work as Tirikāla cakkaram and describes it as “a mathematical description of the seven underworlds and the seven worlds above, together with the fourteen seas which lie between the fourteen worlds. Likewise an account of their paradise, or Kailācam, which is the seat of Īcuvarī with many hundreds of thousands of idols.” He adds the remarkable claim that it is “virtually the basis of all other Malabarian books, since everything is based on the principles contained in it.”
While the Tirikāla cakkaram is, to the best of our knowledge, unknown to the scholarship on Tamil literature and is hardly the basis of all other Tamil books, it was formative in Ziegenbalg’s understanding of the Hindu pantheon, both in convincing him that Hindu theology—at its best—is essentially monotheistic, and in helping him structure his own account of the Hindu pantheon in his final work on Hinduism, the Genealogia der malabarischen Götter. As Ziegenbalg writes in the Bibliotheca Malabarica, the Tirikāla cakkaram shows “the genealogy of the gods… namely how all the other gods derive from the being of all beings, or the supreme God, and what their offices are, where their residence is, how long they live, how often each is incarnated, etc.”
He adds:I had intended to translate [the Tirikāla cakkaram], but nonetheless I found myself wondering whether this was altogether advisable, since many pointless speculations would be caused thereby, and keep [scholars in Europe] away from the things that are necessary. However, I leave it still to be determined, whether I might translate it into German or not, since I am now for this reason not really of one mind on it myself.
65 The importance of the Tirikāla cakkaram for Ziegenbalg’s conception of Hinduism has not been fully appreciated, in part because of the difficulty in identifying the text. The Tirikāla cakkaram is not an independent text, but a section of a work which appears under a separate heading as the next work in Ziegenbalg’s catalogue, the Puvaṉa cakkaram. In fact Ziegenbalg did provide an almost complete translation of the Tirikāla cakkaram in the second chapter of the second part of his Malabarisches Heidenthum, entitled “Of their calculation of years,” which Ziegenbalg attributes to “Dírigálasákkarum from p. 1 to p. 10.” (mh 189). Earlier in the Malabarisches Heidenthum he quotes what he takes to be an account of the creation, and attributes this to “Dirugálasakkarum… vs. 11 seqq.” (mh 64–65). This passage, which is in fact—at least in the manuscript we consulted—the opening of the Puvaṉa cakkaram, points to the real significance of the Tirikāla cakkaram and Puvaṉa cakkaram for Ziegenbalg’s account of Hinduism.
66 The Tirikāla cakkaram culminates in a vision of Śiva as the supreme being, the transcendent, invisible, and unfathomable creator of all that exists. The Puvaṉa cakkaram opens with an account of how from this supreme being the universe arises as the result of a process of differentiation which begins with the emergence of a single androgynous being, neither male nor female, but nevertheless beginning to unfold so that male and female elements are distinguishable within what remains a single entity. From these elements emerges the manifest form of Śiva and then from Śiva, in turn, emerge Śakti and the five forms Sadāśiva, Maheśvara, Rudra, Viṣṇu and Brahmā. Quoting this account in the Malabarisches Heidenthum, Ziegenbalg comments that this is why “these heathens understand under the name Śiva both the supreme being and the highest God,” that is, both the unmanifest and the manifest forms of Śiva. The first part of the Genealogia is devoted to an explanation of this conception of Śiva’s unfolding. The second part deals with the five faces of Śiva which—according to Ziegenbalg—“signify the five great lords or gods, out of which they later make no more than three” (GMG 41r), i.e., Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Brahmā. Ziegenbalg here conflates five agents of Śiva—Brahman, Viṣṇu, Rudra, Maheśvara, and Sadāśiva (the Kāraṇeśvaras or lords of the five kalās “‘portions’ of the cosmos”)—with the more familiar trimūrti (or “Mummurtigöl,” in Ziegenbalg’s transcription of the Tamil mummūrttikaḷ). The third part of the Genealogia contains the account of village deities for which Ziegenbalg’s work is best known. With the exception of Aiyaṉār, these are all female and are said by Ziegenbalg to have their origin in the Śakti discussed in the first part of the Genealogia (gmg 128v). Although Ziegenbalg draws heavily on other sources for his account of these deities, his understanding of their position in the pantheon was thus drawn from the Tirikāla cakkaram. The fourth part of the Genealogia returns to follow the Tirikāla cakkaram more closely. It includes an account of the thirty-three crore devas, the forty-eight thousand ṛṣis, various celestial beings such as Keṇanātar (Sanskrit: Gaṇanāthas), Kiṉṉarar (Kiṃnaras), and Kimapuruṭar (Kiṃpuruṣas), and finally the guardians of the eight directions. The attention paid to these mostly obscure denizens of Hindu cosmography is somewhat out of place in a work which is now cited, if at all, usually only for its ethnographic content[???!!!] [ethnographic: relating to the scientific description of peoples and cultures with their customs, habits, and mutual differences.]. Their place in the Genealogia is explicable only because of the account of them in the Tirikāla cakkaram, where they are mentioned in the calculation of the different lifespans of Rudra and the manifest form of Śiva.
