Part 2 of 2
The Impact of Macaulay’s Minutes on the Classical and Local Languages
The minutes, in clandestine manner, suggested for the abolition of Sanskrit College and Calcutta Madrassa. It was explicitly mentioned that the funds for the printing of books in Arabic and Sanskrit and the stipends of the students pursuing oriental studies should be discontinued. As a result, the institutes imparting education in the classical and regional vernaculars were affected: their funds were curtailed on the pretext of investment in English education system. Besides, the stipends granted to Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian language students were also curtailed. English language replaced Persian in office, court, administration and diplomacy. Onwards, only those having western education and competence in English language were able to qualify job requirements, which increased the demand of English in the region. To reduce the expenditures of the company, Bentinck wanted to replace the British expatriates with Indian natives, for that he introduced educational reforms and got this sub-clause included in the Act of 1833 that appointment in government post will be purely on qualification “irrespective of religion, birth, descent or colour” (Adams & Adams, 1971:167). The job incentives aggrandized the demand of English in India (Mukherjee, 1989).
Cheshire asserts that English was used as a political tool to colonize and exploit but it has become the symbol of social superiority and status after the end of colonization (Cheshire, 1991: 6). But Kachru (1986b:136) maintains that it depends that who used English language, it was a tool in the hands of the colonizers for economic exploitation, cultural indoctrination, dislocation of indigenous culture and lingocide; whereas for nationalist, it became medium, link and window to the world to champion their cause and instill political awareness in the nation during the movement of liberty and independence to dismantle colonization.
Three Phases of the Introduction of English Language and Its Development
Kachru maintains that English was introduced in three phases: the first, by Christian missionary around 1614. The second, at the demand of the public and important figures in the 18th century, Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) and Rajunath Hari Navalkar (fl.1770) were the chief exponents who supported the western education system, as they believed, it would strengthen the people socially, politically and economically, whereas, the knowledge of vernaculars would not help the native to obtain these goals (Kachru, 1983:67-68). Roy, in his letter to Lord Amherst (1773-1857) written in 1823, suggested that the investment should be made for the western knowledge on priority basis than the vernaculars. This letter was presented as the proof of public demand for western knowledge. Roy considered European knowledge essential for the social development and uplift. He believed that English language would serve as a “key to all knowledge”, which would be useful for Indian (Bailey, 1991:136). Roy wanted Indians to be educated with the knowledge of mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, anatomy and other useful sciences (Kachru, 1983:68). The third phase began with the Government policy in 1765, when the East India Company’s authority was stabilized (Kachru, 1983: 21-22).
Lord Bentinck, the governor-general in India, supported by Lord Macaulay initiated some social reforms in India in the beginning of the 19th century. English was used as official language in higher courts, for record-keeping and as the medium of instruction for the cultivation of western learning and science (The New Encyclopedia Britannica (NEB), 1974: 403). Thus, English was used as the medium of instruction in law, higher education, administration, commercial enterprise, science, technology, business and trade because the indigenous vernaculars did not have adequate stuff to meet the nature of demand these fields posed so for.
The Outcome and Implication of the Educational Reform
After the declaration of English as the medium of instruction and administrative affairs, it anglicized the education system of India even in alien sociolinguistic and cultural settings. Moss reported that the British government allocated funds for uplifting education in 1813. The Hindu college was set up in Culcuta in 1816, followed by the Culcuta Medical College. In the 1840, and 1850 under Lord Dalhousie there was a great emphasis on primary education and high schools. Three universities were opened by 1857 as well as the Roorkee College of Engineering (Moss, 1999:76). Mubarak (2008) adds: "For the subservience of the mind of the local people, the British government introduced English as medium of instruction in the schools and colleges especially in the higher educational institutions. In the pursuit of the same, the universities were founded in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857, Punjab in 1882; while in 1887, more universities were set up in Allahabad. These universities catered knowledge to the students belonging to the upper middle class who had deep craving for government jobs." (P: 5).
The missionary from America and England initially established colleges for boys, but in the 20th century colleges for women were also founded in Madras, Lucknow and Lahore to cater education to the children of the converts along with their financial support. The English reformists also provided western education in their institutes with no intention of conversion. Henceforth, English was the language of office, court, press, middle bourgeois class and administration. The English newspapers started receiving wide readership and Indian literature in English also remarkably developed as being the logical consequence of encounter with English language (Kachru 1983: 69). He further mentions that English established its significant role in politics, court and in the domain of national administrative institutes, which remained dominant over the vernaculars even after the cessation of colonization (Kachru, 1986a:8). During the National Movement in 1920, despite anti-English sentiment, English was used as the language of protest and upsurge against the colonizers. Political leaders like Gandhi, who endeavored for the revival of local vernaculars, also chose English to communicate the upper class (ibid, p.8).
In 1880, approximately eight thousand pupils passed high school education, whereas the number of secondary education pass-out was almost 500,000 (five lac) (James, 1994). Vohra (2001:94) presents the education classification and pattern prevalent in the British India. The students after passing vernacular primary education joined Anglo-vernacular high school for the secondary education. At the completion of the secondary education, they had the possibility of seeking admission in one of 140 state-run or private colleges. In 1901, about 17000 students were enrolled in these colleges. The education system, British government introduced in India, groomed a number of intellectual figures but it also produced “a vast class of semi-educated, low-paid English speaking subordinates.” (ibid, p.68). Vohra mentions that English language provided a common means of communication to the people of India where there were “179 languages, 544 major dialects and thousands of dialects” (Vohra, 2001:94).
The Attitude of the Hindus and the Muslims towards English-based Education System
The Hindus, particularly Brahmans, were very much inclined to the British education system, whereas the Muslim refused to join these schools for long period, because they were hostile to English language as it replaced Persian language and the Muslim-ruler-introduced education system. They cherished the nostalgia of past education system and strove for its revival. The English dethroned the Muslim Mughal king, snatched power and colonized the land, therefore, they always held the Muslims in suspect. Because of this, the English interpreted the Muslims as the perpetrator of 1857 upheaval. The edge in education strengthened the Hindu community, and they dominated the politics of the country but Brahmans were again at lead. Thus, the education provided a way for social, political uplift and upward mobility, but it was the matter of opportunity for those who could avail it. Those, who failed to have access to the British education owing to whatsoever reason, lagged and lingered behind and could not acquire high slot in the social vertical or horizontal mobility. Dumont (1980:323) mentions that the Muslims were not happy with the replacement of Persian with English, they remained detached from both English education system and English language. As a result, the Hindu dominated the political and administrative fronts.
The Legacy of the British English
The British India government’s priority was rather running administration and draining wealth by developing trade than making arrangement for the learning of the Queen’s English. However, the present Indian English is very much influenced by the British English, especially Scottish English dialect, which has a pronounced “r” and trilled “r”. The Received Pronunciation (RP) or BBC English is also emulated by some people; nevertheless, the Indian dialect has also established its recognition as a distinct dialect even during the period of British imperialism. Besides, the British and Indian dialects, the American English has also got official acceptance, when the Indian students went to study in the universities of America rather than UK. The American English spellings and structures are common phenomena in scientific and technical scholarship and research studies; whereas the British English still pre-dominates the other fields of life. The survey conducted reveals that 70% preferred RP as the suitable pattern for Indian English, 10% opted American English and 17% liked distinctive Indian dialect (Das and Patra, 2009: 29-31).
The legacy of the East India Company still pervades the modern day Indian official correspondence: the phrases like “do the needful” or “you will be intimated shortly” still find frequent mention in the official correspondence. Malcolm Muggeridge, the English Journalist, writer and wit, added witty remarks that the last Englishman would be Indian (Das and Patra, 2009:30). In Pakistan, RP is preferred in English medium schools however the impact of local accent cannot be altogether ruled out.
Antithetical Status of English Language: From the Tool of Power to the Means of Protest and Communication
The story of English in the Indian subcontinent had antithetical characteristics: it was introduced by the British colonizers as the language of power, but it was used as the language of retaliation during the national movement in India. It was the language of invaders but was absorbed by the natives at great deal. It was the language of authority at the hands of the colonizers but the natives subverted its course. It has evolved from the tool of imperial, colonial and cultural indoctrination to powerful means of communication. English was used as the medium of instruction in the British Indian westernized education system, yet it served to the cause of both of the colonizers and the colonized: from central to the periphery and vice versa. The center, the British, used it to create a class tuned with the western outlook to regard the colonizers as the true benefactors; conversely, the periphery, the colonized, subverted it to translate their grievances and abhorrence against the colonialism. English, in the Indian subcontinent, immensely influenced the cultural outlook with ambivalent phenomenon of both loss and gain. However, after the revolution of information technology, the role of English language has remained highly powerful, which enables the people of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh to have direct interaction with the international community by employing English language as a neutral source of communication. In this connection, they have even excelled the advanced nations like China, Russia and Japan. After realizing its importance and shedding the colonial indifference, the countries of the Indian subcontinent are using it as economic, political and social necessity. The English language has been separated from its master, the colonizers, and it has been brought down to serve the cause of the masses; henceforth, it has no longer remained the language of classes but of masses.
Annika Hohenthal (2003) maintains, “In the same country the English language can be characterized by different terms representing the power of the language: Positive/Negative, National identity, Antinationalism, Literary renaissance, Anti-native culture, Cultural mirror (for native cultures), Materialism, Modernization, Westernization, Liberalism, Rootlesness, Universalism, Ethnocentrism, Technology, Permissiveness, Science, Divisiveness, Mobility, Alienation, etc.”
There has been a great deal of Indian natives who had astonished command over English, whose speeches and creative writings bear strong evidence of their mastery of style and articulation of language. Among them: Nobel prize winner in literature (1913) Rabindranath Tagore, C Rajagopalachari, Sri Aurbindo, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mohandas Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, R.K. Narayan, the eminent novelist, and Sarvepali Radhakrishanan. Following these precursors, there emerged some prominent figures who claimed world -wide recognition in the contemporary literature which include: Vikram Seth and Salman Rushdie, the Booker prize winner, Arundahti Roy, the author of international bestseller “The God of Small Things” (1997), Kiran Desai, Jhumpa Lahiri, Pulitzer Prize Winner, and V.S Naipal, the Noble Prize Winner (2001). From Pakistan, Ahmed Ali, Mumtaz Shahnawaz, Bapsi Sidhwa, Sara Suleri, Tariq Ali, Muhammad Hanif, Zaib-un-Nisa Hamidullah, Rukhsana Ahmad, Bina Shah, Tahira Naqvi, Uzma Aslam Khan, Kamila Shamshie and many other writer of international acclaim have showed the hallmarks of their ingenuity and creative verve in English language with distinctive mark of creative use of language, variety of style and deep artistic innovation.
In post-independence period, English has claimed significant importance in office, court, science, technology, trade, commerce, business, law, state affairs and transaction of whatsoever nature. English is the medium of instructions in all up standard schools, colleges and universities. English has asserted its significance in the national literature and national language policy. Realizing its global significance, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh have equally and unequivocally effected relentless pursuit for the acquisition of the language competence and skills. India is considered the third largest English book producing country after the US and the UK, and the largest number of books is published in English. India is a vast nation and in term of number of English speakers, it ranks third in the world after the USA and the UK. An estimated 4 percent of the population uses English; though this may seem like a small number, it consists of about 40 million people and this small segment of the population dominates the domains of professional and social prestige. Kachru (1997:68-69) states that there is an overwhelming majority consisting of 350 million in Asia that uses English. India is the third largest English-using country after the United Kingdom and America. The Indian English is closer to the British English, because it originated from that style. With the influx of globalization, American English has also influenced the youth and other sphere of professional fields. However, Indian English can neither be classified as American nor British English because after being intermingled with other Indian languages it is emerged with its own distinct flavor. This has made several scholars realize that it cannot be equated with either. In Pakistan, English language significantly dominates every walk of life, yet its scope and usefulness for the Pakistani English writers is still of the greater importance.
Conclusion
The education and English language policy in the Indian subcontinent varied from time to time and was subject to the political and ideological affiliation of the British government representatives in the region. As Warren Hastings was in the favour of orientalism, engraftment, conciliation and consolidation, whereas Cornwallis thwarted that approach and preferred the gap between the rulers and the ruled ones. He asserted the superiority of the English race and kept the colonized in abject humiliation. He did not trust the natives to be appointed at higher positions. With the appointment of Richard Wellseley, the policy of Hastings was revived and his successors followed him but Lord Bentinck along with Thomas Babington Macaulay hit the last nail in the coffin of Anglo-oriental controversy and by abandoning the policy of “engraftment” officially imposed the western education system with English as the medium of instruction.
The Directors’ dispatch in 1841 was a retreat from the strict stance of Macaulay (Carson, 1999). In 1854, Sir Charles Wood dispatched for the enrichment of indigenous vernaculars and making them worth-instructing for the western learnings. Woods emphasized that the core of argument lied in the fact that main objective was the diffusion of the learning of western science and literature in the Indian education system not the promotion of English language. Therefore, the indigenous vernaculars should be enriched for medium of instruction through the translation of the European knowledge. Woods policy remained central until the Act of 1919 was passed, in which the control of education was handed over to the Indian ministry and provincial legislation. In the Education Conference of 1927, the pro-vernacular policy received endorsement (Whitehead, 1991). Mwiria (1991) maintains that policy of promotion elementary vernacular education was also devised to perpetuate the British rule in India. Despite all efforts, Indian education was regarded as second rate in comparison with the education provided in England. It remained rather quantitative than qualitative. It could not produce the class of cultural intermediaries, Macaulay envisaged; however it ended with the hordes of Babus – the band of semi-educated cult taught and trained for routine office work.
The British education system, for what there was much debate and consumed much attention of the British Parliament, could only literate a small number of the natives. The literacy rate in 1911 was only 6%, which gained two points up to 1931and became 8%. In 1947, when India became independent its literacy rate was only 11%. The enrollment in universities or the degree-awarding institutes was also very low. In 1935, only 4 out of 10,000 people were enrolled in any degree awarding higher education institute. Besides the literacy rate, the quantity of published books and number of publications also help to estimate the real standing of a nation. In 1935, only sixteen thousand books were published for the nation consisting over 350 million people, the ratio stands: one book for twenty thousand people.
English influenced Indian subcontinent religiously, culturally, socially, politically and academically. The indigenous vernaculars were affected, as the emphasis shifted to English language. As a result, the translation of western knowledge into local vernaculars remained inadequate. It introduced innovation in teaching pedagogy, but owing to religious prejudice or differences, the religious education institutes remained stuck to age-old contents and methodology. It was the parsimony of British government in India, which wielded adverse impact on the local vernaculars, if the government had allocated sufficient funds, there had been no reason for the Anglo-Oriental controversy; the both could have developed in parallel. The low standard of Indian elementary education was because of negligent, parsimonious and apathetic attitude of the British towards India (Mayhew, 1926). Perhaps, it could not produce the class of cultural intermediaries as Macaulay envisaged, but it nourished the hordes of babus – the semi-educated clerical staff for routine office work.
English and European learnings served the cause of both the colonizers in the beginning and the colonized in the end. English was a socio-political tool at the disposal of the colonizers to wield power and exercise their writ. Later on, the same was used by the periphery against the center to challenge its writ and vent their dissatisfaction. The mass education mitigated the difference of class; urbanization integrated the people of various factions and classes. English provided a common communication ground to the people of different religions and vernaculars, to some extent also united them. Such cultural synthesis was manifest in the national movement of independence, in which the Hindu, the Muslim and the Jain strove against the British rule. Besides, English was used to record their grievances, dissatisfaction and protest at national and international level.
English provided access to the modern knowledge and rich expository of science, technology, literature, medical sciences, philosophy and art. It has its share in the economic development and business exposure, in which India has excelled and Pakistan is pressing hard to reach the socio-economic pinnacle. The Anglo-Indian literature led the natives to creative ingenuity in English, hence Indo- Anglican literature came into existence, which initially was an explicit retaliation and repulsion to the act of colonization, but after independence, the literature produced in English in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh has claimed international interest and recognition. The creative impulse and ingenuity of the diasporas and the writers at home have added new branch of English literature to the bulk produced in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In the wake of globalization, it has got fresh stimulus in international perspective, and the revolution of information technology has its own share and role. Thus, it provides edge to the people of these countries over the natives of even developed nations like Chinese, Japanese and Russian. Presently, the children of elite upper class, upper middle class are enrolled in the English medium institutes, which have its own pros and cons. The cultural dislocation, alienation would cast its grey repercussion in future. The vernaculars have received fatal blow in the aftermath of English language dominance, these vernaculars have been heavily Anglicized. The amalgamation of English words in the vernacular articulation is the most common phenomenon even at the level of mediocre layman.
It will be befitting to wind up the argument that the story of English language in the Indian subcontinent is the matter of loss and gain: it has given much to the region, at the same it has taken very much from it. However, it is an obvious fact that with the shift in the medium of instruction from the classical or local vernaculars and “engraftment of contents” to English as a medium of instruction, the classical languages and the local vernaculars of the subcontinent were adversely affected. If the practice of engraftment of the western knowledge and science into the classical languages and local vernaculars had been continued, presently these languages would have been infinitely rich in semantics, contents and concepts to keep pace with the modern era of science and technology. However, the upcoming time will account the ultimate impact of this innovation in the region.
Reference:
• Adams, N.L. and Adams, D.M. “An Examination of Some of the Forces Affecting English Educational Policies in India: 1780–1850.” History of Education Quarterly 11, 1971, pp. 157-173.
• Annika Hohenthal. “English in India: Loyalty and Attitude”. In Language in India, vol.3, 2003, http://www.languageinindia.com/ may2003/annika.html, visited on June 13, 2013.
• Ashton, S.R. Colonization in India. The British Library: London. 1988.
• Bailey, Richard W. Images of English. A Cultural History of the Language. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
• Benson, J. The British debate over the medium of instruction in Indian education,1823–64. Journal of Educational Administration and History 4, 1972, pp. 1-12.
• Brian, Mac Arthur. The Penguin Book of Historic Speeches ed. Penguin Books. (1996).
• Carson, P. “Golden Casket or Pebbles and Trash? J.S. Mill and the Anglicist/Orientalist Controversy.” In M.I. Moir, D.M. Peers and L. Zastoupil (eds) J.S. Mill’s Encounter with India. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999, pp. 149-172.
• Chatterji, Reena. Impact of Raja Rammohan Roy on Education in India. Delhi: S. Chand, 1983.
• Cheshire, Jenny. English around the World. Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
• Clive, J. Macaulay: The Shaping of the Historian. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973.
• Das, Krishanchand and Patra, Deepchand. Studies in English Literature. New Delhi: Commonwealth Publishers, 2009.
• David, S.M. ‘Save the Heathens from Themselves’: The evolution of the educational policy of the East India Company till 1854. Indian Church History Review 18. Education Commission (1883) Report of the Indian Education Commission. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing. 1984, pp. 19–29.
• Dumont, Louis. Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implication. University of Chicago Press, 1980.
• Fisher, T. “Memoir on Education of Indians. Bengal Past and Present 18. 1919, pp.73-156.
• Frykenberg, R.E. “Modern Education in South India, 1784–1854: Its Roots and its Role as a Vehicle of Integration under Company Raj”, American Historical Review 91, 1986, pp. 37–65.
• Frykenberg, R.E. “The myth of English as a ‘colonialist’ imposition upon India: A reappraisal with special reference to south India”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2, 1988, pp. 305– 315.
• Ghosh, S.C. “Bentinck, Macaulay and the Introduction of English Education in India.” History of Education 24, 1995, pp.17–24.
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• James, Lawrence. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. London: Little, Brown and Company (UK), 1994, pp.221-231.
• Kachru, Braj B. "The power and politics of English." In World Englishes, Vol. 5, No. 2/3, 1986b, pp.121-140.
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• Kachru, Braj B. The Alchemy of English. The Spread, Functions and Models of Non-Native Englishes. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd, 1986a.
• Kachru, Braj B. The Indianization of English. The English Language in India. Oxford: OUP. 1983.
• Kirshnaswamy, N. and Lalitah Krishnaswamy. The Story of English in India. New Delhi: Foundation Books, 2006.
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• Mayhew, A. The Education of India. London: Faber and Gwyer, 1926.
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• Mukherjee, “A. Decline of Oriental Education (Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian) in Bengal from 1835 to the End of the Century: Some Social Aspects.” Quarterly Review of Historical Studies 28, 1989, pp. 19–28.
• Mwiria, K. “Education for Subordination: African Education in Colonial Kenya.” History of Education 20, 1991, pp.261-273.
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• Pachori, S.S. “The language policy of the East India Company and the Asiatic Society of Bengal.” Language Problems and Language Planning 14, 1990, pp. 104–118.
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Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers
by Wikipedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worshipfu ... per_Makers
Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers
Motto: Verbum Domini Manet in Aeternum
Location: Stationers' Hall, London
Date of formation: 1403
Company association: Printing and publishing
Order of precedence: 47th
Master of company: Paul Wilson
Website stationers.org
The Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (until 1937 the Worshipful Company of Stationers), usually known as the Stationers' Company, is one of the livery companies of the City of London.[1] The Stationers' Company was formed in 1403; it received a Royal Charter in 1557.[2] It held a monopoly over the publishing industry and was officially responsible for setting and enforcing regulations until the enactment of the Statute of Anne, also known as the Copyright Act of 1710.[3] Once the company received its charter, "the company's role was to regulate and discipline the industry, define proper conduct and maintain its own corporate privileges."[4]
The company members, including master, wardens, assistants, liverymen, freemen and apprentices are mostly involved with the modern visual and graphic communications industries that have evolved from the company's original trades. These include printing, paper-making, packaging, office products, engineering, advertising, design, photography, film and video production, publishing of books, newspapers and periodicals and digital media. The company's principal purpose nowadays is to provide an independent forum where its members can advance the interests (strategic, educational, training and charitable) of the industries associated with the company.[5]
History
In 1403, the Corporation of London approved the formation of a guild of stationers. At this time, the occupations considered stationers for the purposes of the guild were text writers, limners (illuminators), bookbinders or booksellers who worked at a fixed location (stationarius) beside the walls of St Paul's Cathedral.[6] Booksellers sold manuscript books, or copies thereof produced by their respective firms for retail; they also sold writing materials. Illuminators illustrated and decorated manuscripts.