The Tirikāla cakkaram and the Tiruvāvaṭutuṟai maṭam
67 The Puvaṉa cakkaram, of which the Tirikāla cakkaram is a part, is a cosmographic work of a kind well-known in Sanskrit literature where it is more commonly titled Bhuvanakośaḥ. Although in modern times works of this sort have been published independently, it appears that they more commonly formed part of larger works, and served to establish the authority of the work by tracing a lineage back to Śiva. In the Bibliotheca Malabarica, Ziegenbalg reports the provenance of the work as follows:The secrets of this book were first revealed by Īcuvaraṉ [Isvara!] himself to his wife Pārvatī. These were later revealed by her to Nantikēcuraṉ, who is Īcuvaraṉ’s [Isvara's!] gatekeeper. He later made these secrets known to a great prophet called Tirumūla Tēvar. (bm 110)
68 According to cittar tradition, Tirumūlar, the early Śaiva mystic and author of the Tirumantiram, is said to have been the disciple of an alchemist named Nantikēcuran.b) ff. 1-12 Tirikālacakkaram.
The Puvanacakkaram deals with the measurement of the earth by Nantikēcuran. The Tirikālacakkaram (‘revolving wheel of the three times’) contains a summary of South Indian cosmology and mythology. It is ascribed to Tirumūlattēvar (Jeyaraj, p.330).
-- The Bayer Collection, A preliminary catalogue of the manuscripts and books of Professor Theophilus Siegfried Bayer, acquired and augmented by the Reverend Dr Heinrich Walther Gerdes, now preserved in the Hunterian Library of the University of Glasgow, by David Weston, 2018
Tirumūlar is also closely connected to Tiruvāvaṭutuṟai, where he took physical form by entering the body of a cowherd and composed the Tirumantiram. It is, however, not clear that an ascription to this early Tirumūlar is intended in Ziegenbalg’s account of the work. Zvelebil gives the briefest details of an undated Tirumūlatēvar, ascribing to him three works: the Tirumantiramālai, Tirumūlatēvar pāṭalkaḷ and Vālaippañcākkara viḷakkam. Tirumantiramālai is in fact the full title of Tirumūlar’s Tirumantiram and hence the distinction between the work which Zvelebil ascribes to Tirumūla Tēvar and Tirumūlar’s own work is not clear. We have not been able to identify copies of the Tirumūlatēvar pāṭalkaḷ and Vālaippañcākkara viḷakkam, but the title of the latter suggests a work on the five-syllable nama-civāya mantra. There are a number of works of this kind, with different titles, closely associated with the Tiruvāvaṭutuṟai maṭam. Whether Tirumūlar or Tirumūla Tēvar is intended, an association with Tiruvāvaṭutuṟai certainly cannot be ruled out.
69 Moreover, as noted above (35), Koppedrayer emphasizes the importance of the idea of a lineage, beginning on Mount Kailasa and transmitted through Nantikēcuran, or Nantitēvar, in the self-understanding of the Tiruvāvaṭutuṟai maṭam. She notes that when referring to themselves corporately: “the ascetics living in the matam at Tiruvavatuturai… use such phrases as the Tirukailai paramparai, the lineage [descending] from Mount Kailasa.” Discussing the multiple accounts of the Tiruvāvaṭutuṟai kailasa paramparai, she notes that while they differ in their details “early references to the seminal figures simply cite Namaccivaya, Meykantar, and Nanti, yes, always Nanti on Mount Kailasa.”