Printing gradually displaced manuscript production so that, by the time the guild received a royal charter of incorporation on 4 May 1557, it had in effect become a printers' guild. In 1559, it became the 47th in city livery company precedence. At the time, it was based at Peter's College, which it bought from St Paul's Cathedral.[7] During the Tudor and Stuart periods, the Stationers were legally empowered to seize "offending books" that violated the standards of content set down by the Church and state; its officers could bring "offenders" before ecclesiastical authorities, usually the Bishop of London or the Archbishop of Canterbury, depending on the severity of the transgression.[8] Thus the Stationers played an important role in the culture of England as it evolved through the intensely turbulent decades of the Protestant Reformation and toward the English Civil War.
The Stationers' Charter, which codified its monopoly on book production, ensured that once a member had asserted ownership of a text or "copy" by having it approved by the company, no other member was entitled to publish it, that is, no one else had the "right to copy" it. This is the origin of the term "copyright". However, this original "right to copy" in England was different from the modern conception of copyright. The stationers' "copy right" was a protection granted to the printers of a book; "copyright" introduced with the Statute of Anne, or the Copyright Act of 1710, was a right granted to the author(s) of a book based on statutory law.[9]
Members of the company could, and mostly did, document their ownership of copyright in a work by entering it in the "entry book of copies" or the Stationers' Company Register.[10] The Register of the Stationers' Company thus became one of the most essential documentary records in the later study of English Renaissance theatre.[11] (In 1606 the Master of the Revels, who was responsible until this time for licensing plays for performance, acquired some overlapping authority over licensing them for publication as well; but the Stationers' Register remained a crucial and authoritative source of information after that date too.) Enforcement of such rules was always a challenge, in this area as in other aspects of the Tudor/Stuart regime. Works were often printed surreptitiously and illegally, and this would remain a subject of interest to both the Company and the government into the modern period.
In 1603, the Stationers formed the English Stock, a joint stock publishing company funded by shares held by members of the company.[12] This profitable venture gave the Company a monopoly on printing certain types of works, including almanacs, prayer-books, and primers, some of the best-selling works of the day. By buying and holding shares in the English Stock (which were limited in number), members of the company received a nearly guaranteed return each year. The English Stock at times employed out-of-work printers, and disbursed some of the profit to the poor and to those reliant on the Company's pensions. When a printer or bookseller who held a share died, it might often pass to another relation, most often his widow.[13]
Stationers' Hall, London (2013 photo)
In 1606, the company bought Abergavenny House in Ave Maria Lane and moved out of Peter's College.[14] The new hall burnt down in the Great Fire of 1666, along with most of its contents, including a great number of books. The Company's clerk, George Tokefeild, is said to have removed a great number of the Company's records to his home in the suburbs—without this act, much of the Company's history before 1666 would have been lost.[15] It was rebuilt by 1674, and its present interior is much as it was when it reopened. The Court Room was added in 1748, and in 1800 the external façade was remodelled to its present form.[16]
In 1695, the monopoly power of the Stationers' Company was diminished by the lapsing of their monopoly on printing, allowing presses to operate more freely outside of London than they had previously. This blow was compounded when in 1710 Parliament passed the Copyright Act 1709, the first such act to establish copyright as the purview of authors, not printers or publishers.[17]
In 1861, the company established the Stationers' Company's School at Bolt Court, Fleet Street for the education of sons of members of the Company. In 1894, the school moved to Hornsey in north London, eventually closing nearly a century later in 1983.
Registration under the Copyright Act 1911 ended in December 1923; the company then established a voluntary register in which copyrights could be recorded to provide printed proof of ownership in case of disputes.
In 1937, a royal charter amalgamated the Stationers' Company and the Newspaper Makers' Company, which had been founded six years earlier (and whose members were predominant in Fleet Street), into the company of the present name.
In March 2012, the company established the "Young Stationers", to provide a forum for young people (under the age of 40) within the company and the civic City of London more broadly. This led to the establishment of the Young Stationers' Prize in 2014, which recognises outstanding achievements within the company's trades. Prize winners have included novelist Angela Clarke, journalist Katie Glass, and professor of journalism Dr Shane Tilton.
The company's motto is Verbum Domini manet in aeternum, Latin for "The Word of the Lord endures forever;" which appears on their heraldic charge.[18]
In November 2020 Stationers' Hall the home of the Stationers' Company were granted approval to redevelop their Grade 1 listed building to bring modern day conference facilities, air-cooling and step free access to its historic rooms. It reopened in July 2022 for live events, weddings, and filming.
Trades
The modern Stationers' Company represents the "content and communications" industries within the City of London Liveries. This includes the following trades and specialisms:
• Archiving (including librarian, curators, and book conservation)
• Bookselling and distribution
• Communications (including advertising, marketing, and PR)
• Digital media and software
• Newspapers and broadcasting
• Office products and supplies
• Packaging
• Paper
• Print machinery
• Printing
• Publishing (including digital publishing and design)
• Writing (including journalism, broadcasting, and authorship)
Hall
Stationers' Hall is at Ave Maria Lane near Ludgate Hill. The site of the present hall was formerly the site of Abergavenny House, which was purchased by the Stationers in 1606 for £3,500, but destroyed in the Great Fire of London, 1666.[19] The current building and hall date from circa 1670. The hall was remodelled in 1800 by the architect Robert Mylne and, on 4 January 1950, it was designated a Grade I listed building.[20][21]
Stationers' Hall hosts the Shine School Media Awards, where students compete in the creation of websites and magazines.
Stationers' Hall
Main Hall
Caxton window
The Stock Room
The Court Room
Notable liverymen
• Edward Allde
• John Cleave
• Thomas Cotes
• George Eld
• Edmund Evans
• George Faulkner
• Richard Field
• Augustine Matthews
• George Mudie (Owenite)
• Rupert Murdoch
• Thomas Cautley Newby
• Nicholas Okes
• Peter Short
• William Stansby
• John Trundle
• Sir Christopher Meyer
• William Hague
Court
Below are lists of officials who either sat on the Stationer's Company Court of Assistants, or who worked for the Company in another official capacity (Beadle, Treasurer, and Clerk) from the time the Company was first granted a charter in 1556 to the present day. As with most London livery companies, the Master of the Company was elected yearly, along with the Wardens. For the Stationers, this election day always took place in late June, the day before St. Peter's Day (June 29). Thus, a Master's term would run effectively from July to July. The dates below reflect the year a Master was elected and began a term of service. Upper and Under Wardens were elected at the same time, while Renter Wardens (those two wardens charged with collecting dues from members of the Company annually) were chosen for the following year in March, on or around Lady Day. The roles of Beadle and Clerk were likewise elected positions, filled whenever they came open, but were often held by the same members for years or even decades. The Treasurer of the Company/English Stock was elected annually in March along with the Stockeepers, and again, was often held by the same person for years.
The master oversaw Company "courts", meetings of the Assistants and sometimes the Livery and wider membership where Company business was discussed and resolved. These courts were usually held monthly but could be held more or less frequently. Although official company positions were historically always held by men until the twentieth century, women have always participated meaningfully in the life of the Company, at certain times even holding a controlling interest in the Company's joint stock venture, known as the English Stock.[22][23][24]
The first woman elected master was Helen Esmonde, who held the position in 2015.[25]
1555–1599
1600–1699
1700–1799
1800–1899
1900–1999
2000–present
Young Stationers' Prize
Young Stationers' Prize with engraved winners as of 2018
The "Young Stationers' Prize" is an annual prize awarded by the Young Stationers' Committee to a young person under 40 years of age who has distinguished themself within the company's trades. Launched in 2014, the prize is a pewter plate (donated by the Worshipful Company of Pewterers) onto which each winner's name is engraved.
List of Young Stationers' Prize winners
As of December 2019 there have been seven winners of the Young Stationers' Prize: Katie Glass, journalist, 2014;[38][39] Angela Clarke, novelist, playwright, and columnist, 2015;[40][41] Ella Kahn and Bryony Woods, founders of Diamond Kahn & Woods Literary Agency (awarded jointly), 2016;[42] Ian Buckley, managing director of Prima Software, 2017;[43] Shane Tilton, academic and professor of multimedia journalism, 2018;[44] Amy Hutchinson, CEO of the BOSS Federation, 2019.[45]
Arms
Coat of arms of Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers hide
Crest: On a wreath of the colours, An eagle, wings expanded, with a diadem above its head, perched on a book fessewise, all Or.
Escutcheon
Azure, on a chevron between three books with clasps, all Or an eagle volant gules with a nimbus Or, between two roses gules leaved vert, in chief issuing out of a cloud proper radiated Or a Holy Spirit, wings displayed, argent with a nimbus Or.
Supporters
On either side an angel proper, vested argent, mantled azure, winged and blowing a trumpet Or.
Motto
'Verbum Dei manet in aetemum'[46]
See also
• Authorized King James Version
• Eyre & Spottiswoode
• Fleet Street
• Printing patent
References
1. "Livery Committee: The Worshipful Company of Stationers & Newspaper Makers". Retrieved 25 January 2024.
2. Blagden, Cyprian. The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1960, p.19
3. Raven, James (2007). The Business of Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade 1450–1850. Yale University Press. p. 200. ISBN 9780300181630.
4. Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 61.
5. "About Us". The Stationer's Company.
6. Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press.
7. Blagden, Cyprian. "The Property". The Stationers' Company: a History, 1403–1959. p. 206, n2. On November 24, 1548, John and Richard Keyme, gentlemen of Lewes, paid £1,154 15 shillings into the Court of Augmentations and obtained possession, along with other property, of 'the site, house and mansion commonly called Peter College' (Cal. Patent Rolls Ed. VI, i, 362–363). Four years later, William Sparke, a Merchant Taylor, conveyed the property to the executors of Matthew Wotton, clerk, but retained the right to reclaim it on payment of £340; this figure may approximate to that paid by the Stationers two years later still (Hustings Roll 246, 63). For a short period before 1553 William Seres used the building for a printing house.
8. Loades, D. M. (1974). "The Theory and Practice of Censorship in Sixteenth-Century England". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (24): 141–157. doi:10.2307/3678936.
9. Gadd, Ian (2016). "The Stationers' Company in England before 1710". In Alexander, I.; Gómez-Arostegui, H.T. (eds.). Research handbook on the history of copyright law. Cheltenham: Elgar.
10. Arber, Edward, ed. (1875–1877). Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640 A.D.
11. Chambers, Edmund Kerchever (1923). The Elizabethan Stage. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 160–177, 186–191.
12. Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "English Stock of the Stationers' Company in the Time of the Stuarts". The Library (12).
13. Turner, Michael (2009). "Personnel within the London Book Trades: Evidence from the Stationers' Company". Cambridge History of the Book in Britain. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
14. See Blagden, "The Property", in The Stationers' Company: a History, especially pages 212–215.
15. Blagden, "The Great Fire and the Rebuilding", in The Stationer's Company: a History, p.215. The Company remembers Tokefeild's contribution today in the name of its Archives Center.
16. Blagden, The Stationers' Company: a History
17. See the Statute of Anne. The Company maintained a copyright registry untl 1923, after which registrations became voluntary.
18. "Stationer's Company". British Armorial Bindings Database. University of Toronto. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
19. "Official website". Stationers Livery Company. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
20. Historic England. "Stationers' Hall (Grade I) (1064742)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
21. Blagden, Cyprian (1977) [1960]. "The Property". The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804709354.
22. Turner, Michael (2009). "Personnel within the London Book Trades: Evidence from the Stationers' Company". The Cambridge History of the Book in Britain 5: 1695–1830. p. 331. There were occasions in the eighteenth century when the majority of the Assistants' shares were in the hands of surviving widows rather than active Assistants.
23. Smith, Helen (2012). Grossly Material Things: Women and Book Production in Early Modern England. Oxford University Press.
24. McDowell, Paula (1998). The Women of Grub Street: Press, Politics, and Gender in the London Literary Marketplace 1678–1730. Oxford University Press.
25. "Master breaks centuries old barrier". Print Business. 27 July 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
26. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
27. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
28. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
29. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
30. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
31. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
32. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
33. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
34. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
35. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
36. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
37. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
38. "Announcement of the Young Stationers' Prize winner". InPublishing. 24 July 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
39. "Profile: Katie Glass". The Times & Sunday Times. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
40. Crockett, Sophie (4 August 2015). "St Albans playwright, Angela Clarke, scoops award". The Herts Advertiser. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
41. Cheesman, Neil (24 July 2015). "Debut playwright Angela Clarke wins The Young Stationers' Prize 2015". LondonTheatre1. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
42. "Former SYP committee members win Young Stationers' Prize". Society of Young Publishers. 31 August 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
43. Goldbart, Max (28 July 2017). "Buckley scoops Young Stationers' prize". Printweek. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
44. "Dr Shane Tilton wins Young Stationers' Prize". British Printing Industries Federation. 31 July 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
45. Handley, Rhys (12 July 2019). "New Boss chief wins Young Stationers' prize". Printweek. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
46. "Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers". Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
Further reading
• Arber, Edward, ed. (1875–1877), Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640 A.D.
• v.2, 1571–1595
• v.3, 1595–1620
• v.4, 1620–1640
• v.5, index
• Bell, Maureen (1996). "Women in the English Book Trades 1557–1700". Leipziger Jahrbuch zur Buchgeschichte. 6: 13–45.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "Accounts of the Wardens of the Stationers' Company". Studies in Bibliography. 9: 69–93. JSTOR 40371196.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "English Stock of the Stationers' Company in the Time of the Stuarts". The Library. 12.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1958). "Stationers' Company in the Civil War Period". The Library. 13.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1959). "Stationers' Company in the Eighteenth Century". Guildhall Miscellany. ISSN 0072-8985.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1960). The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. London: Allen & Unwin. OCLC 459559508.
• Blayney, Peter (2003), Stationers' Company before the Charter, 1403–1557, London: Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers, OCLC 52634009
• Blayney, Peter W. M. (2013). The Stationers' Company and the Printers of London: 1501–1557. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Eyre, G. E. B.; Rivington, C. R., eds. (1913–1914), Transcript of the Registers of the worshipful Company of Stationers, from 1640–1708 A.D. + v.2–3
• Ferdinand, C. Y. (1992). "Towards a Demography of the Stationers' Company, 1601–1700". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 21. ISSN 0079-5321.
• Gadd, Ian; Wallis, Patrick (2002). Guilds, Society and Economy in London, 1450–1800. Centre for Metropolitan History in association with Guildhall Library, London. ISBN 9781871348651.
• Gadd, Ian (2016). "The Stationers' Company in England before 1710". In Alexander, I.; Gómez-Arostegui, H.T. (eds.). Research handbook on the history of copyright law. Research handbooks in intellectual property. Cheltenham: Elgar. pp. 81–95. ISBN 9781783472390.
• Gadd, Ian (2013). "The press and the London book trade". In Gadd, Ian (ed.). History of Oxford University Press, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1780. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 569–600. ISBN 9780199557318.
• Gadd, Ian; Wallis, Patrick (2008). "Reaching beyond the City Wall: London guilds and national regulation, 1500–1700". In Epstein, S.; Prak, M. (eds.). Guilds, innovation, and the European economy 1400–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521887175.
• Gadd, Ian (2021). "The Stationers' Company, 1403–1775: London's book trade guild". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature.
• Greg, W. W.; Boswell, E. (1930). Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company, 1576 to 1602 – from Register B.
• Greg, W. W. (1928). The Decrees and Ordinances of the Stationers' Company, 1576–1602.
• "Government Control of the Printing Press: Star Chamber Censorship Ordinances (1566, 1586) and Philip Stubbs' Comments on Censorship (1593)". Voices of Shakespeare's England: Contemporary Accounts of Elizabethan Daily Life. 2010.
• Jackson, W. A. (1957). Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company, 1602 to 1640.
• Knight, Charles, ed. (1844), "Stationers' Company", London, vol. 6, London: C. Knight & Co.
• McDowell, Paula (1998). The Women of Grub Street: Press, Politics, and Gender in the London Literary Marketplace 1678–1730. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198184492.
• McKenzie, D. F. (ed.), Stationers' Company Apprentices, 1605–1800 in three volumes: 1605–1640, 1641–1700 and 1701–1800. (Charlottesville: Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia, 1961; Oxford: Oxford Bibliographical Society, 1974 and 1978)
• Mendle, Michael (1995). "De Facto Freedom De Facto Authority: Press and Parliament 1640–1643". The Historical Journal: 307–32.
• Myers, Robin (1985), Myers, Robin; Harris, Michael (eds.), "The Financial Records of the Stationers' Company, 1605–1811", Economics of the British Booktrade 1605–1939, Cambridge: Chadwyck-Healey, ISBN 0859641694
• Myers, Robin (1990). The Stationers' Company Archive: An Account of the Records, 1554–1984. Winchester: St Paul's Bibliographies.
• Myers, Robin; Harris, Michael, eds. (1997). Stationers' Company and the Book Trade 1550–1990. Winchester: St Paul's Bibliographies. ISBN 9781873040331.
• Myers, Robin, ed. (2001). Stationers' Company: a history of the later years 1800–2000. Chichester: Phillimore. ISBN 9781860771408.
• Nichols, John Gough (1861), Historical notices of the worshipful Company of stationers of London, OCLC 5386736, OL 6639628M
• Pollard, Graham (1937). "Company of Stationers before 1557". The Library. 18. ISSN 1744-8581.
• Pollard, Graham (1937). "Early Constitution of the Stationers' Company". The Library. 18.
• Raven, James (2007). The Business of Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade 1450–1850. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300181630.
• Rivington, Charles Robert (1883), Records of the Worshipful Company of Stationers, Nichols and Sons, OCLC 19943126
• Siebert, Fred S. (1936). "Regulation of the Press in the Seventeenth Century: Excerpts from the Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company". Journalism Quarterly. 13 (4): 381–393. doi:10.1177/107769903601300402. S2CID 159460546.
• Sketch of the History and Privileges of the Company of Stationers. London Stationers' Hall. 1871.
• Smith, Helen (2012). Grossly Material Things: Women and Book Production in Early Modern England. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199651580.
• "Stationers' Hall", Handbook to London as It Is, London: J. Murray, 1879
• "Stationers' Hall", London and Its Environs (17th ed.), Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1915, hdl:2027/mdp.39015019440851
External links
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[Mountstuart Elphinstone] There appear to me to be only three lines of conduct which we can possibly adopt. 1st, To check the diffusion of knowledge and the introduction of printing so as to keep the Natives in their present state and confine the effects of the Press as hitherto to the Europeans. 2nd, To allow perfect freedom to Native Press and to offer no resistance to the natural tendency of such freedom to dispose the Native to attempts at establishing a national Government. 3rd, To promote learning and to encourage printing, but to keep the Press under the same degree of restraint which was maintained in England for more than two centuries after the invention of printing and which is still enforced in all countries where the Government does not rest on a popular basis. The first of these plans would be criminal if it were practicable. The second would only lead to the premature removal of the British Government, without a chance of its being succeeded by a better; the third alone appears to me to offer any prospect of improvement and rational liberty to the Natives. Under it we might safely do our duty in communicating to them all the sciences of Europe; and at some distant period the two nations might be sufficiently on a footing to determine the relation they were thenceforth to bear to one another. At that stage the people might be admitted to a share of the Government and then or at a later period the freedom of the Press might be permitted without control.
-- The Printing Press in India: It's Beginnings and Early Development Being a Quatercentenary Commemoration Study of the Advent of Printing in India (In 1556), by Anant Kakba Priolkar, Director, Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, Bombay
Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers
Motto: Verbum Domini Manet in Aeternum
Location: Stationers' Hall, London
Date of formation: 1403
Company association: Printing and publishing
Order of precedence: 47th
Master of company: Paul Wilson
Website stationers.org
The Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (until 1937 the Worshipful Company of Stationers), usually known as the Stationers' Company, is one of the livery companies of the City of London.[1] The Stationers' Company was formed in 1403; it received a Royal Charter in 1557.[2] It held a monopoly over the publishing industry and was officially responsible for setting and enforcing regulations until the enactment of the Statute of Anne, also known as the Copyright Act of 1710.[3] Once the company received its charter, "the company's role was to regulate and discipline the industry, define proper conduct and maintain its own corporate privileges."[4]
The company members, including master, wardens, assistants, liverymen, freemen and apprentices are mostly involved with the modern visual and graphic communications industries that have evolved from the company's original trades. These include printing, paper-making, packaging, office products, engineering, advertising, design, photography, film and video production, publishing of books, newspapers and periodicals and digital media. The company's principal purpose nowadays is to provide an independent forum where its members can advance the interests (strategic, educational, training and charitable) of the industries associated with the company.[5]
History
In 1403, the Corporation of London approved the formation of a guild of stationers. At this time, the occupations considered stationers for the purposes of the guild were text writers, limners (illuminators), bookbinders or booksellers who worked at a fixed location (stationarius) beside the walls of St Paul's Cathedral.[6] Booksellers sold manuscript books, or copies thereof produced by their respective firms for retail; they also sold writing materials. Illuminators illustrated and decorated manuscripts.
Printing gradually displaced manuscript production so that, by the time the guild received a royal charter of incorporation on 4 May 1557, it had in effect become a printers' guild. In 1559, it became the 47th in city livery company precedence. At the time, it was based at Peter's College, which it bought from St Paul's Cathedral.[7] During the Tudor and Stuart periods, the Stationers were legally empowered to seize "offending books" that violated the standards of content set down by the Church and state; its officers could bring "offenders" before ecclesiastical authorities, usually the Bishop of London or the Archbishop of Canterbury, depending on the severity of the transgression.[8] Thus the Stationers played an important role in the culture of England as it evolved through the intensely turbulent decades of the Protestant Reformation and toward the English Civil War.