-- Bibliotheca Malabarica, by Will Sweetman with R. Ilakkuvan, Institut Francais de Pondichery, 2012
7.2 For studying South Indian literary culture
Ziegenbalg's Genealogy throws light on the state of Tamil literary culture of the early eighteenth century. In 1709 he wrote that the Tamil people had ancient books about various disciplines of art, science, witchcraft and so foreth (HR, 1, 3, Con., 128)(.3 None of Ziegenbalg's writings refer to the existence of the classical Tamil Cankam Literature, because it was inaccessible to the public and was recovered only towards the end of the nineteenth century.4 Ramanujan states the actual reason for their unavailability:
"These classics [of the Cankam Literature] were not always known to the Tamil people themselves. They were dramatically rediscovered in the later decades of the nineteenth century, a period of transition, when both paper and palm leaf were used as writing materials. [...] Eighteenth-century Hindu scholars, devout worshipers of Siva and Vis[h]nu had tabooed as irreligious all secular and non-Hindu texts, which included the classical Tamil anthologies. They also disallowed the study of Jain and Buddhist texts, which included the Twin Epics [i.e., Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai]."
(Ramanujan, 1985, xi f.).
However, Ziegenbalg read the palm leaf manuscript versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.6 He also knew that Ramayana was attributed to Malmikirsi (L. 99 r, 114 r, 205 r). However, he considered the four chapters of the Yudhakanda ('Section on War,' i.e., the sixth and the largest section of Ramayana) -- Intiracittupatalam (L 99 r), Kumpakarunapatalam (L 178 r), Nakapacappatalam (L. 98 v) and Piramvittirapatalam (L 121 r) 00 as different works. Ziegenbalg might have wanted his readers to know that just like the Greek epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey, played an important role in shaping the identity of the Europeans, the epic story of Ramayana was central to the self-understanding of the South Indians. Ziegenbalg examined the major Puranas and several Sthalapuranas ('local legends' about deities, temples, holy places and saintly persons),7 because determine the religious identity of worshippers and pilgrims, the periodic festivals and other social gatherings.8
Ziegenbalg's study of Tamil literature enabled him to identify at least two books that could be used in his missionary work. The first book is Kapilarakaval written by the sage Kapila (L 123 v, 208 v).9 This book mounts a vehement criticism against the orthodoxy of the Brahmins, caste hierarchy and ritualism. It teaches that every person, irrespective of caste identity, can develop and attain goodness and virtue because, in the words of Kapila, birth does not determine the destiny of human beings: "Just as the flower Cenkalunirpa grows out of mud, so was the great saint Vasistha born of a [Pariah-] prostitute impregnated by Brahma" (Ziegenbalg, 1926, 35). Subramania Aiyar has translated this same passage as follows:
"Like the bright coloured red lily,
Of the pond sprouting from the mire, Vasistha
Was born to Brahma in the womb of a danseuse
And to him a Ch[a]ndala woman bore Satya;
this Satya embraced a Pulaya woman
And begot Paracara, who in his turn
Impregnated a fish-selling belle
And begot Vyasa. These Four!
Have they not chanted the Vedas and risen to
Holiness and lustre and become sages?"
(Subramania Aiyar, 1975, 102 and Mutaliar, 1847, 8).
Moreover, Ziegenbalg seems to have liked Kapila's criticism about the futility of speculative discussions about beginning of creation, human beings, good and evil, but encouraged a virtuous life here and now.10 Kapila teaches that the grave reality of death does not show any caste difference.11
The second book that Ziegenbalg has used in his missionary work is entitled Civavakkiyam by the well-known fourteenth-century poet Nana Civavakkiyar (L. 15 r-v, 17 v, 18 r).12 In this regard, he seems to have followed the example of the Jesuit missionary Robert de Nobili13 and quotes at least twenty-five passages from Civavakkiyam.14 Most of these quotations deal with the worship of the Supreme Being without any physical representations. Ziegenbalg quotes the thirty-fourth verse from the second volume of the palm leaf manuscript of Civavakkiyam, which he had in his library:
"The tortoise that floats around the sea lays its eggs on the beach, covers them with sand and goes [back] into the open sea. But, since it always thinks of the eggs, as if a rope tied them to it, the young ones, as soon as they crawl out of the eggs, follow the traces [of their mother tortoise] until they come to her. Similarly, god has placed us in this world, but he is up in heaven. However, he thinks of us always [as if he is bound to us] as a rope. Should we follow his traces, we shall find him."
This quote agrees with the ninety-third verse of Civavakkiyam, which can be translated as follows: "After the tortoises have come to the shore, laid their eggs, covered them [with sand] and returned to the sea, their newly hatched young ones go after them into the sea. Similarly, every person has to seek after light, [i.e., God[???]] that is present in every person. This alone is truth" (Civavakkiyar, 1995, 255). The quotes taken from Kapilarakaval and Civavakkiyam illustrate the fact that Ziegenbalg has not accurately translated the poetical verses, but interpreted and summarized them.
Ziegenbalg also knew several books belonging to the literary genre Cirrilakkiyam ('minor literature'), also known as Totarnilaicceyyul ('interconnected narrative' or 'epic poem') or Prabandhas ('uninterrupted connection, literary poetic composition'), of which ninety-six are traditionally enumerated.15 Many of these Prabandhas seem to have been written during the time of the Nayak-rulers in Tancavur (1350-1750), who were great patrons of bhakti literature (Puvannan, 1999, 270). Ziegenbalg's Genealogy includes information drawn from the following Prabandhas:
Literary genre / Title of the books in Ziegenbalg's Genealogy
Akaval / Kapilarakaval
Ammanai / Anumarammanai, Kancanammanai, Parata ammanai, Perumalammanai, Sri Rankarayar ammanai
Antati / Apiramiyantati, Arunakiriyantati, Caracuvatiyantati, Kutantaiyantati
Anuputi / Kantaranuputi
Cintu / Pillaiyarcintu
Kalampakam / Kilvelurk kalampakam, Kovilkalampakam
Lakari, Cavuntaralakari
Malai / Ampikaimalai, Citamparamalai, Civakamicavuntarimalai, Civamalai, Matumaimalai, Nellaimalai, Paramarakaciyamalai, Venkatamalai
Pillaittamil / Pillaittamil
Puranam / Arupattunankutiruvilaiyatalpuranam, Civarattiripuranam, Ekatacipuranam, Kantapuranam, Markanteyapuranam, Maturaippuranam, Periyapuranam, Tiruvenkattupuranam, Vaturpuranam, Viruttaccalapuranam
Tutu / Kirusnantutu, Nencuvitututu
Ula / Ekamparanatarula, Kayaronarula, Tiruvarula
Vannam / Annamalainatarvannam, Cuvamiperilvannam, Kumararperilvannam, Visnumelvannam
Venpa / Nanavenpa, Valliyammaivenpa
Viralivitututu / Viralivitututu
The books mentioned in Ziegenbalg's Genealogy form a unique source for our modern knowledge about the existence and usefulness of Tamil literature among the common people. The Genealogy refers to eighty-seven books, of which fifty-one are now available in print forms; the existence of the remaining thirty-six books is yet to be verified. One of the missing texts is the Tirikalacakkaram by a certain Tirumula Tevar (not to be confused with the Tirumular, who wrote the tenth Saivite Tirumarai entitled Tirumantiram, 'holy prayer'). Ziegenbalg writes that Tirikalacakkaram contains a summary of South Indian cosmology and mythology, and thus formed the basis for all other books on South Indian religions. In 1708, he wanted to translate it into German to familarize European scholars with its content. A. Gaur has translated Ziegenbalg's review as follows:
"Dirigala Sakkaram [Tirikalaccakkaram]: a mathematical description of the seven under-worlds, the seven upper worlds, and the fourteen seas. Also a description of their paradise, the Kailascum [Kailasa], the seat of Ispiren [Isvara] and of the many hundred thousand gods; of Magumeru [Mahameru], a golden mountain penetrating all the fourteen worlds, where all the holy prophets (i.e., each of the fourteen cycles of a yuga has a presiding Manu figure] are supposed to live. This book shows the genealogy of their great gods, how all gods are derived from the Being of all Beings, the Highest God, what offices they hold, where their places of residence are, how long they will live, how many incarnations (Erscheinungen) they have, etc. It also describes the past and the future eras, what is the purpose of this and other worlds, how long one world will exist, and what is the reason for all transformations, etc. This book is the basis of all other Malabari [Tamil] books since it lays down the principles on which they are based. If the scholars in Europe got a chance to read it they would hear strange and unprecedented things. Once I had it in mind to translate this work into German but I could not help wondering whether this was really advisable. It would cause a lot of unnecessary speculation and only distract people from more important things. But I am still keeping my mind open whether or not I should do this translation; so far I am not sure about it myself. The secrets this book contains were disclosed by Ispiren [Isvara) to his wife Parbadi [Parvati], she in turn disclosed them to Nandigeschuren [Nandikesvara] [Nantikecuran!], the door-guardian of Ispiren [Isvara]. He disclosed them to a great prophet by the name of Dirumuladewer [Tirumula Tevar], who disclosed them to the whole world. This happened in the first world-era; since then the world has been destroyed three times, but it is said that every time fourteen prophets [i.e., Manus] survived who passed this book, together with many others, to posterity."