The Stationers' Charter, which codified its monopoly on book production, ensured that once a member had asserted ownership of a text or "copy" by having it approved by the company, no other member was entitled to publish it, that is, no one else had the "right to copy" it. This is the origin of the term "copyright". However, this original "right to copy" in England was different from the modern conception of copyright. The stationers' "copy right" was a protection granted to the printers of a book; "copyright" introduced with the Statute of Anne, or the Copyright Act of 1710, was a right granted to the author(s) of a book based on statutory law.[9]
Members of the company could, and mostly did, document their ownership of copyright in a work by entering it in the "entry book of copies" or the Stationers' Company Register.[10] The Register of the Stationers' Company thus became one of the most essential documentary records in the later study of English Renaissance theatre.[11] (In 1606 the Master of the Revels, who was responsible until this time for licensing plays for performance, acquired some overlapping authority over licensing them for publication as well; but the Stationers' Register remained a crucial and authoritative source of information after that date too.) Enforcement of such rules was always a challenge, in this area as in other aspects of the Tudor/Stuart regime. Works were often printed surreptitiously and illegally, and this would remain a subject of interest to both the Company and the government into the modern period.
In 1603, the Stationers formed the English Stock, a joint stock publishing company funded by shares held by members of the company.[12] This profitable venture gave the Company a monopoly on printing certain types of works, including almanacs, prayer-books, and primers, some of the best-selling works of the day. By buying and holding shares in the English Stock (which were limited in number), members of the company received a nearly guaranteed return each year. The English Stock at times employed out-of-work printers, and disbursed some of the profit to the poor and to those reliant on the Company's pensions. When a printer or bookseller who held a share died, it might often pass to another relation, most often his widow.[13]
Stationers' Hall, London (2013 photo)
In 1606, the company bought Abergavenny House in Ave Maria Lane and moved out of Peter's College.[14] The new hall burnt down in the Great Fire of 1666, along with most of its contents, including a great number of books. The Company's clerk, George Tokefeild, is said to have removed a great number of the Company's records to his home in the suburbs—without this act, much of the Company's history before 1666 would have been lost.[15] It was rebuilt by 1674, and its present interior is much as it was when it reopened. The Court Room was added in 1748, and in 1800 the external façade was remodelled to its present form.[16]
In 1695, the monopoly power of the Stationers' Company was diminished by the lapsing of their monopoly on printing, allowing presses to operate more freely outside of London than they had previously. This blow was compounded when in 1710 Parliament passed the Copyright Act 1709, the first such act to establish copyright as the purview of authors, not printers or publishers.[17]
In 1861, the company established the Stationers' Company's School at Bolt Court, Fleet Street for the education of sons of members of the Company. In 1894, the school moved to Hornsey in north London, eventually closing nearly a century later in 1983.
Registration under the Copyright Act 1911 ended in December 1923; the company then established a voluntary register in which copyrights could be recorded to provide printed proof of ownership in case of disputes.
In 1937, a royal charter amalgamated the Stationers' Company and the Newspaper Makers' Company, which had been founded six years earlier (and whose members were predominant in Fleet Street), into the company of the present name.
In March 2012, the company established the "Young Stationers", to provide a forum for young people (under the age of 40) within the company and the civic City of London more broadly. This led to the establishment of the Young Stationers' Prize in 2014, which recognises outstanding achievements within the company's trades. Prize winners have included novelist Angela Clarke, journalist Katie Glass, and professor of journalism Dr Shane Tilton.
The company's motto is Verbum Domini manet in aeternum, Latin for "The Word of the Lord endures forever;" which appears on their heraldic charge.[18]
In November 2020 Stationers' Hall the home of the Stationers' Company were granted approval to redevelop their Grade 1 listed building to bring modern day conference facilities, air-cooling and step free access to its historic rooms. It reopened in July 2022 for live events, weddings, and filming.
Trades
The modern Stationers' Company represents the "content and communications" industries within the City of London Liveries. This includes the following trades and specialisms:
• Archiving (including librarian, curators, and book conservation)
• Bookselling and distribution
• Communications (including advertising, marketing, and PR)
• Digital media and software
• Newspapers and broadcasting
• Office products and supplies
• Packaging
• Paper
• Print machinery
• Printing
• Publishing (including digital publishing and design)
• Writing (including journalism, broadcasting, and authorship)
Hall
Stationers' Hall is at Ave Maria Lane near Ludgate Hill. The site of the present hall was formerly the site of Abergavenny House, which was purchased by the Stationers in 1606 for £3,500, but destroyed in the Great Fire of London, 1666.[19] The current building and hall date from circa 1670. The hall was remodelled in 1800 by the architect Robert Mylne and, on 4 January 1950, it was designated a Grade I listed building.[20][21]
Stationers' Hall hosts the Shine School Media Awards, where students compete in the creation of websites and magazines.
Stationers' Hall
Main Hall
Caxton window
The Stock Room
The Court Room
Notable liverymen
• Edward Allde
• John Cleave
• Thomas Cotes
• George Eld
• Edmund Evans
• George Faulkner
• Richard Field
• Augustine Matthews
• George Mudie (Owenite)
• Rupert Murdoch
• Thomas Cautley Newby
• Nicholas Okes
• Peter Short
• William Stansby
• John Trundle
• Sir Christopher Meyer
• William Hague
Court
Below are lists of officials who either sat on the Stationer's Company Court of Assistants, or who worked for the Company in another official capacity (Beadle, Treasurer, and Clerk) from the time the Company was first granted a charter in 1556 to the present day. As with most London livery companies, the Master of the Company was elected yearly, along with the Wardens. For the Stationers, this election day always took place in late June, the day before St. Peter's Day (June 29). Thus, a Master's term would run effectively from July to July. The dates below reflect the year a Master was elected and began a term of service. Upper and Under Wardens were elected at the same time, while Renter Wardens (those two wardens charged with collecting dues from members of the Company annually) were chosen for the following year in March, on or around Lady Day. The roles of Beadle and Clerk were likewise elected positions, filled whenever they came open, but were often held by the same members for years or even decades. The Treasurer of the Company/English Stock was elected annually in March along with the Stockeepers, and again, was often held by the same person for years.
The master oversaw Company "courts", meetings of the Assistants and sometimes the Livery and wider membership where Company business was discussed and resolved. These courts were usually held monthly but could be held more or less frequently. Although official company positions were historically always held by men until the twentieth century, women have always participated meaningfully in the life of the Company, at certain times even holding a controlling interest in the Company's joint stock venture, known as the English Stock.[22][23][24]
The first woman elected master was Helen Esmonde, who held the position in 2015.[25]
1555–1599
Sixteenth Century Court Officials, 1556–1599[26][27]
Year elected / Master / Upper Warden / Under Warden / Renter Wardens / Clerk / Beadle / Treasurer
1555 Thomas Dockwray John Cawood Henry Cooke John Walley; Anthony Smythe Unknown Unknown Unknown
1556 Thomas Dockwray John Cawood Henry Cooke John Walley Unknown Unknown Unknown
1557 Thomas Dockwray John Cawood John Walley John Walley Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1558 Richard Waye John Jaques John Turke Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1559 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
Michael Loble Thomas Duxwell Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1560 Stephen Kevall Richard Jugge John Judson Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1561 John Cawood
William Seres Richard Tottell Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1562 John Cawood
Michael Loble Richard Harrison; John Judson [from February] Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1563 Richard Waye Richard Jugge Roger Ireland Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1564 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
John Walley John Day Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1565 Stephen Kevall William Seres James Gonneld Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1566 John Cawood
Richard Jugge John Day Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1567 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
Richard Tottell James Gonneld Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1568 Richard Jugge
Richard Tottell Roger Ireland Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1569 Richard Jugge
John Walley William Norton Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1570 William Seres
John Judson William Norton Unknown Unknown John Ffayreberne Unknown
1571 William Seres
John Day Humphrey Toy Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1572 Reginald (Reyner) Wolfe
James Gonneld Humphrey Toy Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1573 Richard Jugge
William Norton John Harrison [the elder] Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1574 Richard Jugge
Richard Tottell William Cooke Unknown George Wapull Unknown Unknown
1575 William Seres
John Day Thomas Marsh Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1576 William Seres
James Gonneld Richard Watkins Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1577 William Seres
William Norton Richard Watkins Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1578 Richard Tottel
John Harrison [the elder] George Bishop Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1579 James Gonneld John Harrison [the elder] George Bishop Unknown Richard Collins Unknown Unknown
1580 John Day
Richard Watkins Francis Coldock Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1581 William Norton Thomas Marsh Garrat Dewce Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1582 James Gonneld Christopher Barker Francis Coldock Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1583 John Harrison [the elder] Richard Watkins Ralph Newbery Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1584 Richard Tottel
George Bishop Ralph Newbery Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1585 James Gonneld Christopher Barker Henry Conway Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1586 William Norton George Bishop Henry Denham
Unknown Richard Collins Timothy Rider Unknown
1587 John Judson Francis Coldock Henry Middleton; Henry Conway [from September] Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1588 John Harrison [the elder] Francis Coldock Henry Denham Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1589 Richard Watkins Ralph Newbery Gabriel Cawood Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1590 George Bishop Ralph Newbery Gabriel Cawood Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1591 Francis Coldock Henry Conway George Allen Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1592 George Bishop Henry Conway Thomas Stirrop Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1593 William Norton [succeeded by George Bishop] Gabriel Cawood Thomas Woodcock; Thomas Stirrop [from April] Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1593 George Bishop [succeeds William Norton in December] Gabriel Cawood Thomas Woodcock; Thomas Stirrop [from April] Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1594 Richard Watkins Gabriel Cawood Isaac Binge Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1595 Francis Coldock Isaac Binge Thomas Dawson Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1596 John Harrison [the elder] Thomas Stirrop Thomas Dawson Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1597 Gabriel Cawood Thomas Stirrop Thomas Man Unknown Richard Collins John Wolfe Unknown
1598 Ralph Newbery Isaac Binge William Ponsonby Unknown Richard Collins Toby Cooke Unknown
1599 Gabriel Cawood Thomas Man John Windet Unknown Richard Collins Toby Cooke Unknown
1600–1699
Seventeenth Century Court Officials, 1600–1699[28][29]
Year elected /Master /Upper Warden /Under Warden /Senior Renter Warden /Junior Renter Warden Clerk / Beadle / Treasurer
1600 George Bishop Thomas Dawson Richard White Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1601 Ralph Newbery Robert Barker Gregory Seton Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1602 George Bishop Thomas Man Simon Waterson Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1603 Isaac Binge Thomas Dawson Humphrey Hooper Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1604 Thomas Man John Norton William Leake Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Unknown
1605 Robert Barker
John Norton Richard Feild Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Nathaniel Butter
1606 Robert Barker
Edward White William Leake Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy William Cotton
1607 John Norton Gregory Seton John Standish William Newton Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy William Cotton
1608 George Bishop Humphrey Hooper Humphrey Lownes Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy William Cotton
1609 Thomas Dawson Simon Waterson John Standish Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1610 Thomas Man William Leake Thomas Adams Anthony Gilman Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1611 John Norton Richard Feild Humphrey Lownes Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1612 John Norton Humphrey Hooper John Harrison [the younger] Unknown Unknown Richard Collins John Hardy Edmund Weaver
1613 Bonham Norton
Richard Field Richard Ockould Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1614 Thomas Man William Leake Thomas Adams Felix Kingston Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1615 Thomas Dawson Humphrey Lownes, senior George Swinhowe Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1616 Thomas Man Thomas Adams Matthew Lownes Matthew Law Unknown Thomas Mountfort Thomas Bushell Edmund Weaver
1617 Simon Waterson Humphrey Lownes, senior George Swinhowe Robert Bolton Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1618 William Leake Thomas Adams Anthony Gilman Leonard Kempe Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1619 Richard Field
George Swinhowe John Jaggard Thomas Purfoote John Harrison Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1620 Humphrey Lownes Matthew Lownes George Cole John Harrison John Jaggard Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1621 Simon Waterson George Swinhowe Clement Knight Richard Tombes Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1622 Richard Field Anthony Gilman Thomas Pavier Richard Tombes John Browne Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1623 George Swinhowe George Cole John Bill John Browne Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1624 Humphrey Lownes Matthew Lownes Henry Cooke Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1625 George Swinhowe Anthony Gilman Adam Islip William Aspley Roger Jackson Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1626 Bonham Norton
Clement Knight Felix Kingston John Rothwell Henry Fetherstone Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1627 George Cole Clement Knight Edmund Weaver Henry Featherstone Nathaniel Butter Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1628 George Cole Adam Islip Edmund Weaver Unknown Unknown Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1629 Bonham Norton
John Bill Thomas Purfoote John Busby Emanuel Exoll Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1630 George Swinhowe Felix Kingston John Harrison Emanuel Exoll Thomas Downes Thomas Mountfort Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1631 George Cole Adam Islip John Smethwick Thomas Downes Richard Moore Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1632 George Cole Edmund Weaver William Aspley John Beale Richard Higganbotham Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1633 Adam Islip Edmund Weaver William Aspley John Hoth John Parker Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1634 Adam Islip Thomas Purfoote John Rothwell John Parker Francis Constable Henry Walley Richard Badger Edmund Weaver
1635 Felix Kingston John Smethwick Henry Featherstone Richard Whitaker George Latham Henry Walley John Badger Edmund Weaver
1636 Felix Kingston John Harrison Thomas Downes George Latham Jonas Wellings Henry Walley John Badger Edmund Weaver
1637 Edmund Weaver, died June 1638 William Aspley Nicholas Bourne Jonas Wellings Ephraim Dawson Henry Walley John Badger Edmund Weaver
1638 John Harrison [the younger] John Rothwell Robert Mead George Miller Edward Brewster Henry Walley John Badger Unknown/Open
1639 John Smethwick
Henry Featherstone Nicholas Bourne Jonas Wellings Ephraim Dawson Henry Walley John Badger Edward Brewster
1640 William Aspley, died in office; succeeded by John Smethwick Thomas Downes Samuel Mann Jacob Bloome John Bellamy Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1641 Henry Fetherstone Nicholas Bourne John Parker Robert Bird, died in office; succeeded by Richard Thrale John Bartlett, fined out; succeeded by Nicholas Fussell Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1642 Thomas Downes Robert Meade George Edwards Nicholas Fussell Christopher Meredith Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1643 Nicholas Bourne Samuel Mann Richard Whitaker Christopher Meredith Robert Dawlman Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1644 Robert Mead John Parker Richard Whitaker Robert Dawlman William Crawley Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1645 Robert Mead John Parker George Miller William Crawley John Marriott Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1646 Samuel Mann Richard Whitaker Henry Seile John Marriott Richard Coates Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster
1647 John Parker George Latham John Bellamy Richard Coates Samuel Cartwright Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott Edward Brewster [died between August and October 1647]
1648 Thomas Downes, succeeded by John Parker Ephraim Dawson William Lee Samuel Cartwright Humphrey Moseley Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1649 Robert Mead Miles Flesher John Chappell Humphrey Moseley Thomas Dainty Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1650 George Latham Miles Flesher Philemon Stephens Thomas Dainty Roger Norton Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1651 Nicholas Bourne John Legate Humphrey Robinson Roger Norton George Thomason Henry Walley Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1652 Miles Flesher John Legate Richard Thrale George Thomason Octavian Pulleyn John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1653 Miles Flesher Henry Seile Humphrey Robinson Octavian Pulleyn Andrew Crooke John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1654 Samuel Mann William Lee Roger Norton Andrew Crooke Luke Fawne John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1655 Henry Walley Philemon Stephens Roger Norton Luke Fawne Thomas Gold John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1656 Robert Mead Humphrey Robinson Richard Thrale Evan Tiler Ralph Rounthwaite John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1657 Henry Seile William Lee George Thomason Alexander Fifield Ralph Smith John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1658 Samuel Mann Philemon Stephens Octavien Pulleyn Francis Leach Thomas Hunt John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott George Sawbridge
1659 William Lee Richard Thrale Humphrey Moseley Joshua Kirton Abel Roper John Burroughs Joseph Hunscott [died June 1660] George Sawbridge
1660 Philemon Stephens Roger Norton Andrew Crooke Abel Roper Giles Calvert John Burroughs Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1661 Humphrey Robinson George Thomason William Leake Robert White Richard Best John Burroughs Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1662 Miles Flesher Octavian Pulleyn Daniel Pakeman Richard Best Abraham Miller John Burroughs Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1663 Miles Flesher Andrew Crooke Luke Fawne Humphrey Tuckey Edmund Paxton George Tokefeild Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1664 Richard Thrale Octavian Pulleyn Evan Tyler Joseph Surbutt Richard Tomlyns George Tokefeild Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1665 Andrew Crooke
William Leake Ralph Smith Richard Tomlyns Samuel Gellibrand George Tokefeild Nicholas Fussell George Sawbridge
1666 Andrew Crooke
Evan Tyler Richard Royston Samuel Gellibrand John Macocke George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1667 Humphrey Robinson
Evan Tyler Richard Royston John Macocke Richard Clarke George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1668 Thomas Davies Ralph Smith Thomas Hunt Richard Clarke Henry Twyford George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1669 Thomas Davies Ralph Smith Thomas White Henry Twyford John Clarke, junior George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1670 William Leake
Francis Coles Abell Roger John Clarke George Calvert George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1671 Evan Tyler Richard Royston Roger Norton George Calvert Thomas Vere George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1672 Ralph Smith Abell Roper Samuel Mearne Major Brook George Eversden George Tokefeild John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1673 Richard Royston
Robert White Samuel Mearne Thomas Williams Andrew Nicholson John Lilly John Cleaver George Sawbridge
1674 Richard Royston
Robert White Thomas Roycroft Henry Leigh Henry Herringman John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1675 George Sawbridge Roger Norton Samuel Gellibrand; died in office, succeeded by John Macocke William Miller Henry Lee John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1676 Abel Roper
Samuel Mearne Richard Clarke Henry Lee John Wright John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1677 Robert White Thomas Roycroft Thomas Vere Christopher Wall Thomas Raw John Lilly Randall Taylor George Sawbridge
1678 Roger Norton John Macocke John Martin William Fisher John Haies John Lilly Randall Taylor John Leigh
1679 Samuel Mearne
Thomas Vere Thomas Newcomb John Sims Robert Clavell John Lilly Randall Taylor John Leigh
1680 John Macock Richard CLarke Francis Tyton Thomas Goreing Godfrey Head John Lilly Randall Taylor John Leigh
1681 Thomas Vere; died in January or February 1682, succeeded by Samuel Mearne Thomas Newcomb; died in January or February 1682, succeeded by Francis Tyton John Towse Nathaniel Ranew Dorman Newman John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1682 Samuel Mearne; died in June 1683, succeeded by Roger Norton Francis Tyton Henry Hills Thomas Spicer (Helder?) Samuel Herrick John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1683 Roger Norton John Towse Henry Hills Samuel Hoyle Adam Felton John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1684 Roger Norton Henry Hills James Cotterell Christopher Wall Nathaniel Ponder John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1685 Henry Herringman
John Bellinger Ambrose Isted Bennitt Griffin Adiel Mill John Garrett Randall Taylor John Leigh
1686 John Bellinger John Baker Robert Clavell Daniel Peacock Thomas Sawbridge John Garrett Randall Taylor Obadiah Blagrave, pro tempore