(Gaur, 1967, 87 f.; cf. Ziegenbalg, 1880, 90).
Ziegenbalg did not translate this work into German, however pursed his religious research in other ways, and eventually produced the Genealogy.
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Ishvara
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 4/21/22
Ishvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर, ISO-15919: Īśvara) or Eshwara is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.[1][2] In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context, Ishvara can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband.[1] In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self.[2][3][4]
Ishvara is primarily an epithet of Lord Shiva.[5][6] In Shaivism and for most of the Hindus, Ishvara is synonymous with Shiva.[7][8] For many Vaishnavites, it is also synonymous with Vishnu like Venkateswara.[9] In traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or more deities of an individual's preference (Iṣṭa-devatā) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such as Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God.[10] In the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".[11]
Etymology
The root of the word Ishvara comes from īś- (ईश, Ish) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".[12] The second part of the word Ishvara is vara which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".[13] The composite word, Ishvara literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover".
As a concept, Ishvara in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Lord Shiva, a king or a ruler, a husband, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number 'eleven'.[5][6][14]
The word Īśvara does not appear in Rigveda.[15] However, the verb īś- does appear in Rig veda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".[15] It is absent in Samaveda, is rare in Atharvaveda, but it appears in Samhitas of Yajurveda. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian Pāṇini explains, is neither god nor supreme being.[15]
The word Ishvara appears in numerous ancient Dharmasutras. However, Patrick Olivelle states that there Ishvara does not mean God, but means Vedas.[16] Deshpande states that Ishvara in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important as Ishvara (the king) on matters of public importance".[16]
The term is used as part of the compounds Maheshvara ("The Great Lord") and Parameshvara ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of Lord Shiva. In Mahayana Buddhism it is used as part of the compound "Avalokiteśvara" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but see etymology section there), the name of a bodhisattva revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in Shaktism, the feminine Īśvarī is sometimes used.[17]
In Advaita Vedanta school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.[18][19]
Schools of thought
Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the concept of Ishvara, i.e., a supreme being, relevant. Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Nyaya schools of Hinduism discuss Ishvara, but assign different meanings.
Desmarais states that Isvara is a metaphysical concept in Yogasutras.[20] It does not mention deity anywhere, nor does it mention any devotional practices (Bhakti), nor does it give Ishvara characteristics typically associated with a deity.[20] In Yoga school of Hinduism, states Whicher, Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism.[3] Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedanta philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the term Ishvara as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".[3][21] Malinar states that in Samkhya-Yoga schools of Hinduism, Isvara is neither a creator-God, nor a savior-God.[22]
Zimmer in his 1951 Indian philosophies book noted that the Bhakti sub-schools refer to Isvara as a Divine Lord, or the deity of specific Bhakti sub-school.[23] Modern sectarian movements have emphasized Ishvara as Supreme Lord; for example, Hare Krishna movement considers Krishna as the Lord,[24] Brahmoism movement influenced by Christian and Islamic movements in India probably conceptualize Ishvara as a monotheistic all powerful Lord (Brahma). In traditional theistic sub-schools of Hinduism, such as the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta of Ramanuja and Dvaita Vedanta of Madhva, Ishvara is identified as Lord Vishnu/Narayana, that is distinct from the prakriti (material world) and purusha (Self).
Radhakrishnan and Moore state that these variations in Ishvara concept is consistent with Hinduism's notion of "personal God" where the "ideals or manifestation of individual's highest Self values that are esteemed".[25] Riepe, and others,[4] state that schools of Hinduism leave the individual with freedom and choice of conceptualizing Ishvara in any meaningful manner he or she wishes, either in the form of "deity of one's choice" or "formless Brahman (Absolute Reality, Universal Principle, true special Self)".[2][26][27]
In Samkhya
Samkhya is called one of the major atheistic schools of Hindu philosophy by some scholars.[11][28][29] Others, such as Jacobsen, believe Samkhya is more accurately described as non-theistic.[30] Yet others argue that Samkhya has been theistic from its very beginnings until medieval times.[31] Isvara is considered an irrelevant concept, neither defined nor denied, in Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.[32]
In Yoga
The Yogasutras of Patanjali, the foundational text of Yoga school of Hinduism, uses the term Ishvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara? These commentaries range from defining Isvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[11][33] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[34]
Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[35]
Sanskrit: क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैरपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः ॥२४॥
– Yoga Sutras I.24
This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[36][37]
Patanjali's concept of Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism.[3][21]
In Vaisesika school of Hinduism
The Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BC, neither required nor relied on Ishvara for its atomistic naturalism philosophy. To it, substances and paramāṇu (atoms) were eternal; they moved and interacted based on impersonal, eternal adrsta (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature.[38][39] The concept of Ishvara, among others, entered into Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium AD.[38][40] This evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. These later-age ancient Vaiśeṣika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added Ishvara as another eternal who is also omniscient and omnipresent (not omnipotent). Ishvara did not create the world, according to this school of Hindu scholars, but He only created invisible laws that operate the world and then He becomes passive and lets those hidden universal laws do their thing.[38] Thus, Vaisheshika's Ishvara mirrors Deus otiosus of Deism. Vaisheshika school's Ishvara, states Klaus Klostermaier, can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but He "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".[38]
In Nyaya
Early Nyaya school scholars considered the hypothesis of Ishvara as a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic.[41][42] Over time, the Nyaya school became one of the most important defenders of theism in Hindu philosophy.[43]
In Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1 examines what causes production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in universe. It considers many hypotheses, including Ishvara. Verses 19–21, postulates Ishvara exists and is the cause, states a consequence of postulate, then presents contrary evidence, and from contradiction concludes that the postulate must be invalid.[44]
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : ईश्वरः कारणम्, पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात्
पूर्वपक्षसूत्र : न, पुरुषकर्माभावे फ्लानिष्पत्तेः
सिद्धान्तसूत्र : तत्कारितत्वादहेतुः
Proposition sutra: Ishvara is the cause, since we see sometimes human action lacks fruits (results).
Prima facie objection sutra: This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no fruit is accomplished without human action.
Conclusion sutra: Not so, since it is influenced by him.