1687, June to October Roger Norton John Baker Thomas Bassett John Penn George Wells John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1687, October to 1688, June Henry Hills Edward Brewster Christopher Wilkinson John Penn Gabriel Cox John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1688, July to November Henry Hills John Simms Benjamin Tooke Thomas Hodgkins Robert Roberts John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1688, November to 1689, June John Towse Major John Baker [died in office in March 1689; succeeded by Ambrose Isted] Robert Clavell Thomas Hodgkins Robert Roberts John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1689 Edward Brewster Ambrose Isted Thomas Parkhurst Thomas Snodham Thomas Minshull John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1690 Ambrose Isted Henry Clarke Henry Mortlock John Harding James Oades John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1691 Ambrose Isted Thomas Bassett Henry Mortlock Freeman Collins William Baker John Garrett Randall Taylor Benjamin Tooke
1692 Edward Brewster John Simms William Phillipps John Miller Edward Jones John Garrett [resigned 1692; succeeded by Christopher Grandorge] Randall Taylor [ejected, March; succeeded by Nicholas Hooper] Benjamin Tooke
1693 John Bellinger Thomas Bassett William Phillipps Richard Sare James Damson Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1694 John Sims Henry Mortlock Samuel Lowndes John Williams John Darby Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1695 John Sims William Rawlins Samuel Lowndes William Horton John Heptinstall Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1696 Henry Mortlock Samuel Heyrick John Richardson Oliver Elliston John Baskett Christopher Grandorge Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1697 Henry Mortlock Samuel Lowndes Bennett Griffin William Wyld Nicholas Boddington Christopher Grandorge [resigned in March; succeeded by Simon Beckley] Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1698 Robert Clavell
Samuel Lowndes Richard Simpson John Leake Luke Meredith Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1699 Robert Clavell
Samuel Heyrick Charles Harper Edward Limpany Benjamin Bound Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1700–1799
Eighteenth Century Court Officials, 1700–1799[30][31]
Year elected / Master / Upper Warden / Under Warden / Senior Renter Warden / Junior Renter Warden / Clerk / Beadle / Treasurer
1700 William Phillips Richard Simpson Samuel Sprint Awnsham Churchill Robert Vincent Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1701 William Phillips Richard Simpson Samuel Sprint John Lawrence Thomas Bennett Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke
1702 William Phillips Walter Kettleby Robert Andrews Matthew Wootton Christopher Bateman Simon Beckley Nicholas Hooper Benjamin Tooke [suspended from post 16 July] Joseph Collyer [elected 15 October]
1703 Thomas Parkhurst Walter Kettleby Robert Andrews John Taylor Richard Mount Simon Beckley Henry Million Joseph Collyer
1704 Richard Simpson Samuel Sprint Thomas Hodgkin Ralph Simpson Joshua Phillips Simon Beckley Henry Million Joseph Collyer
1705 Richard Simpson
1706 Walter Kettilby
1707 Edward Darrel
1708 Charles Harper
1709 William Phillips
1710 William Phillips
1711 William Phillips
1712 William Phillips
1713 Daniel Brown
1714 John Baskett
1715 John Baskett
1716 Nicholas Boddington
1717 Nicholas Boddington [joint with Richard Mount]
1717 Richard Mount [joint with Nicholas Boddington]
1718 Richard Mount
1719 Richard Mount
1720 John Sprint
1721 John Sprint
1722 John Knaplock
1723 John Knaplock
1724 John Knaplock
1725 John Walthoe
1726 John Walthoe
1727 James Knapton
1728 James Knapton
1729 James Roberts
1730 James Roberts
1731 James Roberts
1732 James Roberts
1733 William Mount
1734 William Mount
1735 William Mount
1736 Samuel Ashurst
1737 Samuel Ashurst
1738 Samuel Buckley
1739 Samuel Buckley
1740 James Round
1741 James Round
1742 John Knapton
1743 John Knapton
1744 John Knapton
1745 Thomas Brewer
1746 Thomas Brewer
1747 William Innys
1748 William Innys
1749 Stephen Theodore Janssen, Baronet
1750 Stephen Theodore Janssen, Baronet
1751 Thomas Ridge
1752 Thomas Ridge
1753 Thomas Page
1754 Samuel Richardson
1755 John March
1756 Francis Gosling, Knight
1757 Thomas Wotton
1758 Charles Hitch
1759 Jacob Tonson
1760 John Clarke
1761 Allington Wilde
1762 John Coles
1763 Edward Say
1764 Richard Brooke
1765 Richard Manby
1766 Henry Woodfall
1767 John Vowell
1768 James Bailey
1769 Matthew Jenour
1770 Paul Vaillant
1771 Thomas Gamull [joint with John Vowell]
1771 John Vowell [joint with Thomas Gamull]
1772 Joshua Jenour
1773 John Beecroft
1774 William Strahan
1775 John Rivington
1776 Robert Brown
1777 Thomas Wright
1778 Daniel Richards
1779 Lockyer Davis
1780 William Gill
1781 William Owen
1782 Thomas Caslon
1783 John Boydell
1784 Thomas Harrison
1785 Robert Gyfford
1786 William Fenner
1787 Thomas Greenhill
1788 Thomas Hooke
1789 Thomas Field
1790 John March
1791 Thomas Pote
1792 Henry Baldwin
1793 John Townsend
1794 Henry Clarke
1795 William Chapman
1796 Richard Welles
1797 Henry Sampson Woodfall
1798 Thomas Cadell
1799 James Bate
1800–1899
Nineteenth Century Masters, 1800–1899[32][33]
Year elected / Name / Trade
1800 William Stephens
Law Stationer
1801 Henry Parker
Printer, Bookseller, Print-seller, Stationer
1802 Charles Dilly
Publisher, Bookseller
1803 William Domville
Bookseller, Stationer
1804 John Nichols
Printer
1805 Francis Rivington
Bookseller
1806 Mathew Bloxham
Stationer
1807 Thomas Vallance
Paper maker; Wholesale Stationer
1808 Henry Woolsey Byfield
Printer; Bookseller; Stationer
1809 Samuel Hawksworth
Printer, Bookseller, Stationer
1810 John Crickitt
Stationer; Marshall of the High Court of Admiralty
1811 Josiah Boydell
Publisher, Painter
1812 Thomas Smith
Bookbinder, Stock Broker
1813 John Barker
Printer
1814 James Wallis Street
Bookseller, Stationer
1815 Joseph Collyer
Engraver
1816 Christopher Magnay
Wholesale Stationer
1817 Thomas Payne
Bookseller
1818 Joseph Gardiner
Wholesale Stationer
1819 Charles Rivington
Publisher
1820 William Walker
Stationer, Tea-dealer
1821 William Witherby
Printer, Law Stationer
1822 Robert Davidson
Pocket-book-maker
1823 George Wilkie
Bookseller
1824 William Venables
Wholesale Stationer
1825 Thomas Bensley
Printer; Lithographer
1826 Richard Marsh
Fancy Stationer
1827 Thomas Turner
Paper-maker; Paper-hanging Manufacturer; Stationer
1828 James Harrison
Printer
1829 John Crowder
Printer
1830 John Key
Wholesale Stationer
1831 Roger Pettiward
Businessman; Antiquarian
1832 Joseph Baker
Map engraver
1833 George Woodfall
Printer
1834 Charles Fourdrinier
Wholesale Stationer
1835 Edward London Witts
Stationer
1836 Thomas Chapman
Printer; Bookseller
1837 William Barron
Stationer
1838 William Francis Chapman
Bookseller; Wholesale Stationer
1839 George Rowe
Fancy Stationer
1840 Thomas Steel
Law Stationer
1841 William Barron
Stationer
1842 Charles Baldwin
Printer
1843 Charles Baldwin
Printer
1844 Richard Bate
Merchant, Stationer
1845 William Carpenter
Printer
1846 John Walter
Printer; Proprietor of The Times
1847 William Magnay
Stationer
1848 John Lewis Cox
Printer to the East India Company
1849 Benjamin Gibbons
Wholesale Stationer
1850 John Bowyer Nichols
Printer
1851 Thomas Gardiner
Wholesale Stationer
1852 Thomas Taylor
Printer; Stationer; Coal-merchant
1853 William Farlow
Law Stationer
1854 Samuel Gyfford
Stationer
1855 Francis Graham Moon
Printseller; Publisher
1856 Nathaniel Graham
Bookseller; Grocer; Upholsterer
1857 John Dickinson
Paper-maker; Stationer
1858 John Dickinson
Paper-maker; Stationer
1859 John Saddington
Copperplate-printer; Stationer; Slop-seller
1860 Henry Foss
Bookseller
1861 James William Adlard
Printer
1862 Henry Foss
Bookseller
1863 John Simpson
Music publisher; Musical-instrument-maker; Music-seller
1864 James Daikers
Stationer
1865 Thomas Jones
Painter; Paper-hanger; Paper-maker; Stationer
1866 Edmund Hodgson
Book auctioneer; Stationer
1867 Edmund Hodgson
Book auctioneer; Stationer
1868 Henry Adlard
Printer; Engraver
1869 Henry Good
Stationer
1870 Henry George Brown
Stationer
1871 William Tyler
Wholesale Stationer
1872 Sydney Hedley Waterlow
Politician
1873 Francis Rivington
Bookseller
1874 William Watson
Printer; Bookbinder; Stationer
1875 William Good
Stationer
1876 Charles Rivington [died in office, succeeded by Henry George Brown]
1876 Henry George Brown [succeeded Charles Rivington]
Stationer
1877 William Rivington
Printer; Bookseller
1878 George Chater
Wholesale Stationer
1879 Francis Wyatt Truscott
Wholesale Stationer
1880 James Figgins
Type-founder; Sheriff of London; Conservative MP
1881 Richard William Starkey
Wholesale Stationer
1882 Joseph Johnson Miles
1883 John Miles
1884 Charles Layton
1885 Edmund Waller
1886 Thomas Curson Hansard
Printer
1887 Francis Wyatt Truscott
Wholesale Stationer
1888 William Hawksworth
1889 James George Alexander Diggens
1890 James Evan Adlard [joint with Joseph Greenhill]
1890 Joseph Greenhill [joint with James Evan Adlard]
1891 George Singer
1892 Guildford Barker Richardson
1893 George Robert Tyler
Paper-maker
1894 Joshua Whitehead Butterworth [joint with Sir George Tyler]
1894 George Robert Tyler [joint with Joshua Whitehead Butterworth]
Paper-maker
1895 Henry Sotheran
Bookseller
1896 William Richard Stephens
1897 Charles John Clay
1898 William Rider
Publisher
1899 Joseph Hunt
1900–1999
Twentieth Century Masters, 1900–1999[34][35]
Year elected / Name
1900 James William Harrison
1901 George Wyatt Truscott
1902 Matthew Thomas Roe [joint with John Miles]
1902 John Miles [joint with Matthew Thomas Roe]
1903 Thomas Vezey Strong
1904 George North-Cox
1905 John Ion
1906 Richard Stevens
1907 Henry Hill Hodgson
1908 Richard Webster Cox
1909 William Charles Knight Clowes
1910 George Chater
1911 Daniel Greenaway
1912 George Edward Briscoe Eyre
1913 Henry Hill
1914 Henry Good
1915 Herbert Jameson Waterlow
1916 Edward Hanslope Cox
1917 Horace Brooks Marshall
1918 John Bruce Nichols
1919 Edwin James Layton
1920 Edward Unwin
1921 Charles Robert Rivington
1922 Herbert Fitch
1923 Edward Pinney Vacher
1924 Richard Bentley
1925 Frederick Harris Miles
1926 George Rowland Blades
1927 Arthur William Rivington
1928 Cecil Reeves Harrison
1929 William Alfred Waterlow
1930 Edgar Erat Harrison
1931 John Henry Williams
1932 Percy Walter Greenaway
1933 Percy Walter Greenaway
1934 HRH The Prince of Wales [ Ralph David Blumenfeld, deputy]
1935 HRH The Prince of Wales [John William Davy, deputy]
1936 Robert Evan Adlard [joint with Sidney John Sandle]
1936 Sidney John Sandle [joint with Robert Evan Adlard]
1937 John William Baddeley [joint with Edward Manger Iliffe]
1937 Edward Manger Iliffe [joint with John William Baddeley]
1938 Henry Dexter Truscott [joint with Charles Felix Clay]
1938 Charles Felix Clay [joint with Henry Dexter Truscott]
1939 Edward Chenivix Austen-Leigh [joint with Edward Unwin]
1939 Edward Unwin [joint with Edward Chenivix Austen-Leigh]
1940 Edgar Lutwyche Waterlow [joint with Stanley Low]
1940 Stanley Low [joint with Edgar Lutwyche Waterlow]
1941 George Henry Wilkinson
1942 John Jacob Astor
1943 Herbert Arthur Cox
1944 Charles John Watts
1945 Robert Kingston Burt
1946 Herbert William Jordan
1947 Victor Bobardt Harrison
1948 Bernard Guy Harrison
1949 Sidney Hodgson
1950 Reginald Thurston Rivington
1951 Arthur George Fowler
1952 Charles Clifton Tollit
1953 William Will
1954 Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh
1955 William Penman
1956 Cuthbert Grasemann
1957 Victor Robert Penman
1958 George Percival Simon
1959 Denis Henry Truscott
1960 James Edward Ousey
1961 William Henry Young
1962 John Betts
1963 John Mylne Rivington
1964 James Alexander Bailey
1965 Henry Arthur Johnson
1966 Donald Fores Kellie
1967 Henry Frank Thompson
1968 Charles Arthur Rivington
1969 John Hubbard
1970 Eric Burt
1971 Philip Soundy Unwin
1972 George Low Riddell
1973 Alan Pearce Greenaway
1974 Derek Burdick Greenaway
1975 Leonard Entwisle Kenyon
1976 Jack Matson
1977 Edward Glanvill Benn
1978 Brian Trevena Coulton
1979 Wilfrid Becket Hodgson
1980 Kenneth Buckingham Robinson
1981 David Wyndham Smith
1982 Peter Cox
1983 Christopher Rivington
1984 Laurence Viney
1985 Ray Tindle
1986 Allen Thompson
1987 Mark Tollit
1988 John Leighton
1989 Desmond Ryman
1990 Thomas Corrigan
1991 William Young
1992 George Mandl
1993 Peter Rippon
1994 Richard Haselden
1995 Alan Brooker
1996 Roy Fullick
1997 Clive Martin
1998 Vernon Sullivan
1999 Richard Harrison
2000–present
Twenty-first Century Masters, 2000– [36][37]
Year elected / Name
2000 Henry Frank Chappell
2001 Robert J Russell
2002 Michael A Pelham
2003 Jonathan Straker
2004 James Benn
2005 Patrick Shorten
2006 Neville Cusworth
2007 John W Waterlow
2008 Noel Osborne
2009 Richard Brewster
2010 Christopher McKane
2011 Nigel Stapleton
2012 Kevin Dewey
2013 Tom Hempenstall
2014 Ian Locks
2015 Helen Esmonde
2016 Ian Bennett
2017 Nick Steidl
2018 David Allan
2019 Trevor Fenwick
2020 Stephen Platten
2021 Robert Flather
2022 Moira Sleight
2023 Anthony Mash
2024 Paul Wilson
Young Stationers' Prize
Young Stationers' Prize with engraved winners as of 2018
The "Young Stationers' Prize" is an annual prize awarded by the Young Stationers' Committee to a young person under 40 years of age who has distinguished themself within the company's trades. Launched in 2014, the prize is a pewter plate (donated by the Worshipful Company of Pewterers) onto which each winner's name is engraved.
List of Young Stationers' Prize winners
As of December 2019 there have been seven winners of the Young Stationers' Prize: Katie Glass, journalist, 2014;[38][39] Angela Clarke, novelist, playwright, and columnist, 2015;[40][41] Ella Kahn and Bryony Woods, founders of Diamond Kahn & Woods Literary Agency (awarded jointly), 2016;[42] Ian Buckley, managing director of Prima Software, 2017;[43] Shane Tilton, academic and professor of multimedia journalism, 2018;[44] Amy Hutchinson, CEO of the BOSS Federation, 2019.[45]
Arms
Coat of arms of Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers hide
Crest: On a wreath of the colours, An eagle, wings expanded, with a diadem above its head, perched on a book fessewise, all Or.
Escutcheon
Azure, on a chevron between three books with clasps, all Or an eagle volant gules with a nimbus Or, between two roses gules leaved vert, in chief issuing out of a cloud proper radiated Or a Holy Spirit, wings displayed, argent with a nimbus Or.
Supporters
On either side an angel proper, vested argent, mantled azure, winged and blowing a trumpet Or.
Motto
'Verbum Dei manet in aetemum'[46]
See also
• Authorized King James Version
• Eyre & Spottiswoode
• Fleet Street
• Printing patent
References
1. "Livery Committee: The Worshipful Company of Stationers & Newspaper Makers". Retrieved 25 January 2024.
2. Blagden, Cyprian. The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1960, p.19
3. Raven, James (2007). The Business of Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade 1450–1850. Yale University Press. p. 200. ISBN 9780300181630.
4. Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 61.
5. "About Us". The Stationer's Company.
6. Patterson, Lyman Ray (1968). Copyright in Historical Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press.
7. Blagden, Cyprian. "The Property". The Stationers' Company: a History, 1403–1959. p. 206, n2. On November 24, 1548, John and Richard Keyme, gentlemen of Lewes, paid £1,154 15 shillings into the Court of Augmentations and obtained possession, along with other property, of 'the site, house and mansion commonly called Peter College' (Cal. Patent Rolls Ed. VI, i, 362–363). Four years later, William Sparke, a Merchant Taylor, conveyed the property to the executors of Matthew Wotton, clerk, but retained the right to reclaim it on payment of £340; this figure may approximate to that paid by the Stationers two years later still (Hustings Roll 246, 63). For a short period before 1553 William Seres used the building for a printing house.
8. Loades, D. M. (1974). "The Theory and Practice of Censorship in Sixteenth-Century England". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (24): 141–157. doi:10.2307/3678936.
9. Gadd, Ian (2016). "The Stationers' Company in England before 1710". In Alexander, I.; Gómez-Arostegui, H.T. (eds.). Research handbook on the history of copyright law. Cheltenham: Elgar.
10. Arber, Edward, ed. (1875–1877). Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640 A.D.
11. Chambers, Edmund Kerchever (1923). The Elizabethan Stage. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 160–177, 186–191.
12. Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "English Stock of the Stationers' Company in the Time of the Stuarts". The Library (12).
13. Turner, Michael (2009). "Personnel within the London Book Trades: Evidence from the Stationers' Company". Cambridge History of the Book in Britain. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
14. See Blagden, "The Property", in The Stationers' Company: a History, especially pages 212–215.
15. Blagden, "The Great Fire and the Rebuilding", in The Stationer's Company: a History, p.215. The Company remembers Tokefeild's contribution today in the name of its Archives Center.
16. Blagden, The Stationers' Company: a History
17. See the Statute of Anne. The Company maintained a copyright registry untl 1923, after which registrations became voluntary.
18. "Stationer's Company". British Armorial Bindings Database. University of Toronto. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
19. "Official website". Stationers Livery Company. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
20. Historic England. "Stationers' Hall (Grade I) (1064742)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
21. Blagden, Cyprian (1977) [1960]. "The Property". The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804709354.
22. Turner, Michael (2009). "Personnel within the London Book Trades: Evidence from the Stationers' Company". The Cambridge History of the Book in Britain 5: 1695–1830. p. 331. There were occasions in the eighteenth century when the majority of the Assistants' shares were in the hands of surviving widows rather than active Assistants.
23. Smith, Helen (2012). Grossly Material Things: Women and Book Production in Early Modern England. Oxford University Press.
24. McDowell, Paula (1998). The Women of Grub Street: Press, Politics, and Gender in the London Literary Marketplace 1678–1730. Oxford University Press.
25. "Master breaks centuries old barrier". Print Business. 27 July 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
26. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
27. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
28. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
29. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
30. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
31. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
32. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
33. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
34. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
35. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
36. Turner, Michael. "London Booktrades Database". London Booktrades Database. Bodleian Libraries. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
37. Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (4 October 2021). "Masters of the Company" (Document). Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers.
38. "Announcement of the Young Stationers' Prize winner". InPublishing. 24 July 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
39. "Profile: Katie Glass". The Times & Sunday Times. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
40. Crockett, Sophie (4 August 2015). "St Albans playwright, Angela Clarke, scoops award". The Herts Advertiser. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
41. Cheesman, Neil (24 July 2015). "Debut playwright Angela Clarke wins The Young Stationers' Prize 2015". LondonTheatre1. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
42. "Former SYP committee members win Young Stationers' Prize". Society of Young Publishers. 31 August 2016. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
43. Goldbart, Max (28 July 2017). "Buckley scoops Young Stationers' prize". Printweek. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
44. "Dr Shane Tilton wins Young Stationers' Prize". British Printing Industries Federation. 31 July 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
45. Handley, Rhys (12 July 2019). "New Boss chief wins Young Stationers' prize". Printweek. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
46. "Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers". Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
Further reading
• Arber, Edward, ed. (1875–1877), Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640 A.D.
• v.2, 1571–1595
• v.3, 1595–1620
• v.4, 1620–1640
• v.5, index
• Bell, Maureen (1996). "Women in the English Book Trades 1557–1700". Leipziger Jahrbuch zur Buchgeschichte. 6: 13–45.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "Accounts of the Wardens of the Stationers' Company". Studies in Bibliography. 9: 69–93. JSTOR 40371196.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1957). "English Stock of the Stationers' Company in the Time of the Stuarts". The Library. 12.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1958). "Stationers' Company in the Civil War Period". The Library. 13.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1959). "Stationers' Company in the Eighteenth Century". Guildhall Miscellany. ISSN 0072-8985.
• Blagden, Cyprian (1960). The Stationers' Company: A History, 1403–1959. London: Allen & Unwin. OCLC 459559508.
• Blayney, Peter (2003), Stationers' Company before the Charter, 1403–1557, London: Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers, OCLC 52634009
• Blayney, Peter W. M. (2013). The Stationers' Company and the Printers of London: 1501–1557. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Eyre, G. E. B.; Rivington, C. R., eds. (1913–1914), Transcript of the Registers of the worshipful Company of Stationers, from 1640–1708 A.D. + v.2–3
• Ferdinand, C. Y. (1992). "Towards a Demography of the Stationers' Company, 1601–1700". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 21. ISSN 0079-5321.
• Gadd, Ian; Wallis, Patrick (2002). Guilds, Society and Economy in London, 1450–1800. Centre for Metropolitan History in association with Guildhall Library, London. ISBN 9781871348651.
• Gadd, Ian (2016). "The Stationers' Company in England before 1710". In Alexander, I.; Gómez-Arostegui, H.T. (eds.). Research handbook on the history of copyright law. Research handbooks in intellectual property. Cheltenham: Elgar. pp. 81–95. ISBN 9781783472390.
• Gadd, Ian (2013). "The press and the London book trade". In Gadd, Ian (ed.). History of Oxford University Press, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1780. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 569–600. ISBN 9780199557318.
• Gadd, Ian; Wallis, Patrick (2008). "Reaching beyond the City Wall: London guilds and national regulation, 1500–1700". In Epstein, S.; Prak, M. (eds.). Guilds, innovation, and the European economy 1400–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521887175.
• Gadd, Ian (2021). "The Stationers' Company, 1403–1775: London's book trade guild". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature.
• Greg, W. W.; Boswell, E. (1930). Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company, 1576 to 1602 – from Register B.
• Greg, W. W. (1928). The Decrees and Ordinances of the Stationers' Company, 1576–1602.
• "Government Control of the Printing Press: Star Chamber Censorship Ordinances (1566, 1586) and Philip Stubbs' Comments on Censorship (1593)". Voices of Shakespeare's England: Contemporary Accounts of Elizabethan Daily Life. 2010.
• Jackson, W. A. (1957). Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company, 1602 to 1640.
• Knight, Charles, ed. (1844), "Stationers' Company", London, vol. 6, London: C. Knight & Co.
• McDowell, Paula (1998). The Women of Grub Street: Press, Politics, and Gender in the London Literary Marketplace 1678–1730. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198184492.
• McKenzie, D. F. (ed.), Stationers' Company Apprentices, 1605–1800 in three volumes: 1605–1640, 1641–1700 and 1701–1800. (Charlottesville: Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia, 1961; Oxford: Oxford Bibliographical Society, 1974 and 1978)
• Mendle, Michael (1995). "De Facto Freedom De Facto Authority: Press and Parliament 1640–1643". The Historical Journal: 307–32.
• Myers, Robin (1985), Myers, Robin; Harris, Michael (eds.), "The Financial Records of the Stationers' Company, 1605–1811", Economics of the British Booktrade 1605–1939, Cambridge: Chadwyck-Healey, ISBN 0859641694
• Myers, Robin (1990). The Stationers' Company Archive: An Account of the Records, 1554–1984. Winchester: St Paul's Bibliographies.
• Myers, Robin; Harris, Michael, eds. (1997). Stationers' Company and the Book Trade 1550–1990. Winchester: St Paul's Bibliographies. ISBN 9781873040331.
• Myers, Robin, ed. (2001). Stationers' Company: a history of the later years 1800–2000. Chichester: Phillimore. ISBN 9781860771408.