— Nyaya Sutra, IV.1.19 - IV.1.21[44]
Centuries later, the 5th century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed by Udayana, who in his text Nyayakusumanjali, interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara.[45] In developing his arguments, he inherently defined Ishvara as efficient cause, omnipotent, omniscient, infallible, giver of gifts, ability and meaning to humanity, divine creator of the world as well as the moral principles, and the unseen power that makes the karma doctrine work.[45][46]
In Mimamsa
Mīmāṃsā scholars of Hinduism questioned what is Ishvara (God)?[47] They used their pramana tools to cross-examine answers offered by other schools of Hinduism. For example, when Nyaya scholars stated God is omnipotent, omniscient and infallible, that the world is the result of God's creation which is proved by the presence of creatures, just like human work proves human existence, Mimamsa scholars asked, why does this God create the world, for what reason? Further, they added, it cannot be because of Ishvara's love to human beings because this world – if Ishvara created it – is imperfect and human Selfs are suffering in it. Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism raised numerous objections to any definition of Ishvara along with its premises, deconstructed justifications offered, and considered Ishvara concept unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (soteriology).[47][48]
In Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
The Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiShamya NairgghruNya doSha vihInaH). Ishvara is that which is "free from avidya (ignorance), free from ahamkrti (ego-sense), free from bandhana (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated".[18][19] Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the real nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness and bliss) is non different from the real nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal and declare that there is oneness between the two having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguNa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguNa' from the absolute sense. This oneness is accepted only at the level of 'mukti' or ultimate realization and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level there is no otherness nor distinction between Jiva (living being) and Ishvara, and any attempts to distinguish the two is a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta.[49]
ईश्वरः अहम्
Ishvara, I am.
— Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 2.3.1, 2.10.8[18]
Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the monist views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, from delusions, from root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, true to truth, liberated like Ishvara.[50][51]
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
Ishvara, in Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation".[52] Ishvara, Vishishtadvaitin scholars such as the 11th century Ramanuja state, is the supreme creator and synonymous with Brahman.[53] Equated with Vishnu in Vishishtadvaita or one of his avatar,[54] he is both the material and efficient cause, transcendent and immanent.[52] Ishvara manifests in five forms, believe Vishishtadvaitins: para (transcendent), vyuha (emanations), vibhava (incarnations), antaryamin (dwells inside), and arca (icons).[55] According to this sub-school, states John Grimes, Ishvara possesses six divine qualities: jnana (knowledge), bala (strength), aisvarya (lordship), sakti (power), virya (virility) and tejas (splendor).[55]
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by Sri Aurobindo[56] and has been suggested as having influenced Basava's Lingayatism.[57]
Dvaita Vedanta
The Dvaita (dualism) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th century Madhva, defines Ishvara as creator God that is distinct from Jiva (individual Selfs in living beings).[58] Narayana (Vishnu) is considered to be Ishvara, and the Vaishnavism movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.[9]
Ishvara (God) is a complete, perfect and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta.[9] In Dvaita sub-school, Jiva (individual Self) is different, yet dependent on Ishvara (God). Both possess the attributes of consciousness, bliss and existence, but the individual Self is considered atomic, while God is all encompassing. The attributes of Jiva struggle to manifest, while of God it is fully manifested.[58]
Madhva states there are five permutations of differences between Jiva (individual Self) and Ishvara (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative.[59] Unlike Advaita Vedantins who hold that knowledge can lead to Oneness with everyone and everything as well as fusion with the Universal Timeless Absolute, to the state of moksha in this life, Dvaita Vedantins hold that moksha is possible only in after-life if God so wills (if not, then one's Self is reborn). Further, Madhva highlights that God creates individual Self, but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.[59]
The world, called Maya, is held as the divine will of Ishvara.[58] Jiva suffers, experiences misery and bondage, state Dvaitins, because of "ignorance and incorrect knowledge" (ajnana). Liberation occurs with the correct knowledge and attainment unto Lord Narayana.[58] It is His grace that gives salvation according to Dvaita sub-school, which is achievable by predominance of sattva guna (moral, constructive, simple, kindness-filled life), and therefore Dvaitins must live a dharmic life while constantly remembering, deeply loving Ishvara.[58]
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda
Acintya bhedābheda is a sub-school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference, in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara (Krishna).[60][61]
In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable', bheda translates as 'difference', and abheda translates as 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: jiva) are considered parts of God, and thus one with Him in quality, and yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.[62]
Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva completed the progression to devotional theism. Rāmānuja had agreed with Śaṅkara that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. Madhva had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the Jīva: he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda).[63]
In Carvaka
Cārvāka, another atheist tradition in Hinduism, was materialist and a school of philosophical scepticism. They rejected all concepts of Ishvara as well as all forms of supernaturalism.[64][65][66]
See also
• Hinduism portal
• Absolute (philosophy)
• Bhagavan
• Conceptions of God
• Īśvarism
• Para Brahman
• Parameshashakti
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