• Nichols, John Gough (1861), Historical notices of the worshipful Company of stationers of London, OCLC 5386736, OL 6639628M
• Pollard, Graham (1937). "Company of Stationers before 1557". The Library. 18. ISSN 1744-8581.
• Pollard, Graham (1937). "Early Constitution of the Stationers' Company". The Library. 18.
• Raven, James (2007). The Business of Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade 1450–1850. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300181630.
• Rivington, Charles Robert (1883), Records of the Worshipful Company of Stationers, Nichols and Sons, OCLC 19943126
• Siebert, Fred S. (1936). "Regulation of the Press in the Seventeenth Century: Excerpts from the Records of the Court of the Stationers' Company". Journalism Quarterly. 13 (4): 381–393. doi:10.1177/107769903601300402. S2CID 159460546.
• Sketch of the History and Privileges of the Company of Stationers. London Stationers' Hall. 1871.
• Smith, Helen (2012). Grossly Material Things: Women and Book Production in Early Modern England. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199651580.
• "Stationers' Hall", Handbook to London as It Is, London: J. Murray, 1879
• "Stationers' Hall", London and Its Environs (17th ed.), Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1915, hdl:2027/mdp.39015019440851
External links
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Re: FREDA BEDI CONT'D (#4)
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Part 1 of 2
Tipu Sultan [Tippoo Sultan]
by Wikipedia
Accessed 10/2/24
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipu_Sultan
Tipu Sultan
Badshah
Nasib-ud-Daulah
Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Tipu
Portrait of Tipu Sultan, from Mysore (c. 1790–1800).
Sultan of Mysore
Reign: 10 December 1782 – 4 May 1799
Coronation: 29 December 1782
Predecessor: Hyder Ali
Successor: Krishnaraja III (as Maharaja of Mysore)
Born: Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu, 1 December 1751, Devanahalli, Kingdom of Mysore (present-day Karnataka, India)
Died: 4 May 1799 (aged 47)
Burial: Srirangapatna, present-day Mandya, Karnataka
Spouse: Sultan Begum Sahib (m. 1774); Ruqaya Banu Begum (m. 1774); Khadija Zaman Begum (m. 1796; died 1797);
Buranti Begum; Roshani Begum
Issue: Shezada Hyder Ali, Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib and many others
Names: Badshah Nasib-ud-Daulah Sultan Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Saheb Tipu
House: Mysore
Father: Hyder Ali
Mother: Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa
Religion: Sunni Islam[1][2][3][4]
Seal:
Military career
Service/branch: Mysore Army
Rank: Sultan
Battles/wars:
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Battle of Annagudi
Maratha-Mysore War
Battle of Moti Talab
Siege of Nargund
Siege of Adoni
Battle of Savanur
Siege of Bahadur Benda
Mysorean invasion of Malabar
Siege of Bednore
Battle of Nedumkotta
Third Anglo-Mysore War
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Seringapatam (1799) †
Tipu Sultan (Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu; 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), commonly referred to as Sher-e-Mysore or "Tiger of Mysore",[5][6] was an Indian ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India.[7] He was a pioneer of rocket artillery.[8][9][10] He expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatna.[11]
Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali used their French-trained army in alliance with the French in their struggle with the British,[12] and in Mysore's struggles with other surrounding powers: against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers of Malabar, Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, and Travancore. Tipu became the ruler of Mysore upon his father's death from cancer in 1782 during the Second Anglo-Mysore War. He negotiated with the British in 1784 with the Treaty of Mangalore which ended the war in status quo ante bellum.
Tipu's conflicts with his neighbours included the Maratha–Mysore War, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Gajendragad.[13]
Tipu remained an enemy of the British East India Company. He initiated an attack on British-allied Travancore in 1789. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, he was forced into the Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of previously conquered territories, including Malabar and Mangalore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, a combined force of British East India Company troops supported by the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu. He was killed on 4 May 1799 while defending his stronghold of Seringapatam.
Tipu also introduced administrative innovations during his rule, including a new coinage system and calendar,[14] and a new land revenue system, which initiated the growth of the Mysore silk industry.[15] He is known for his patronage to Channapatna toys.[16]
Early years
Tipu's birthplace, Devanahalli.
Childhood
Tipu Sultan was born in Devanahalli, in present-day Bangalore Rural district, about 33 km (21 mi) north of Bangalore on 1 December 1751.[17][18] He was named "Tipu Sultan" after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a prince's education and a very early exposure to military and political affairs. At age of 17 onwards Tipu was given charge of diplomatic and military missions and supported his father Hyder in his wars.[19]
Tipu's father, Hyder Ali, was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore who had become the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 while his mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, beary, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing.[17][20][21][22]
Language
Tipu Sultan's mother tongue was Urdu. The French noted that "Their language is Moorish[Urdu] but they also speak Persian."[23] Moors at the time was a European designation for Urdu: "I have a deep knowledge [je possède à fond] of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain by the natives of the land."[24]
Early military service
War coat used by Tipu Sultan of Mysore.c. 1785-1790
A flintlock blunderbuss, built for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatna, 1793–94. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[25]
Early Conflicts
Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father. At age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16. He also took part in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775–1779.[26]
Alexander Beatson, who published a volume on the Fourth Mysore War entitled View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun, described Tipu Sultan as follows: "His stature was about five feet eight inches; he had a short neck, square shoulders, and was rather corpulent: his limbs were small, particularly his feet and hands; he had large full eyes, small arched eyebrows, and an aquiline nose; his complexion was fair, and the general expression of his countenance, not void of dignity".[27]
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Main articles: Second Anglo-Mysore War and Battle of Annagudi
Mural of the Battle of Pollilur on the walls of Tipu's summer palace, painted to celebrate his triumph over the British
Very small Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces now in Government Museum (Egmore), Chennai
In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahé which Tipu had placed under his protection, providing some troops for its defence. In response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras.[28] During this campaign in September 1780, Tipu Sultan was dispatched by Hyder Ali with 10,000 men and 18 guns to intercept Colonel William Baillie who was on his way to join Sir Hector Munro. In the Battle of Pollilur, Tipu defeated Baillie. Out of 360 Europeans, about 200 were captured alive, and the sepoys, who were about 3800 men, suffered very high casualties. Munro was moving south with a separate force to join Baillie, but on hearing the news of the defeat he retreated to Madras, abandoning his artillery in a water tank at Kanchipuram.[29]
Tipu Sultan defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi near Tanjore on 18 February 1782. Braithwaite's forces, consisting of 100 Europeans, 300 cavalry, 1400 sepoys and 10 field pieces, was the standard size of the colonial armies. Tipu Sultan seized all guns and took the detachment prisoner. In December 1781 Tipu Sultan seized Chittur from the British. Tipu Sultan had gained sufficient military experience by the time Hyder Ali died on Friday, 6 December 1782. Some historians put Hyder Ali's death at 2 or 3 days later or before due to the Hijri date being 1 Muharram, 1197 as per some records in Persian (which can result in a difference of 1 to 3 days due to the Lunar Calendar). He became the ruler of Mysore on Sunday, 22 December 1782 (the inscriptions in some of Tipu's regalia show it as 20 Muharram, 1197 Hijri Sunday) in a simple coronation ceremony. He subsequently worked on to check the advances of the British by making alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. The Second Mysore War came to an end with the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore.[clarification needed][30]
Ruler of Mysore
On 29 December 1782, Tipu Sultan crowned himself Badshah or Emperor of Mysore with the title Nawab Tipu Sultan Bahadur at age 32, and struck coinage.[31]
Conflicts with Maratha Confederacy
See also: Battles involving the Maratha Empire § Conflict with the Kingdom of Mysore
Tipu Sultan seated on his throne (1800), by Anna Tonelli
Tipu Sultan's Summer Palace at Srirangapatna, Karnataka
The Maratha Empire under its new Peshwa Madhavrao I regained most of Indian subcontinent, twice defeating Tipu's father in 1764 and then in 1767. In 1767 Maratha Peshwa Madhavrao defeated both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan and entered Srirangapatna, the capital of Mysore. Hyder Ali accepted the authority of Madhavrao who gave him the title of Nawab of Mysore.[32]
Subsequently, to escape the treaty, Tipu tried to take some Maratha forts in Southern India captured by in the previous war and also stopped the tribute to Marathas which was promised by Hyder Ali.[33] This brought Tipu in direct conflict with the Marathas, leading to Maratha–Mysore War[33] Conflicts between Mysore (under Tipu) and Marathas:
• Siege of Nargund during February 1785 won by Mysore
• Siege of Badami during May 1786 in which Mysore surrendered
• Siege of Adoni during June 1786 won by Mysore
• Battle of Gajendragad, June 1786 won by Marathas
• Battle of Savanur during October 1786 won by Mysore
• Siege of Bahadur Benda during January 1787 won by Mysore
Conflict ended with Treaty of Gajendragad in March 1787, as per which Tipu returned all the territory captured by Hyder Ali to Maratha Empire.[33][34] Tipu would elease Kalopant and return Adoni, Kittur, and Nargund to their previous rulers. Badami would be ceded to the Marathas and Tipu would also pay an annual tribute totaling 12 lakhs for an agreed period of 4 years to the Marathas. In return, Tipu Sultan would get all the region that he had captured during the war. This included Gajendragarh and Dharwar.[35][36] The Marathas in return agreed to recognize his authority and to address Tipu sultan as "Nabob Tipu Sultan Futteh Ally Khan".[36] However the Marathas ultimately reneged on the treaty and in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War the Marathas presented their support to the British East India Company which helped the British to take over Mysore in 1799.[37][page needed][38]
The Invasion of Malabar (1766–1790)
Main article: Mysorean invasion of Malabar
Tipu Sultan at the lines of Travancore.
In 1766 when he was 15 years old Tipu accompanied his father on an invasion of Malabar. After the incident- Siege of Tellicherry in Thalassery in North Malabar,[39] Hyder Ali started losing his territories in Malabar. Tipu came from Mysore to reinstate the authority over Malabar. After the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789–90), due to the monsoon flood, the stiff resistance of the Travancore forces and news about the attack of British in Srirangapatnam he went back.[40]
Third Anglo-Mysore War
Main article: Third Anglo-Mysore War
Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces at the battle of Srirangapatna 1799
General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages in the year 1793.
In 1789, Tipu Sultan disputed the acquisition by Dharma Raja of Travancore of two Dutch-held fortresses in Cochin. In December 1789 he massed troops at Coimbatore, and on 28 December made an attack on the lines of Travancore, knowing that Travancore was (according to the Treaty of Mangalore) an ally of the British East India Company.[41] On account of the staunch resistance by the Travancore army, Tipu was unable to break through the Tranvancore lines and the Maharajah of Travancore appealed to the East India Company for help. In response, Lord Cornwallis mobilised company and British military forces, and formed alliances with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad to oppose Tipu. In 1790 the company forces advanced, taking control of much of the Coimbatore district.[41] Tipu counter-attacked, regaining much of the territory, although the British continued to hold Coimbatore itself. He then descended into the Carnatic, eventually reaching Pondicherry, where he attempted without success to draw the French into the conflict.[41]
In 1791 his opponents advanced on all fronts, with the main British force under Cornwallis taking Bangalore and threatening Srirangapatna. Tipu harassed the British supply and communication and embarked on a "scorched earth" policy of denying local resources to the British.[41] In this last effort he was successful, as the lack of provisions forced Cornwallis to withdraw to Bangalore rather than attempt a siege of Srirangapatna. Following the withdrawal, Tipu sent forces to Coimbatore, which they retook after a lengthy siege.[41]
The 1792 campaign was a failure for Tipu. The allied army was well-supplied, and Tipu was unable to prevent the junction of forces from Bangalore and Bombay before Srirangapatna.[41] After about two weeks of siege, Tipu opened negotiations for terms of surrender. In the ensuing treaty, he was forced to cede half his territories to the allies,[26] and deliver two of his sons as hostages until he paid in full three crores and thirty lakhs rupees fixed as war indemnity to the British for the campaign against him. He paid the amount in two instalments and got back his sons from Madras.[41]
Napoleon's attempt at a junction
Main article: Franco-Indian alliances
In 1794, with the support of French Republican officers, Tipu allegedly helped found the Jacobin Club of Mysore for 'framing laws comfortable with the laws of the Republic'. He planted a Liberty Tree and declared himself Citizen Tipoo.[42] In a 2005 paper, historian Jean Boutier argued that the club's existence, and Tipu's involvement in it, was fabricated by the East India Company in order to justify British military intervention against Tipu.[43]
One of the motivations of Napoleon's invasion of Egypt was to establish a junction with India against the British. Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with Tippoo Sahib.[44] Napoleon assured the French Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions."[45] According to a 13 February 1798 report by Talleyrand: "Having occupied and fortified Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000 men from Suez to India, to join the forces of Tipu-Sahib and drive away the English."[45] Napoleon was unsuccessful in this strategy, losing the Siege of Acre in 1799 and at the Battle of Abukir in 1801.[46]
Death
Further information: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Tipu Sultan confronts his opponents during the Siege of Srirangapatna.
Horatio Nelson defeated François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers at the Battle of the Nile in Egypt in 1798. Three armies marched into Mysore in 1799—one from Bombay and two British, one of which included Arthur Wellesley.[47] They besieged the capital Srirangapatna in the Fourth Mysore War.[48] There were more than 60,000 soldiers of the British East India Company, approximately 4,000 Europeans and the rest Indians; while Tipu Sultan's forces numbered only around 30,000. The betrayal by Tipu Sultan's ministers in working with the British and weakening the walls to make an easy path for the British.[49][50] The death of Tipu Sultan led British General Harris to exclaim "Now India is ours."[37][page needed]
When the British broke through the city walls, French military advisers told Tipu Sultan[51] to escape via secret passages and to fight the rest of the wars from other forts, but he refused.[52] Tipu famously said "Better to live one day as a tiger than a thousand years as a sheep".[53]
The Last Effort and Fall of Tipu Sultan by Henry Singleton, c. 1800
Tipu Sultan was killed at the Hoally (Diddy) Gateway, which was located 300 yards (270 m) from the N.E. Angle of the Srirangapatna Fort.[54] He was buried the next afternoon at the Gumaz, next to the grave of his father. Many members of the British East India Company believed that Nawab of Carnatic Umdat Ul-Umra secretly provided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the war and sought his deposition after 1799.[citation needed] These five men include Mir Sadiq, Purnaiya, two military commanders Saiyed Saheb and Qamaruddin, and Mir Nadim, commandant of the fort of Seringapatam. The episode of treachery as narrated by Hasan starts with the disobedience of Tipu's instructions.[55] When he died there were jubilant celebrations in Britain, with authors, playwrights and painters creating works to celebrate it.[56] The death of Tipu Sultan was celebrated with declaration of public holiday in Britain.[57]
Administration
Tipu introduced a new calendar, new coinage, and seven new government departments, during his reign, and made military innovations in the use of rocketry.
Mysorean rockets
Main article: Mysorean rockets
A soldier from Tipu Sultan's army, using his rocket as a flagstaff.
Tipu Sultan organised his Rocket artillery brigades known as Cushoons, Tipu Sultan expanded the number of servicemen in the various Cushoons from 1500 to almost 5000. The Mysorean rockets utilised by Tipu Sultan, were later updated by the British and successively employed during the Napoleonic Wars.
Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the former President of India, in his Tipu Sultan Shaheed Memorial Lecture in Bangalore (30 November 1991), called Tipu Sultan the innovator of the world's first war rocket. Two of these rockets, captured by the British at Srirangapatna, were displayed in the Royal Artillery Museum in London. According to historian Dr Dulari Qureshi Tipu Sultan was a fierce warrior king and was so quick in his movement that it seemed to the enemy that he was fighting on many fronts at the same time.[49] Tipu managed to subdue all the petty kingdoms in the south. He was also one of the few Indian rulers to have defeated British armies.
Tipu Sultan's father had expanded on Mysore's use of rocketry, making critical innovations in the rockets themselves and the military logistics of their use. He deployed as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate rocket launchers. These men were skilled in operating the weapons and were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. The rockets had twin side sharpened blades mounted on them, and when fired en masse, spun and wreaked significant damage against a large army. Tipu greatly expanded the use of rockets after Hyder's death, deploying as many as 5,000 rocketeers at a time.[58] The rockets deployed by Tipu during the Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced than those the British East India Company had previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missiles (up to 2 km range).[58][11]
British accounts describe the use of the rockets during the third and fourth wars.[59] During the climactic battle at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a magazine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. After Tipu's defeat in the fourth war the British captured a number of the Mysorean rockets. These became influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[11]
Navy
In 1786 Tipu Sultan, again following the lead of his father, decided to build a navy consisting of 20 battleships of 72 cannons and 20 frigates of 65 cannons. In the year 1790 he appointed Kamaluddin as his Mir Bahar and established massive dockyards at Jamalabad and Majidabad. Tipu Sultan's board of admiralty consisted of 11 commanders in service of a Mir Yam. A Mir Yam led 30 admirals and each one of them had two ships. Tipu Sultan ordered that the ships have copper-bottoms, an idea that increased the longevity of the ships and was introduced to Tipu by Admiral Suffren.[60]
Army
Due to their perpetual battle engagements, Haidar and Tipu required a disciplined standing army. Thus, Rajputs, Muslims and able tribal men were enrolled for full time service replacing the local militia called the Kandachar[61] force of agricultural origin which existed in the Mysore army earlier. The removal of the Vokkaligas from the local militia which had taken part in wars for centuries and the imposition of higher taxes on them in place of their quit rent led indirectly to the implementation of Ryotwari system. Now the Ryots could not rely upon slaves for their agricultural activities since their slaves were enrolled in the army in some places. Besides paying higher taxes they had to endure the additional responsibility of feeding the slaves and financing their marriages. This led to the weakening of the system of slavery in Mysore.[62]
Economy
Main article: Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore
Further information: Mysore silk and Economic history of India
The peak of Mysore's economic power was under Tipu Sultan in the late 18th century. Along with his father Hyder Ali, he embarked on an ambitious program of economic development, aiming to increase the wealth and revenue of Mysore.[63] Under his reign, Mysore overtook Bengal Subah as India's dominant economic power, with highly productive agriculture and textile manufacturing.[64] Mysore's average income was five times higher than subsistence level at the time.[65]
Tipu Sultan laid the foundation for the construction of the Kannambadi dam (present-day Krishna Raja Sagara or KRS dam) on the Kaveri river, as attested by an extant stone plaque bearing his name, but was unable to begin the construction.[66][67] The dam was later built and opened in 1938. It is a major source of drinking water for the people of Mysore and Bangalore.
The Mysore silk industry was first initiated during the reign of Tipu Sultan.[68] He sent an expert to Bengal Subah to study silk cultivation and processing, after which Mysore began developing polyvoltine silk.[15]
The greater prominence of the Channapatna toys can be traced to patronage from Tipu Sultan, the historic ruler of Mysore, though these toys existed before this period historically given as gifts as part of Dusshera celebrations. It is known that he was an ardent admirer of arts, and in particular of woodwork.[69][16]
Road development
Tipu Sultan was considered as pioneer of road construction, especially in Malabar, as part of his campaigns, he connected most of the cities by roads.[70]
Foreign relations
Louis XVI receives the ambassadors of Tipu Sultan in 1788. Tipu Sultan is known to have sent many diplomatic missions to France, the Ottoman Empire, Sultanate of Oman, Zand dynasty and Durrani Empire.[71]
Mughal Empire
Both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan owed nominal allegiance to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; both were described as Nabobs by the British East India Company in all existing treaties. But unlike the Nawab of Carnatic, they did not acknowledge the overlordship of the Nizam of Hyderabad.[72]
Immediately after his coronation as Badshah, Tipu Sultan sought the investiture of the Mughal emperor. He earned the title "Nasib-ud-Daula" with the heavy heart of those loyal to Shah Alam II. Tipu was a selfdeclared "Sultan" this fact drew towards him the hostility of Nizam Ali Khan, the Nizam of Hyderabad, who clearly expressed his hostility by dissuading the Mughal emperor and laying claims on Mysore. Disheartened, Tipu Sultan began to establish contacts with other Muslim rulers of that period.[73]
Tipu Sultan was the master of his own diplomacy with foreign nations, in his quest to rid India of the East India Company and to ensure the international strength of France. Like his father before him he fought battles on behalf of foreign nations which were not in the best interests of Shah Alam II.
After Ghulam Qadir had Shah Alam II blinded on 10 August 1788, Tipu Sultan is believed to have broken into tears.[74][page needed]
Tipu Sultan's forces during the Siege of Srirangapatna.
After the Fall of Seringapatam in 1799, the blind emperor did remorse for Tipu, but maintained his confidence in the Nizam of Hyderabad, who had now made peace with the British.
Afghanistan
After facing substantial threats from the Marathas, Tipu Sultan began to correspond with Zaman Shah Durrani, the ruler of the Afghan Durrani Empire, so they could defeat the British and Marathas. Initially, Zaman Shah agreed to help Tipu, but the Persian attack on Afghanistan's Western border diverted its forces, and hence no help could be provided to Tipu.
Ottoman Empire
In 1787, Tipu Sultan sent an embassy to the Ottoman capital Constantinople, to the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid I requesting urgent assistance against the British East India Company. Tipu Sultan requested the Ottoman Sultan to send him troops and military experts. Furthermore, Tipu Sultan also requested permission from the Ottomans to contribute to the maintenance of the Islamic shrines in Mecca, Medina, Najaf and Karbala.
However, the Ottomans were themselves in crisis and still recuperating from the devastating Austro-Ottoman War and a new conflict with the Russian Empire had begun, for which Ottoman Turkey needed British alliance to keep off the Russians, hence it could not risk being hostile to the British in the Indian theatre.
Due to the Ottoman inability to organise a fleet in the Indian Ocean, Tipu Sultan's ambassadors returned home only with gifts from their Ottoman brothers.
Nevertheless, Tipu Sultan's correspondence with the Ottoman Empire and particularly its new Sultan Selim III continued till his final battle in the year 1799.[73]
Persia and Oman
Like his father before him, Tipu Sultan maintained friendly relations with Mohammad Ali Khan, ruler of the Zand dynasty in Persia. Tipu Sultan also maintained correspondence with Hamad bin Said, the ruler of the Sultanate of Oman.[75]
Qing China
Tipu's and Mysore's tryst with silk began in the early 1780s when he received an ambassador from the Qing dynasty-ruled China at his court. The ambassador presented him with a silk cloth. Tipu was said to be enchanted by the item to such an extent that he resolved to introduce its production in his kingdom. He sent a return journey to China, which returned after twelve years.[76]
France
In his attempts to junction with Tipu Sultan, Napoleon annexed Ottoman Egypt in the year 1798.
Both Hyder Ali and Tipu sought an alliance with the French, the only European power still strong enough to challenge the British East India Company in the subcontinent. In 1782, Louis XVI concluded an alliance with the Peshwa Madhu Rao Narayan. This treaty enabled Bussy to move his troops to the Isle de France (now Mauritius). In the same year, French Admiral De Suffren ceremonially presented a portrait of Louis XVI to Haidar Ali and sought his alliance.[77]
Napoleon conquered Egypt in an attempt to link with Tipu Sultan.[citation needed] In February 1798, Napoleon wrote a letter to Tipu Sultan appreciating his efforts of resisting the British annexation and plans, but this letter never reached Tipu and was seized by a British spy in Muscat. The idea of a possible Tipu-Napoleon alliance alarmed the British Governor, General Sir Richard Wellesley (also known as Lord Wellesley), so much that he immediately started large scale preparations for a final battle against Tipu Sultan.
Social system
Judicial system
Tipu Sultan appointed judges from both communities for Hindu and Muslim subjects. Qadi for Muslims and Pandit for Hindus in each province. Upper courts also had similar systems.[78]
Moral Administration
Usage of liquor and prostitution were strictly prohibited in his administration.[79] Usage and agriculture of psychedelics, such as Cannabis, was also prohibited.[80]
Polyandry in Kerala was prohibited by Tipu Sultan. He passed a decree for all women to cover their breasts, which was not practised in Kerala in the previous era.[81][82]
Religious policy
On a personal level, Tipu was a devout Muslim, saying his prayers daily and paying special attention to mosques in the area.[83] Regular endowments were made during this period to about 156 Hindu temples,[84] including the famed Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangapatna.[85] Many sources mention the appointment of Hindu officers in Tipu's administration[86] and his land grants and endowments to Hindu temples,[87][88][89] which are cited as evidence for his religious tolerance.
His religious legacy has become a source of considerable controversy in India, with some groups (including Christians[90] and even Muslims) proclaiming him a great warrior for the faith or Ghazi[91][92] for both religious and political reasons.[85] Various sources describe the massacres,[93] imprisonment[94] and forced conversion[95] of Hindus (Kodavas of Coorg, Nairs of Malabar) and Christians (Catholics of Mangalore), the destruction of churches[96] and temples, and the clamping down on Muslims (Mappila of Kerala, the Mahdavia Muslims, the rulers of Savanur and the people of Hyderabad State), which are sometimes cited as evidence for his intolerance.
British accounts
Historians such as Brittlebank, Hasan, Chetty, Habib, and Saletare, amongst others, argue that controversial stories of Tipu Sultan's religious persecution of Hindus and Christians are largely derived from the work of early British authors (who were very much against Tipu Sultan's independence and harboured prejudice against the Sultan) such as James Kirkpatrick[97] and Mark Wilks,[98] whom they do not consider to be entirely reliable and likely fabricated.[99] A. S. Chetty argues that Wilks' account in particular cannot be trusted.[100]
Irfan Habib and Mohibbul Hasan argue that these early British authors had a strong vested interest in presenting Tipu Sultan as a tyrant from whom the British had liberated Mysore.[99][101] This assessment is echoed by Brittlebank in her recent work where she writes that Wilks and Kirkpatrick must be used with particular care as both authors had taken part in the wars against Tipu Sultan and were closely connected to the administrations of Lord Cornwallis and Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley.[102]
Relations with Hindus
Tipu Sultan's treasurer was Krishna Rao, Shamaiya Iyengar was his Minister of Post and Police, his brother Ranga Iyengar was also an officer, and Purnaiya held the very important post of "Mir Asaf". Moolchand and Sujan Rai were his chief agents at the Mughal court, and his chief "Peshkar", Suba Rao, was also a Hindu.[86]
The Editor of Mysore Gazette reports of correspondence between his court and temples, and his having donated jewellery and deeded land grants to several temples, which he was compelled to for forming alliances with Hindu rulers. Between 1782 and 1799 Tipu Sultan issued 34 "Sanads" (deeds) of endowment to temples in his domain, while also presenting many of them with gifts of silver and gold plate.[89]
The Srikanteswara Temple in Nanjangud still possesses a jeweled cup presented by the Sultan.[88] He also gave a greenish linga; to Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatna, he donated seven silver cups and a silver camphor burner. This temple was hardly a stone's throw from his palace from where he would listen with equal respect to the ringing of temple bells and the muezzin's call from the mosque; to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale he gifted four cups, a plate and Spitoon in silver.[87][89]
During the Maratha–Mysore War in 1791, a group of Maratha horsemen under Raghunath Rao Patwardhan raided the temple and matha of Sringeri Shankaracharya. They wounded and killed many people, including Brahmins, plundered the monastery of all its valuable possessions, and desecrated the temple by displacing the image of goddess Sarada.[86]
The incumbent Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. About 30 letters written in Kannada, which were exchanged between Tipu Sultan's court and the Sringeri Shankaracharya, were discovered in 1916 by the Director of Archaeology in Mysore. Tipu Sultan expressed his indignation and grief at the news of the raid:[86][103]
He immediately ordered the Asaf of Bednur to supply the Swami with 200 rahatis (fanams) in cash and other gifts and articles. Tipu Sultan's interest in the Sringeri temple continued for many years, and he was still writing to the Swami in the 1790s.[105]
In light of this and other events, historian B. A. Saletare has described Tipu Sultan as a defender of the Hindu dharma, who also patronised other temples including one at Melkote, for which he issued a Kannada decree that the Shrivaishnava invocatory verses there should be recited in the traditional form.[106] The temple at Melkote still has gold and silver vessels with inscriptions indicating that they were presented by the Sultan. Tipu Sultan also presented four silver cups to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale.[106] Tipu Sultan does seem to have repossessed unauthorised grants of land made to Brahmins and temples, but those which had proper sanads (certificates) were not. It was a normal practice for any ruler, Muslim or Hindu, on his accession or on the conquest of new territory.
Persecution of Kodavas outside Mysore
Main article: Captivity of Kodavas at Seringapatam
Tipu got Runmust Khan, the Nawab of Kurnool, to launch a surprise attack upon the Kodavas who were besieged by the invading Muslim army. 500 were killed and over 40,000 Kodavas fled to the woods and concealed themselves in the mountains.[107] Thousands of Kodavas were seized along with the Raja and held captive at Seringapatam.[95]
Mohibbul Hasan, Prof. Sheikh Ali, and other historians cast great doubt on the scale of the deportations and forced conversions in Coorg in particular. Hassan says that it is difficult to estimate the real number of Kodava captured by Tipu.[108]
In a letter to Runmust Khan, Tipu himself stated:[109]
Tipu Sultan [Tippoo Sultan]
by Wikipedia
Accessed 10/2/24
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipu_Sultan
The earliest book printed in Bombay which is at present available is one published in 1793 under the following title: "Remarks and Occurrences of Mr. Henry Becher, during his imprisonment of two years and a half in the Dominions of Tippoo Sultan, from whence he made his escape." 5 [A copy of this book is available in the Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture, Bombay.] This book does not bear the name of the press where it was printed. It is clearly stated in the introduction of this book that "It is the first book ever printed in Bombay."1793 The Times 24 August
“We learn, that not withstanding Tippoo’s repeated declarations that he had no more English prisoners in his possession, it is evident that all those declarations have been insincere. Mr Becher, who some years ago was proceeding in a Pattamar boat, with stores for Mr. Rivitt’s ship at Cochin, was unfortunately driven on shore near Mangalore, and taken prisoner: after undergoing a long and painful imprisonment, and being marched from fort to fort, has at last effected his escape from Seringapatam. Latterly his confinement was not so strict as formerly, and he was sometimes permitted to go a shooting, under the guard of a sepoy, - One day having strolled a comfortable distance from the fort, he turned upon the sepoy & threatened to shoot him, if he did not accompany him – the sepoy was obliged to comply, and they are both now safely arrived at Tellicherry. Mr. Becher reports there are several prisoners at Seringapatram.”
-- https://freepages.rootsweb.com/~becher/ ... papers.htm
Tipu Sultan
Badshah
Nasib-ud-Daulah
Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Tipu
Portrait of Tipu Sultan, from Mysore (c. 1790–1800).
Sultan of Mysore
Reign: 10 December 1782 – 4 May 1799
Coronation: 29 December 1782
Predecessor: Hyder Ali
Successor: Krishnaraja III (as Maharaja of Mysore)
Born: Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu, 1 December 1751, Devanahalli, Kingdom of Mysore (present-day Karnataka, India)
Died: 4 May 1799 (aged 47)
Burial: Srirangapatna, present-day Mandya, Karnataka
Spouse: Sultan Begum Sahib (m. 1774); Ruqaya Banu Begum (m. 1774); Khadija Zaman Begum (m. 1796; died 1797);
Buranti Begum; Roshani Begum
Issue: Shezada Hyder Ali, Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib and many others
Names: Badshah Nasib-ud-Daulah Sultan Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Saheb Tipu
House: Mysore
Father: Hyder Ali
Mother: Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa
Religion: Sunni Islam[1][2][3][4]
Seal:
Military career
Service/branch: Mysore Army
Rank: Sultan
Battles/wars:
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Battle of Annagudi
Maratha-Mysore War
Battle of Moti Talab
Siege of Nargund
Siege of Adoni
Battle of Savanur
Siege of Bahadur Benda
Mysorean invasion of Malabar
Siege of Bednore
Battle of Nedumkotta
Third Anglo-Mysore War
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Siege of Seringapatam (1799) †
Tipu Sultan (Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu; 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), commonly referred to as Sher-e-Mysore or "Tiger of Mysore",[5][6] was an Indian ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India.[7] He was a pioneer of rocket artillery.[8][9][10] He expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatna.[11]
Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali used their French-trained army in alliance with the French in their struggle with the British,[12] and in Mysore's struggles with other surrounding powers: against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers of Malabar, Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, and Travancore. Tipu became the ruler of Mysore upon his father's death from cancer in 1782 during the Second Anglo-Mysore War. He negotiated with the British in 1784 with the Treaty of Mangalore which ended the war in status quo ante bellum.
Tipu's conflicts with his neighbours included the Maratha–Mysore War, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Gajendragad.[13]
Tipu remained an enemy of the British East India Company. He initiated an attack on British-allied Travancore in 1789. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, he was forced into the Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of previously conquered territories, including Malabar and Mangalore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, a combined force of British East India Company troops supported by the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu. He was killed on 4 May 1799 while defending his stronghold of Seringapatam.
Tipu also introduced administrative innovations during his rule, including a new coinage system and calendar,[14] and a new land revenue system, which initiated the growth of the Mysore silk industry.[15] He is known for his patronage to Channapatna toys.[16]
Early years
Tipu's birthplace, Devanahalli.
Childhood
Tipu Sultan was born in Devanahalli, in present-day Bangalore Rural district, about 33 km (21 mi) north of Bangalore on 1 December 1751.[17][18] He was named "Tipu Sultan" after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a prince's education and a very early exposure to military and political affairs. At age of 17 onwards Tipu was given charge of diplomatic and military missions and supported his father Hyder in his wars.[19]
Tipu's father, Hyder Ali, was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore who had become the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 while his mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, beary, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing.[17][20][21][22]
Language
Tipu Sultan's mother tongue was Urdu. The French noted that "Their language is Moorish[Urdu] but they also speak Persian."[23] Moors at the time was a European designation for Urdu: "I have a deep knowledge [je possède à fond] of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain by the natives of the land."[24]
Early military service
War coat used by Tipu Sultan of Mysore.c. 1785-1790
A flintlock blunderbuss, built for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatna, 1793–94. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[25]
Early Conflicts
Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father. At age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16. He also took part in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775–1779.[26]
Alexander Beatson, who published a volume on the Fourth Mysore War entitled View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun, described Tipu Sultan as follows: "His stature was about five feet eight inches; he had a short neck, square shoulders, and was rather corpulent: his limbs were small, particularly his feet and hands; he had large full eyes, small arched eyebrows, and an aquiline nose; his complexion was fair, and the general expression of his countenance, not void of dignity".[27]
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Main articles: Second Anglo-Mysore War and Battle of Annagudi
Mural of the Battle of Pollilur on the walls of Tipu's summer palace, painted to celebrate his triumph over the British
Very small Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces now in Government Museum (Egmore), Chennai
In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahé which Tipu had placed under his protection, providing some troops for its defence. In response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras.[28] During this campaign in September 1780, Tipu Sultan was dispatched by Hyder Ali with 10,000 men and 18 guns to intercept Colonel William Baillie who was on his way to join Sir Hector Munro. In the Battle of Pollilur, Tipu defeated Baillie. Out of 360 Europeans, about 200 were captured alive, and the sepoys, who were about 3800 men, suffered very high casualties. Munro was moving south with a separate force to join Baillie, but on hearing the news of the defeat he retreated to Madras, abandoning his artillery in a water tank at Kanchipuram.[29]
Tipu Sultan defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi near Tanjore on 18 February 1782. Braithwaite's forces, consisting of 100 Europeans, 300 cavalry, 1400 sepoys and 10 field pieces, was the standard size of the colonial armies. Tipu Sultan seized all guns and took the detachment prisoner. In December 1781 Tipu Sultan seized Chittur from the British. Tipu Sultan had gained sufficient military experience by the time Hyder Ali died on Friday, 6 December 1782. Some historians put Hyder Ali's death at 2 or 3 days later or before due to the Hijri date being 1 Muharram, 1197 as per some records in Persian (which can result in a difference of 1 to 3 days due to the Lunar Calendar). He became the ruler of Mysore on Sunday, 22 December 1782 (the inscriptions in some of Tipu's regalia show it as 20 Muharram, 1197 Hijri Sunday) in a simple coronation ceremony. He subsequently worked on to check the advances of the British by making alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. The Second Mysore War came to an end with the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore.[clarification needed][30]
Ruler of Mysore
On 29 December 1782, Tipu Sultan crowned himself Badshah or Emperor of Mysore with the title Nawab Tipu Sultan Bahadur at age 32, and struck coinage.[31]
Conflicts with Maratha Confederacy
See also: Battles involving the Maratha Empire § Conflict with the Kingdom of Mysore
Tipu Sultan seated on his throne (1800), by Anna Tonelli
Tipu Sultan's Summer Palace at Srirangapatna, Karnataka
The Maratha Empire under its new Peshwa Madhavrao I regained most of Indian subcontinent, twice defeating Tipu's father in 1764 and then in 1767. In 1767 Maratha Peshwa Madhavrao defeated both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan and entered Srirangapatna, the capital of Mysore. Hyder Ali accepted the authority of Madhavrao who gave him the title of Nawab of Mysore.[32]
Subsequently, to escape the treaty, Tipu tried to take some Maratha forts in Southern India captured by in the previous war and also stopped the tribute to Marathas which was promised by Hyder Ali.[33] This brought Tipu in direct conflict with the Marathas, leading to Maratha–Mysore War[33] Conflicts between Mysore (under Tipu) and Marathas:
• Siege of Nargund during February 1785 won by Mysore
• Siege of Badami during May 1786 in which Mysore surrendered
• Siege of Adoni during June 1786 won by Mysore
• Battle of Gajendragad, June 1786 won by Marathas
• Battle of Savanur during October 1786 won by Mysore
• Siege of Bahadur Benda during January 1787 won by Mysore
Conflict ended with Treaty of Gajendragad in March 1787, as per which Tipu returned all the territory captured by Hyder Ali to Maratha Empire.[33][34] Tipu would elease Kalopant and return Adoni, Kittur, and Nargund to their previous rulers. Badami would be ceded to the Marathas and Tipu would also pay an annual tribute totaling 12 lakhs for an agreed period of 4 years to the Marathas. In return, Tipu Sultan would get all the region that he had captured during the war. This included Gajendragarh and Dharwar.[35][36] The Marathas in return agreed to recognize his authority and to address Tipu sultan as "Nabob Tipu Sultan Futteh Ally Khan".[36] However the Marathas ultimately reneged on the treaty and in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War the Marathas presented their support to the British East India Company which helped the British to take over Mysore in 1799.[37][page needed][38]
The Invasion of Malabar (1766–1790)
Main article: Mysorean invasion of Malabar
Tipu Sultan at the lines of Travancore.
In 1766 when he was 15 years old Tipu accompanied his father on an invasion of Malabar. After the incident- Siege of Tellicherry in Thalassery in North Malabar,[39] Hyder Ali started losing his territories in Malabar. Tipu came from Mysore to reinstate the authority over Malabar. After the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789–90), due to the monsoon flood, the stiff resistance of the Travancore forces and news about the attack of British in Srirangapatnam he went back.[40]
Third Anglo-Mysore War
Main article: Third Anglo-Mysore War
Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces at the battle of Srirangapatna 1799
General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages in the year 1793.
In 1789, Tipu Sultan disputed the acquisition by Dharma Raja of Travancore of two Dutch-held fortresses in Cochin. In December 1789 he massed troops at Coimbatore, and on 28 December made an attack on the lines of Travancore, knowing that Travancore was (according to the Treaty of Mangalore) an ally of the British East India Company.[41] On account of the staunch resistance by the Travancore army, Tipu was unable to break through the Tranvancore lines and the Maharajah of Travancore appealed to the East India Company for help. In response, Lord Cornwallis mobilised company and British military forces, and formed alliances with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad to oppose Tipu. In 1790 the company forces advanced, taking control of much of the Coimbatore district.[41] Tipu counter-attacked, regaining much of the territory, although the British continued to hold Coimbatore itself. He then descended into the Carnatic, eventually reaching Pondicherry, where he attempted without success to draw the French into the conflict.[41]
In 1791 his opponents advanced on all fronts, with the main British force under Cornwallis taking Bangalore and threatening Srirangapatna. Tipu harassed the British supply and communication and embarked on a "scorched earth" policy of denying local resources to the British.[41] In this last effort he was successful, as the lack of provisions forced Cornwallis to withdraw to Bangalore rather than attempt a siege of Srirangapatna. Following the withdrawal, Tipu sent forces to Coimbatore, which they retook after a lengthy siege.[41]
The 1792 campaign was a failure for Tipu. The allied army was well-supplied, and Tipu was unable to prevent the junction of forces from Bangalore and Bombay before Srirangapatna.[41] After about two weeks of siege, Tipu opened negotiations for terms of surrender. In the ensuing treaty, he was forced to cede half his territories to the allies,[26] and deliver two of his sons as hostages until he paid in full three crores and thirty lakhs rupees fixed as war indemnity to the British for the campaign against him. He paid the amount in two instalments and got back his sons from Madras.[41]
Napoleon's attempt at a junction
Main article: Franco-Indian alliances
In 1794, with the support of French Republican officers, Tipu allegedly helped found the Jacobin Club of Mysore for 'framing laws comfortable with the laws of the Republic'. He planted a Liberty Tree and declared himself Citizen Tipoo.[42] In a 2005 paper, historian Jean Boutier argued that the club's existence, and Tipu's involvement in it, was fabricated by the East India Company in order to justify British military intervention against Tipu.[43]
One of the motivations of Napoleon's invasion of Egypt was to establish a junction with India against the British. Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with Tippoo Sahib.[44] Napoleon assured the French Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions."[45] According to a 13 February 1798 report by Talleyrand: "Having occupied and fortified Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000 men from Suez to India, to join the forces of Tipu-Sahib and drive away the English."[45] Napoleon was unsuccessful in this strategy, losing the Siege of Acre in 1799 and at the Battle of Abukir in 1801.[46]
Although I never supposed that he (Napoleon) possessed, allowing for some difference of education, the liberality of conduct and political views which were sometimes exhibited by old Hyder Ali, yet I did think he might have shown the same resolved and dogged spirit of resolution which induced Tipu Sahib to die manfully upon the breach of his capital city with his sabre clenched in his hand.
— Sir Walter Scott, commenting on the abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814
Death
Further information: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Tipu Sultan confronts his opponents during the Siege of Srirangapatna.
Horatio Nelson defeated François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers at the Battle of the Nile in Egypt in 1798. Three armies marched into Mysore in 1799—one from Bombay and two British, one of which included Arthur Wellesley.[47] They besieged the capital Srirangapatna in the Fourth Mysore War.[48] There were more than 60,000 soldiers of the British East India Company, approximately 4,000 Europeans and the rest Indians; while Tipu Sultan's forces numbered only around 30,000. The betrayal by Tipu Sultan's ministers in working with the British and weakening the walls to make an easy path for the British.[49][50] The death of Tipu Sultan led British General Harris to exclaim "Now India is ours."[37][page needed]
When the British broke through the city walls, French military advisers told Tipu Sultan[51] to escape via secret passages and to fight the rest of the wars from other forts, but he refused.[52] Tipu famously said "Better to live one day as a tiger than a thousand years as a sheep".[53]
The Last Effort and Fall of Tipu Sultan by Henry Singleton, c. 1800
Tipu Sultan was killed at the Hoally (Diddy) Gateway, which was located 300 yards (270 m) from the N.E. Angle of the Srirangapatna Fort.[54] He was buried the next afternoon at the Gumaz, next to the grave of his father. Many members of the British East India Company believed that Nawab of Carnatic Umdat Ul-Umra secretly provided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the war and sought his deposition after 1799.[citation needed] These five men include Mir Sadiq, Purnaiya, two military commanders Saiyed Saheb and Qamaruddin, and Mir Nadim, commandant of the fort of Seringapatam. The episode of treachery as narrated by Hasan starts with the disobedience of Tipu's instructions.[55] When he died there were jubilant celebrations in Britain, with authors, playwrights and painters creating works to celebrate it.[56] The death of Tipu Sultan was celebrated with declaration of public holiday in Britain.[57]
Administration
Tipu introduced a new calendar, new coinage, and seven new government departments, during his reign, and made military innovations in the use of rocketry.
Mysorean rockets
Main article: Mysorean rockets
A soldier from Tipu Sultan's army, using his rocket as a flagstaff.
Tipu Sultan organised his Rocket artillery brigades known as Cushoons, Tipu Sultan expanded the number of servicemen in the various Cushoons from 1500 to almost 5000. The Mysorean rockets utilised by Tipu Sultan, were later updated by the British and successively employed during the Napoleonic Wars.
Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the former President of India, in his Tipu Sultan Shaheed Memorial Lecture in Bangalore (30 November 1991), called Tipu Sultan the innovator of the world's first war rocket. Two of these rockets, captured by the British at Srirangapatna, were displayed in the Royal Artillery Museum in London. According to historian Dr Dulari Qureshi Tipu Sultan was a fierce warrior king and was so quick in his movement that it seemed to the enemy that he was fighting on many fronts at the same time.[49] Tipu managed to subdue all the petty kingdoms in the south. He was also one of the few Indian rulers to have defeated British armies.
Tipu Sultan's father had expanded on Mysore's use of rocketry, making critical innovations in the rockets themselves and the military logistics of their use. He deployed as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate rocket launchers. These men were skilled in operating the weapons and were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. The rockets had twin side sharpened blades mounted on them, and when fired en masse, spun and wreaked significant damage against a large army. Tipu greatly expanded the use of rockets after Hyder's death, deploying as many as 5,000 rocketeers at a time.[58] The rockets deployed by Tipu during the Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced than those the British East India Company had previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missiles (up to 2 km range).[58][11]
British accounts describe the use of the rockets during the third and fourth wars.[59] During the climactic battle at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a magazine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. After Tipu's defeat in the fourth war the British captured a number of the Mysorean rockets. These became influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[11]
Navy
In 1786 Tipu Sultan, again following the lead of his father, decided to build a navy consisting of 20 battleships of 72 cannons and 20 frigates of 65 cannons. In the year 1790 he appointed Kamaluddin as his Mir Bahar and established massive dockyards at Jamalabad and Majidabad. Tipu Sultan's board of admiralty consisted of 11 commanders in service of a Mir Yam. A Mir Yam led 30 admirals and each one of them had two ships. Tipu Sultan ordered that the ships have copper-bottoms, an idea that increased the longevity of the ships and was introduced to Tipu by Admiral Suffren.[60]
Army
Due to their perpetual battle engagements, Haidar and Tipu required a disciplined standing army. Thus, Rajputs, Muslims and able tribal men were enrolled for full time service replacing the local militia called the Kandachar[61] force of agricultural origin which existed in the Mysore army earlier. The removal of the Vokkaligas from the local militia which had taken part in wars for centuries and the imposition of higher taxes on them in place of their quit rent led indirectly to the implementation of Ryotwari system. Now the Ryots could not rely upon slaves for their agricultural activities since their slaves were enrolled in the army in some places. Besides paying higher taxes they had to endure the additional responsibility of feeding the slaves and financing their marriages. This led to the weakening of the system of slavery in Mysore.[62]
Economy
Main article: Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore
Further information: Mysore silk and Economic history of India
The peak of Mysore's economic power was under Tipu Sultan in the late 18th century. Along with his father Hyder Ali, he embarked on an ambitious program of economic development, aiming to increase the wealth and revenue of Mysore.[63] Under his reign, Mysore overtook Bengal Subah as India's dominant economic power, with highly productive agriculture and textile manufacturing.[64] Mysore's average income was five times higher than subsistence level at the time.[65]
Tipu Sultan laid the foundation for the construction of the Kannambadi dam (present-day Krishna Raja Sagara or KRS dam) on the Kaveri river, as attested by an extant stone plaque bearing his name, but was unable to begin the construction.[66][67] The dam was later built and opened in 1938. It is a major source of drinking water for the people of Mysore and Bangalore.
The Mysore silk industry was first initiated during the reign of Tipu Sultan.[68] He sent an expert to Bengal Subah to study silk cultivation and processing, after which Mysore began developing polyvoltine silk.[15]
The greater prominence of the Channapatna toys can be traced to patronage from Tipu Sultan, the historic ruler of Mysore, though these toys existed before this period historically given as gifts as part of Dusshera celebrations. It is known that he was an ardent admirer of arts, and in particular of woodwork.[69][16]
Road development
Tipu Sultan was considered as pioneer of road construction, especially in Malabar, as part of his campaigns, he connected most of the cities by roads.[70]
Foreign relations
Louis XVI receives the ambassadors of Tipu Sultan in 1788. Tipu Sultan is known to have sent many diplomatic missions to France, the Ottoman Empire, Sultanate of Oman, Zand dynasty and Durrani Empire.[71]
Mughal Empire
Both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan owed nominal allegiance to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; both were described as Nabobs by the British East India Company in all existing treaties. But unlike the Nawab of Carnatic, they did not acknowledge the overlordship of the Nizam of Hyderabad.[72]
Immediately after his coronation as Badshah, Tipu Sultan sought the investiture of the Mughal emperor. He earned the title "Nasib-ud-Daula" with the heavy heart of those loyal to Shah Alam II. Tipu was a selfdeclared "Sultan" this fact drew towards him the hostility of Nizam Ali Khan, the Nizam of Hyderabad, who clearly expressed his hostility by dissuading the Mughal emperor and laying claims on Mysore. Disheartened, Tipu Sultan began to establish contacts with other Muslim rulers of that period.[73]
Tipu Sultan was the master of his own diplomacy with foreign nations, in his quest to rid India of the East India Company and to ensure the international strength of France. Like his father before him he fought battles on behalf of foreign nations which were not in the best interests of Shah Alam II.
After Ghulam Qadir had Shah Alam II blinded on 10 August 1788, Tipu Sultan is believed to have broken into tears.[74][page needed]
Tipu Sultan's forces during the Siege of Srirangapatna.
After the Fall of Seringapatam in 1799, the blind emperor did remorse for Tipu, but maintained his confidence in the Nizam of Hyderabad, who had now made peace with the British.
Afghanistan
After facing substantial threats from the Marathas, Tipu Sultan began to correspond with Zaman Shah Durrani, the ruler of the Afghan Durrani Empire, so they could defeat the British and Marathas. Initially, Zaman Shah agreed to help Tipu, but the Persian attack on Afghanistan's Western border diverted its forces, and hence no help could be provided to Tipu.
Ottoman Empire
In 1787, Tipu Sultan sent an embassy to the Ottoman capital Constantinople, to the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid I requesting urgent assistance against the British East India Company. Tipu Sultan requested the Ottoman Sultan to send him troops and military experts. Furthermore, Tipu Sultan also requested permission from the Ottomans to contribute to the maintenance of the Islamic shrines in Mecca, Medina, Najaf and Karbala.
However, the Ottomans were themselves in crisis and still recuperating from the devastating Austro-Ottoman War and a new conflict with the Russian Empire had begun, for which Ottoman Turkey needed British alliance to keep off the Russians, hence it could not risk being hostile to the British in the Indian theatre.
Due to the Ottoman inability to organise a fleet in the Indian Ocean, Tipu Sultan's ambassadors returned home only with gifts from their Ottoman brothers.
Nevertheless, Tipu Sultan's correspondence with the Ottoman Empire and particularly its new Sultan Selim III continued till his final battle in the year 1799.[73]
Persia and Oman
Like his father before him, Tipu Sultan maintained friendly relations with Mohammad Ali Khan, ruler of the Zand dynasty in Persia. Tipu Sultan also maintained correspondence with Hamad bin Said, the ruler of the Sultanate of Oman.[75]
Qing China
Tipu's and Mysore's tryst with silk began in the early 1780s when he received an ambassador from the Qing dynasty-ruled China at his court. The ambassador presented him with a silk cloth. Tipu was said to be enchanted by the item to such an extent that he resolved to introduce its production in his kingdom. He sent a return journey to China, which returned after twelve years.[76]
France
In his attempts to junction with Tipu Sultan, Napoleon annexed Ottoman Egypt in the year 1798.
Both Hyder Ali and Tipu sought an alliance with the French, the only European power still strong enough to challenge the British East India Company in the subcontinent. In 1782, Louis XVI concluded an alliance with the Peshwa Madhu Rao Narayan. This treaty enabled Bussy to move his troops to the Isle de France (now Mauritius). In the same year, French Admiral De Suffren ceremonially presented a portrait of Louis XVI to Haidar Ali and sought his alliance.[77]
Napoleon conquered Egypt in an attempt to link with Tipu Sultan.[citation needed] In February 1798, Napoleon wrote a letter to Tipu Sultan appreciating his efforts of resisting the British annexation and plans, but this letter never reached Tipu and was seized by a British spy in Muscat. The idea of a possible Tipu-Napoleon alliance alarmed the British Governor, General Sir Richard Wellesley (also known as Lord Wellesley), so much that he immediately started large scale preparations for a final battle against Tipu Sultan.
Social system
Judicial system
Tipu Sultan appointed judges from both communities for Hindu and Muslim subjects. Qadi for Muslims and Pandit for Hindus in each province. Upper courts also had similar systems.[78]
Moral Administration
Usage of liquor and prostitution were strictly prohibited in his administration.[79] Usage and agriculture of psychedelics, such as Cannabis, was also prohibited.[80]
Polyandry in Kerala was prohibited by Tipu Sultan. He passed a decree for all women to cover their breasts, which was not practised in Kerala in the previous era.[81][82]
Religious policy
On a personal level, Tipu was a devout Muslim, saying his prayers daily and paying special attention to mosques in the area.[83] Regular endowments were made during this period to about 156 Hindu temples,[84] including the famed Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangapatna.[85] Many sources mention the appointment of Hindu officers in Tipu's administration[86] and his land grants and endowments to Hindu temples,[87][88][89] which are cited as evidence for his religious tolerance.
His religious legacy has become a source of considerable controversy in India, with some groups (including Christians[90] and even Muslims) proclaiming him a great warrior for the faith or Ghazi[91][92] for both religious and political reasons.[85] Various sources describe the massacres,[93] imprisonment[94] and forced conversion[95] of Hindus (Kodavas of Coorg, Nairs of Malabar) and Christians (Catholics of Mangalore), the destruction of churches[96] and temples, and the clamping down on Muslims (Mappila of Kerala, the Mahdavia Muslims, the rulers of Savanur and the people of Hyderabad State), which are sometimes cited as evidence for his intolerance.
British accounts
Historians such as Brittlebank, Hasan, Chetty, Habib, and Saletare, amongst others, argue that controversial stories of Tipu Sultan's religious persecution of Hindus and Christians are largely derived from the work of early British authors (who were very much against Tipu Sultan's independence and harboured prejudice against the Sultan) such as James Kirkpatrick[97] and Mark Wilks,[98] whom they do not consider to be entirely reliable and likely fabricated.[99] A. S. Chetty argues that Wilks' account in particular cannot be trusted.[100]
Irfan Habib and Mohibbul Hasan argue that these early British authors had a strong vested interest in presenting Tipu Sultan as a tyrant from whom the British had liberated Mysore.[99][101] This assessment is echoed by Brittlebank in her recent work where she writes that Wilks and Kirkpatrick must be used with particular care as both authors had taken part in the wars against Tipu Sultan and were closely connected to the administrations of Lord Cornwallis and Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley.[102]
Relations with Hindus
Tipu Sultan's treasurer was Krishna Rao, Shamaiya Iyengar was his Minister of Post and Police, his brother Ranga Iyengar was also an officer, and Purnaiya held the very important post of "Mir Asaf". Moolchand and Sujan Rai were his chief agents at the Mughal court, and his chief "Peshkar", Suba Rao, was also a Hindu.[86]
The Editor of Mysore Gazette reports of correspondence between his court and temples, and his having donated jewellery and deeded land grants to several temples, which he was compelled to for forming alliances with Hindu rulers. Between 1782 and 1799 Tipu Sultan issued 34 "Sanads" (deeds) of endowment to temples in his domain, while also presenting many of them with gifts of silver and gold plate.[89]
The Srikanteswara Temple in Nanjangud still possesses a jeweled cup presented by the Sultan.[88] He also gave a greenish linga; to Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatna, he donated seven silver cups and a silver camphor burner. This temple was hardly a stone's throw from his palace from where he would listen with equal respect to the ringing of temple bells and the muezzin's call from the mosque; to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale he gifted four cups, a plate and Spitoon in silver.[87][89]
During the Maratha–Mysore War in 1791, a group of Maratha horsemen under Raghunath Rao Patwardhan raided the temple and matha of Sringeri Shankaracharya. They wounded and killed many people, including Brahmins, plundered the monastery of all its valuable possessions, and desecrated the temple by displacing the image of goddess Sarada.[86]
The incumbent Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. About 30 letters written in Kannada, which were exchanged between Tipu Sultan's court and the Sringeri Shankaracharya, were discovered in 1916 by the Director of Archaeology in Mysore. Tipu Sultan expressed his indignation and grief at the news of the raid:[86][103]
"People who have sinned against such a holy place are sure to suffer the consequences of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali age in accordance with the verse: "Hasadbhih kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate" (People do [evil] deeds smilingly but suffer the consequences crying)."[104]
He immediately ordered the Asaf of Bednur to supply the Swami with 200 rahatis (fanams) in cash and other gifts and articles. Tipu Sultan's interest in the Sringeri temple continued for many years, and he was still writing to the Swami in the 1790s.[105]
In light of this and other events, historian B. A. Saletare has described Tipu Sultan as a defender of the Hindu dharma, who also patronised other temples including one at Melkote, for which he issued a Kannada decree that the Shrivaishnava invocatory verses there should be recited in the traditional form.[106] The temple at Melkote still has gold and silver vessels with inscriptions indicating that they were presented by the Sultan. Tipu Sultan also presented four silver cups to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale.[106] Tipu Sultan does seem to have repossessed unauthorised grants of land made to Brahmins and temples, but those which had proper sanads (certificates) were not. It was a normal practice for any ruler, Muslim or Hindu, on his accession or on the conquest of new territory.
Persecution of Kodavas outside Mysore
Main article: Captivity of Kodavas at Seringapatam
Tipu got Runmust Khan, the Nawab of Kurnool, to launch a surprise attack upon the Kodavas who were besieged by the invading Muslim army. 500 were killed and over 40,000 Kodavas fled to the woods and concealed themselves in the mountains.[107] Thousands of Kodavas were seized along with the Raja and held captive at Seringapatam.[95]
Mohibbul Hasan, Prof. Sheikh Ali, and other historians cast great doubt on the scale of the deportations and forced conversions in Coorg in particular. Hassan says that it is difficult to estimate the real number of Kodava captured by Tipu.[108]
In a letter to Runmust Khan, Tipu himself stated:[109]
"We proceeded with the utmost speed, and, at once, made prisoners of 40,000 occasion-seeking and sedition-exciting Kodavas, who alarmed at the approach of our victorious army, had slunk into woods, and concealed themselves in lofty mountains, inaccessible even to birds. Then carrying them away from their native country (the native place of sedition) we raised them to the honour of Islam, and incorporated them into our Ahmedy corps." [110]
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The coinage system
Among his many innovations, Tipu introduced new coin denominations and new coin types, including this copper double paisa weighing over 23 gm. The coin on the left also contains the emblem of the Sultanate of Mysore.
A gold coin issued by the Kingdom of Mysore during the reign of the Tipu Sultan.
The coinage of Tipu Sultan is one of the most complex and fascinating series struck in India during the 18th century. Local South India coinage had been struck in the area that became Mysore since ancient times, with the first gold coinage introduced about the 11th century (the elephant pagoda), and other pagodas continuing through the following centuries. These pagoda were always in the South Indian style until the reign of Haidar Ali (1761–1782), who added pagodas with Persian legends, plus a few very rare gold mohurs and silver rupees, always in the name of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II plus the Arabic letter "ح" as the first letter of his name. His successor, Tipu Sultan, continued to issue pagodas, mohurs and rupees, with legends that were completely new. As for copper, the new large paisa was commenced by Haidar Ali in AH1195, two years before his death, with the elephant on the obverse, the mint on the reverse, and was continued throughout the reign of Tipu Sultan, who added other denominations. Tipu Sultan introduced a set of new Persian names for the various denominations, which appear on all of the gold and silver coins and on some of the copper. They were:
Copper: Qutb "قطب" for the 1/8 paisa (Persian for the pole star) – Akhtar "اختر" for the 1/4 paisa (star) – Bahram "بهرام" for the 1/2 paisa (the planet Mars) – Zohra "زهره" for the paisa (the planet Venus) – either Othmani "عثمانی" for the double-paisa (the third caliph of the Rashidun) or Mushtari "مشتری" (the planet Jupiter).
Silver: Khizri "خضری" for the 1/32 rupee (Khizr the prophet) – Kazimi "کاظمی" for the 1/16 rupee (for Musa, the seventh Shi'ite Imam) – Ja'fari "جعفری" for the 1/8 rupee (Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shi'ite Imam) – Bâqiri "باقری" for the 1/4 rupee (Muhammad al-Baqir, the fifth Imam) – Abidi "عبیدی" for the 1/2 rupee (Ali Zain al-'Abidin, the fourth Imam) – Imami for the rupee (reference to the 12 Shi'ite Imams) – Haidari "حیدری" for the double-rupee (lion, for Ali b. Abi Talib, who was both the fourth caliph and the first Shi'ite Imam).
Gold: Faruqi "فاروقی" for the pagoda (Umar al-Faruq, the second caliph) – Sadîqi "صدیقی" for the double-pagoda (Abu Bakr al-Sadiq, the first caliph) – Ahmadi "احمدی" for the four-pagoda ( "most praised ", one of the name of the Islamic prophet Muhammad). During his first 4 years, the large gold coin was the mohur, with an average weight of about 10.95g (AH1197-1200), replaced with the four-pagoda of 13.74g with the calendar change to the Mauludi "مولودی" system (AM1215-1219).
Coinage dating system
2 gold Two Pagoda Coins issued by tipu Sultan
The denomination does not appear on the Hijri dated gold coins, but was added on all the Mauludi dated pieces.
At the beginning of his first year, Tipu Sultan abandoned the Hijri dating system and introduced the Mauludi system (from the Arabic word "walad ", which means "birth "), based on the solar year and the birth year of Muhammad (actually 571 AD, but for some perplexing reason reckoned as 572 by Tipu Sultan for his staff).
From the beginning of his reign, Tipu Sultan added the name of the Indian cyclic year on the large silver and gold coins, including this double-pagoda, together with his regnal year. Each of the names is Persian, though in several examples, the meaning of the names in India was different from the Iranian meaning (not indicated here). According to the Indian meanings, these are the cyclic years: Zaki "زکي" for cyclic 37, which corresponded to his year 1 ( "pure ") – Azâl "أزل" for 38 ( "eternity ", year 2) – Jalal "جَلال" for 39 ( "splendor ", year 3) – Dalv "دَلو" for 40 (the sign of Aquarius, year 4) – Shâ "شاه" for 41 ( "king ", year 5) – Sârâ "سارا" for 42 ( "fragrant ", year 6) – Sarâb "سراب" for 43 ( "mirage ", for year 7) – Shitâ "شتا" for 44 ( "winter ", year 8) – Zabarjad "زبرجد" for 45 ( "topaz ", year 9) – sahar "سَحَر" ( "dawn ", year 10) – Sâher "ساحِر" ( "magician ", year 11).[111]
Assessment and legacy
The spot in Srirangapatna where Tipu's body was found
Assessments of Tipu Sultan have often been passionate and divided. Successive Indian National Congress governments have often celebrated Tipu Sultan's memory and monuments and relics of his rule while the Bharatiya Janata Party has been largely critical. School and college textbooks in India officially recognize him as a "freedom-fighter" along with many other rulers of the 18th century who fought European powers.[112] The original copy of the Constitution of India bears a painting of Tipu Sultan.[113]
In 2017 the 14th Indian president Ram Nath Kovind hailed Tipu Sultan in his address to the Karnataka Assembly on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of the state secretariat Vidhana Soudha saying "Tipu Sultan died a heroic death fighting the British. He was also a pioneer in the development and use of Mysore rockets in warfare. This technology was later adopted by the Europeans."[114]
Tipu Sultan is also admired as a hero in Pakistan. Former Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan has said that he admires Tipu Sultan as a freedom fighter.[115]
Tipu also patronised art forms such as Ganjifa cards, effectively saving this art form.[116] Ganjifa card of Mysore have the GI Tag today.[117]
Sword and tiger
Main article: Tipu's Tiger
Tipu Sultan's Tiger. Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Sword of Tipu Sultan. National Museum, New Delhi
Tipu Sultan had lost his sword in a war with the Nairs of Travancore during the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789), in which he was forced to withdraw due to the severe joint attack from the Travancore army and British army.[118] The Nair army under the leadership of Raja Kesavadas again defeated the army of Tipu near Aluva. The Maharaja, Dharma Raja, gave the famous sword to the Nawab of Arcot, from whom the sword was taken as a war trophy by the British after annexing Arcot and sent to London. The sword was on display at the Wallace Collection, No. 1 Manchester Square, London.
Tipu was commonly known as the Tiger of Mysore and adopted this animal as the symbol (bubri/babri)[119] of his rule.[120] It is said that Tipu Sultan was hunting in the forest with a French friend. They came face to face with a tiger there. The tiger first pounced on the French soldier and killed him. Tipu's gun did not work, and his dagger fell on the ground as the tiger jumped on him. He reached for the dagger, picked it up, and killed the tiger with it. That earned him the name "the Tiger of Mysore". [citation needed] He even had French engineers build a mechanical tiger for his palace.[121] The device, known as Tipu's Tiger, is on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.[122] Not only did Tipu place relics of tigers around his palace and domain, but also had the emblem of a tiger on his banners and some arms and weapons. Sometimes this tiger was very ornate and had inscriptions within the drawing, alluding to Tipu's faith – Islam.[123] Historian Alexander Beatson reported that "in his palace was found a great variety of curious swords, daggers, fusils, pistols, and blunderbusses; some were of exquisite workmanship, mounted with gold, or silver, and beautifully inlaid and ornamented with tigers' heads and stripes, or with Persian and Arabic verses".[124]
The last sword used by Tipu in his last battle, at Sri Rangapatnam, and the ring worn by him were taken by the British forces as war trophies. Till April 2004, they were kept on display at the British Museum London as gifts to the museum from Maj-Gen Augustus W.H. Meyrick and Nancy Dowager.[125] At an auction in London in April 2004, Vijay Mallya purchased the sword of Tipu Sultan and some other historical artefacts, and brought them back to India.[126]
In October 2013, another sword owned by Tipu Sultan and decorated with his babri (tiger stripe motif) surfaced and was auctioned by Sotheby's.[127] It was purchased for £98,500[128] by a telephone bidder.
Tipu Sultan Jayanti
In 2015, the Government of Karnataka, under the leadership of then Chief Minister Siddaramaiah from the Congress party, began to celebrate Tipu's birth anniversary as the "Tipu Sultan Jayanti".[129] The Congress regime declared it as an annual event to be celebrated on 20 November.[130] It was officially celebrated in Karnataka initially by the Minority Welfare department, and later by the Kannada & Culture department. However, on 29 July 2019, the next Chief Minister B. S. Yediyurappa, who belongs to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), ordered the celebrations cancelled, saying: "Legislators from Kodagu had highlighted incidents of violence during Tipu Jayanti."
Objecting against the cancellation of the celebrations, the previous Chief Minister Siddaramaiah said: "BJP has cancelled it because of their hatred towards minorities. It's a big crime. He [Tipu] was a king of Mysore and fought against the British [as] a freedom fighter. It was during his time when the foundation was laid for the Krishna Raja Sagara dam. He also tried to improve industry, agriculture and trade". The previous year, not a single JD(S) leader, including the then chief minister HD Kumaraswamy, attended the event, turning it into a fiasco.[129]
The Lok Sabha Congress leader, Mallikarjun Kharge, also earlier criticized BJP and RSS for their opposition against holding the celebrations, and asked: "When RSS can celebrate Nathuram Godse, can't we celebrate Tipu Sultan?"[131]
In fiction
Sir David Baird Discovering the Body of Sultan Tipoo Sahib by David Wilkie, 1839
• He has a role in G. A. Henty's 1896 book The Tiger of Mysore,[132] and is also mentioned in Henty's 1902 At the Point of the Bayonet,[132] which deals with much of the same period.
• In Jules Verne's Mysterious Island, Captain Nemo is described as Tipu's nephew.
• He was portrayed by Paidi Jairaj in the 1959 Indian historical drama film Tipu Sultan, directed by Jagdish Gautam.[133]
• Bharat Ek Khoj, a 1988 Indian television series based on Jawaharlal Nehru's The Discovery of India which aired on DD National, dedicated an episode to Tipu Sultan with Salim Ghouse portraying the king.
• Tipu's life and adventures were the central theme of a short-running South Indian television series The Adventures of Tipu Sultan, and of a more popular national television series The Sword of Tipu Sultan based on a historical novel by Bhagwan Gidwani.[134][135]
• The Dreams of Tipu Sultan is a 1997 play written in Kannada by Indian writer Girish Karnad. It follows the last days as well as the historic moments in the life of Tipu, through the eyes of an Indian court historian and a British Oriental scholar.
• Tipu Sultan: The Tiger Lord is a Pakistani television series that broadcast on PTV in 1997, deals with the life of Sultan.
• Naseem Hijazi's novels Muazam Ali and Aur Talvar Ṭūṭ Gaye (And The Sword Broke) describe Tipu's wars.
• Wilkie Collins's novel The Moonstone contains an account of Tipu and the fall of Srirangapatna in the prologue.
• In The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen by Rudolf Erich Raspe, Munchausen vanquishes Tipu near the end of the novel.
• Sharpe's Tiger is a novel by Bernard Cornwell in which Napoleonic–era British soldier Richard Sharpe fights at Seringapatam, later killing Tipu.
• Tipu appears as a "Great Person" in the video games, Sid Meier's Civilization: Revolution and Sid Meier's Civilization IV.
• In his historical Konkani-language novels on the Seringapatam captivity of Konkani Catholics by Indian littérateur V. J. P. Saldanha, Belthangaddicho Balthazar (Balthazar of Belthangady), Devache Krupen (By the Grace of God), Sardarachi Sinol (The sign of the Knights) and Infernachi Daram (The gates of Hell), Tipu is portrayed as "cunning, haughty, hard-hearted, revengeful, yet full of self-control".[136]
Family
The mausoleum housing Tipu Sultan's tomb is another example of Islamic architecture. Tipu Sultan's flag is in the foreground.
The tomb of Tipu Sultan at Srirangapatna. Tipu's tomb is adjacent to his mother's and father's graves.
Tipu had several wives.[137] His first wife was Sultan Begum Sahib also known as Padishah Begum.[138] She was the daughter of Imam Sahib Bakhshi Naita from Arcot,[139] and sister of Ghulam Husain Khan, known as the Pondicherry Nawab, a descendant of Chanda Sahib.[138] They married in 1774.[140] Another wife married at the same time was Ruqaya Banu Begum. She was the daughter of Lala Miyan Shaheed Charkoli,[141] and the sister of Sheikh Burhanuddin.[142] She died in February 1792 at the time of the siege of Seringapatam.[139] Another wife was Khadija Zaman Begum. She was the daughter of Mir Sayyid Moinuddin Khan[142] also known as Sayyid Sahib.[143] They married in 1796. She died in childbirth in 1797.[140] Another wife was Buranti Begum. She was the daughter of Mir Muhammad Pasand Beg, a nobleman from Delhi and her mother's father was Sayyid Muhammad Khan, once a subedar of Kashmir. Another wife was Roshani Begum. She was the mother of his eldest son Fath Haider.[138]
His sons were Hyder Ali Khan Sultan,[144] Muin-ud-din Sultan, Abdul Khaliq Sultan, Muiz-ud-din Sultan, Muhammad Subhan Sultan, Shukrullah Sultan, Ghulam Ahmad Sultan, Ghulam Muhammad Sultan, Sarwar-ud-din Sultan, Muhammad Yasin Sultan, Jamal-ud-din Sultan and Munir-ud-din Sultan. One of his daughters was married to Husain Ali Khan.[138] Many of Tipu's descendants live in Kolkata and have expressed objection to use of Tipu Sultan's name by political parties for polarising votes.[145][146]
Image gallery
A view of the Hoally Gateway, Srirangapatnam, where Tipu Sultan was killed, Seringapatam (Mysore), by Thomas Sydenham (c. 1799)
A flintlock blunderbuss, made for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatnam in 1793–94. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[25]
Cannon used by Tipu Sultan in the battle of Srirangapatnam 1799
General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages in the year 1793.
During the Republic Day Parade in 2014, in New Delhi, the tableau of Karnataka, highlighting "Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore," made its way through the Rajpath.
See also
• Muslim warriors
• Mysore invasion of Kerala
• PNS Tippu Sultan
• Tipu Sultan Mosque
• The Sword of Tipu Sultan – an Indian TV series on Tipu Sultan
• Tipu's Tiger
• The Dreams of Tipu Sultan by Girish Karnad
• Mir Ghulam Ali, an official and senior military commander
References
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Cited sources
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• Fernandes, Praxy (1969). Storm over Seringapatam: the incredible story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan. Thackers..
• Habib, Irfan, ed. (2002). Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modernization Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan (Anthem South Asian Studies). Anthem Press. ISBN 1-84331-024-4.
• Hasan, Mohibbul (2005), History of Tipu Sultan, Aakar Books, ISBN 978-81-87879-57-2
• Knight, Charles (1858). The English cyclopædia: a new dictionary of universal knowledge, Volume 6. Bradbury & Evans. Retrieved 28 November 2011..
• Moienuddin, Mohammad (2000). Sunset at Srirangapatam: After the Death of Tipu Sultan. London: Sangam Books. ISBN 978-0-86311-850-0. OCLC 48995204.
• Palsokar, R. D. (1969). Tipu Sultan. s.n..
• Punganuri, Ram Chandra Rao (1849). Memoirs of Hyder and Tippoo: rulers of Seringapatam, written in the Mahratta language. Simkins & Co. Retrieved 28 November 2011..
• Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011). Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0.
• Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
• Roy, Kaushik (2011). War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-79087-4.
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Further reading
• Balakrishna, Sandeep, Tipu Sultan, The Tyrant of Mysore, Rare Publications
• Sen, Surendra Nath (1930), Studies in Indian History, University of Calcutta, OCLC 578119748
• Subramanian, K. R. (1928), The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore, self-published, OCLC 249773661
• William, Logan (1887), Malabar Manual, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 978-81-206-0446-9
• Grose, John Henry; Charmichael (1777), A Voyage to the East Indies
• Thompson, Rev. E. W. (1990) [1923]. The last siege of Seringapatam. Mysore City: Wesleyan Mission. ISBN 978-8120606029.
• Agha, Shamsu. Tipu Sultan", "Mirza Ghalib in London";, "Flight Delayed", Paperback, ISBN 0-901974-42-0
• Ali, B Sheik. Tipu Sultan, Nyasanal Buk Trast
• Amjad, Sayyid. 'Ali Ashahri, Savanih Tipu Sultan, Himaliyah Buk Ha®us
• Banglori, Mahmud Khan Mahmud. Sahifah-yi Tipu Sultan, Himālayah Pablishing Hā'ūs,
• Bhagwan, Gidwami S (1976). The Sword of Tipu Sultan: a historical novel about the life and legend of Tipu Sultan of India. Allied Publishers. OCLC 173807200. A fictionalised account of Tipu's life.
• Buddle, Anne. Tigers Round the Throne, Zamana Gallery, ISBN 1-869933-02-8
• Campbell, Richard Hamilton. Tippoo Sultan: The fall of Srirangapattana and the restoration of the Hindu raj, Govt. Press
• Chinnian, P. Tipu Sultan the Great, Siva Publications
• Hashimi, Sajjad. Tipu Sultan, Publisher: Maktabah-yi Urdu Da®ijast
• Home, Robert. Select Views in Mysore: The Country of Tipu Sultan from Drawings Taken on the Spot by Mr. Home, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-1512-3
• Kareem, C.K (1973). Kerala Under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. Kerala History Association: distributors, Paico Pub. House.
• V.M. Korath, P. Parameswaran, Ravi Varma, Nandagopal R Menon, S.R. Goel & P.C.N. Raja: Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993). ISBN 9788185990088
• Mohibbul Hasan. Tipu Sultan's Mission to Constantinople, Aakar Books, ISBN 81-87879-56-4
• Pande, B. N. Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of their religious policies (IOS series), Institute of Objective Studies
• Sil, Narasingha P. "Tipu Sultan: A Re-Vision," Calcutta Historical Journal' (2008) 28#1 pp 1–23. historiography
• Strandberg, Samuel. Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore: or, to fight against the odds, AB Samuel Travel, ISBN 91-630-7333-1
• Taylor, George. Coins of Tipu Sultan, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0503-9
• Wigington, Robin. Firearms of Tipu Sultan, 1783–99, J. Taylor Book Ventures, ISBN 1-871224-13-6
• Ashfaq Ahmed Mathur – "SALTANATH-E-KHUDADAT" and a book by Allama Iqbal ahmed (RH) "Daana e Raaz Diyaar e Dakan mein"
External links
• Media related to Tipu Sultan at Wikimedia Commons
• The Sword of Tipu Sultan – Volume 1
• The Tiger of Mysore – Dramatised account of the British campaign against Tipu Sultan by G. A. Henty, from Project Gutenberg
• Illuminated Qurʾān from the library of Tippoo Ṣāḥib, Cambridge University Digital Library
• UK Family Finds Tipu Sultan's Gun, Sword In Attic
• Tipu's Legacy
The coinage system
Among his many innovations, Tipu introduced new coin denominations and new coin types, including this copper double paisa weighing over 23 gm. The coin on the left also contains the emblem of the Sultanate of Mysore.
A gold coin issued by the Kingdom of Mysore during the reign of the Tipu Sultan.
The coinage of Tipu Sultan is one of the most complex and fascinating series struck in India during the 18th century. Local South India coinage had been struck in the area that became Mysore since ancient times, with the first gold coinage introduced about the 11th century (the elephant pagoda), and other pagodas continuing through the following centuries. These pagoda were always in the South Indian style until the reign of Haidar Ali (1761–1782), who added pagodas with Persian legends, plus a few very rare gold mohurs and silver rupees, always in the name of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II plus the Arabic letter "ح" as the first letter of his name. His successor, Tipu Sultan, continued to issue pagodas, mohurs and rupees, with legends that were completely new. As for copper, the new large paisa was commenced by Haidar Ali in AH1195, two years before his death, with the elephant on the obverse, the mint on the reverse, and was continued throughout the reign of Tipu Sultan, who added other denominations. Tipu Sultan introduced a set of new Persian names for the various denominations, which appear on all of the gold and silver coins and on some of the copper. They were:
Copper: Qutb "قطب" for the 1/8 paisa (Persian for the pole star) – Akhtar "اختر" for the 1/4 paisa (star) – Bahram "بهرام" for the 1/2 paisa (the planet Mars) – Zohra "زهره" for the paisa (the planet Venus) – either Othmani "عثمانی" for the double-paisa (the third caliph of the Rashidun) or Mushtari "مشتری" (the planet Jupiter).
Silver: Khizri "خضری" for the 1/32 rupee (Khizr the prophet) – Kazimi "کاظمی" for the 1/16 rupee (for Musa, the seventh Shi'ite Imam) – Ja'fari "جعفری" for the 1/8 rupee (Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shi'ite Imam) – Bâqiri "باقری" for the 1/4 rupee (Muhammad al-Baqir, the fifth Imam) – Abidi "عبیدی" for the 1/2 rupee (Ali Zain al-'Abidin, the fourth Imam) – Imami for the rupee (reference to the 12 Shi'ite Imams) – Haidari "حیدری" for the double-rupee (lion, for Ali b. Abi Talib, who was both the fourth caliph and the first Shi'ite Imam).
Gold: Faruqi "فاروقی" for the pagoda (Umar al-Faruq, the second caliph) – Sadîqi "صدیقی" for the double-pagoda (Abu Bakr al-Sadiq, the first caliph) – Ahmadi "احمدی" for the four-pagoda ( "most praised ", one of the name of the Islamic prophet Muhammad). During his first 4 years, the large gold coin was the mohur, with an average weight of about 10.95g (AH1197-1200), replaced with the four-pagoda of 13.74g with the calendar change to the Mauludi "مولودی" system (AM1215-1219).
Coinage dating system
2 gold Two Pagoda Coins issued by tipu Sultan
The denomination does not appear on the Hijri dated gold coins, but was added on all the Mauludi dated pieces.
At the beginning of his first year, Tipu Sultan abandoned the Hijri dating system and introduced the Mauludi system (from the Arabic word "walad ", which means "birth "), based on the solar year and the birth year of Muhammad (actually 571 AD, but for some perplexing reason reckoned as 572 by Tipu Sultan for his staff).
From the beginning of his reign, Tipu Sultan added the name of the Indian cyclic year on the large silver and gold coins, including this double-pagoda, together with his regnal year. Each of the names is Persian, though in several examples, the meaning of the names in India was different from the Iranian meaning (not indicated here). According to the Indian meanings, these are the cyclic years: Zaki "زکي" for cyclic 37, which corresponded to his year 1 ( "pure ") – Azâl "أزل" for 38 ( "eternity ", year 2) – Jalal "جَلال" for 39 ( "splendor ", year 3) – Dalv "دَلو" for 40 (the sign of Aquarius, year 4) – Shâ "شاه" for 41 ( "king ", year 5) – Sârâ "سارا" for 42 ( "fragrant ", year 6) – Sarâb "سراب" for 43 ( "mirage ", for year 7) – Shitâ "شتا" for 44 ( "winter ", year 8) – Zabarjad "زبرجد" for 45 ( "topaz ", year 9) – sahar "سَحَر" ( "dawn ", year 10) – Sâher "ساحِر" ( "magician ", year 11).[111]
Assessment and legacy
The spot in Srirangapatna where Tipu's body was found
Assessments of Tipu Sultan have often been passionate and divided. Successive Indian National Congress governments have often celebrated Tipu Sultan's memory and monuments and relics of his rule while the Bharatiya Janata Party has been largely critical. School and college textbooks in India officially recognize him as a "freedom-fighter" along with many other rulers of the 18th century who fought European powers.[112] The original copy of the Constitution of India bears a painting of Tipu Sultan.[113]
In 2017 the 14th Indian president Ram Nath Kovind hailed Tipu Sultan in his address to the Karnataka Assembly on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of the state secretariat Vidhana Soudha saying "Tipu Sultan died a heroic death fighting the British. He was also a pioneer in the development and use of Mysore rockets in warfare. This technology was later adopted by the Europeans."[114]
Tipu Sultan is also admired as a hero in Pakistan. Former Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan has said that he admires Tipu Sultan as a freedom fighter.[115]
Tipu also patronised art forms such as Ganjifa cards, effectively saving this art form.[116] Ganjifa card of Mysore have the GI Tag today.[117]
Sword and tiger
Main article: Tipu's Tiger
Tipu Sultan's Tiger. Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Sword of Tipu Sultan. National Museum, New Delhi
Tipu Sultan had lost his sword in a war with the Nairs of Travancore during the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789), in which he was forced to withdraw due to the severe joint attack from the Travancore army and British army.[118] The Nair army under the leadership of Raja Kesavadas again defeated the army of Tipu near Aluva. The Maharaja, Dharma Raja, gave the famous sword to the Nawab of Arcot, from whom the sword was taken as a war trophy by the British after annexing Arcot and sent to London. The sword was on display at the Wallace Collection, No. 1 Manchester Square, London.
Tipu was commonly known as the Tiger of Mysore and adopted this animal as the symbol (bubri/babri)[119] of his rule.[120] It is said that Tipu Sultan was hunting in the forest with a French friend. They came face to face with a tiger there. The tiger first pounced on the French soldier and killed him. Tipu's gun did not work, and his dagger fell on the ground as the tiger jumped on him. He reached for the dagger, picked it up, and killed the tiger with it. That earned him the name "the Tiger of Mysore". [citation needed] He even had French engineers build a mechanical tiger for his palace.[121] The device, known as Tipu's Tiger, is on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.[122] Not only did Tipu place relics of tigers around his palace and domain, but also had the emblem of a tiger on his banners and some arms and weapons. Sometimes this tiger was very ornate and had inscriptions within the drawing, alluding to Tipu's faith – Islam.[123] Historian Alexander Beatson reported that "in his palace was found a great variety of curious swords, daggers, fusils, pistols, and blunderbusses; some were of exquisite workmanship, mounted with gold, or silver, and beautifully inlaid and ornamented with tigers' heads and stripes, or with Persian and Arabic verses".[124]
The last sword used by Tipu in his last battle, at Sri Rangapatnam, and the ring worn by him were taken by the British forces as war trophies. Till April 2004, they were kept on display at the British Museum London as gifts to the museum from Maj-Gen Augustus W.H. Meyrick and Nancy Dowager.[125] At an auction in London in April 2004, Vijay Mallya purchased the sword of Tipu Sultan and some other historical artefacts, and brought them back to India.[126]
In October 2013, another sword owned by Tipu Sultan and decorated with his babri (tiger stripe motif) surfaced and was auctioned by Sotheby's.[127] It was purchased for £98,500[128] by a telephone bidder.
Tipu Sultan Jayanti
In 2015, the Government of Karnataka, under the leadership of then Chief Minister Siddaramaiah from the Congress party, began to celebrate Tipu's birth anniversary as the "Tipu Sultan Jayanti".[129] The Congress regime declared it as an annual event to be celebrated on 20 November.[130] It was officially celebrated in Karnataka initially by the Minority Welfare department, and later by the Kannada & Culture department. However, on 29 July 2019, the next Chief Minister B. S. Yediyurappa, who belongs to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), ordered the celebrations cancelled, saying: "Legislators from Kodagu had highlighted incidents of violence during Tipu Jayanti."
Objecting against the cancellation of the celebrations, the previous Chief Minister Siddaramaiah said: "BJP has cancelled it because of their hatred towards minorities. It's a big crime. He [Tipu] was a king of Mysore and fought against the British [as] a freedom fighter. It was during his time when the foundation was laid for the Krishna Raja Sagara dam. He also tried to improve industry, agriculture and trade". The previous year, not a single JD(S) leader, including the then chief minister HD Kumaraswamy, attended the event, turning it into a fiasco.[129]
The Lok Sabha Congress leader, Mallikarjun Kharge, also earlier criticized BJP and RSS for their opposition against holding the celebrations, and asked: "When RSS can celebrate Nathuram Godse, can't we celebrate Tipu Sultan?"[131]
In fiction
Sir David Baird Discovering the Body of Sultan Tipoo Sahib by David Wilkie, 1839
• He has a role in G. A. Henty's 1896 book The Tiger of Mysore,[132] and is also mentioned in Henty's 1902 At the Point of the Bayonet,[132] which deals with much of the same period.
• In Jules Verne's Mysterious Island, Captain Nemo is described as Tipu's nephew.
• He was portrayed by Paidi Jairaj in the 1959 Indian historical drama film Tipu Sultan, directed by Jagdish Gautam.[133]
• Bharat Ek Khoj, a 1988 Indian television series based on Jawaharlal Nehru's The Discovery of India which aired on DD National, dedicated an episode to Tipu Sultan with Salim Ghouse portraying the king.
• Tipu's life and adventures were the central theme of a short-running South Indian television series The Adventures of Tipu Sultan, and of a more popular national television series The Sword of Tipu Sultan based on a historical novel by Bhagwan Gidwani.[134][135]
• The Dreams of Tipu Sultan is a 1997 play written in Kannada by Indian writer Girish Karnad. It follows the last days as well as the historic moments in the life of Tipu, through the eyes of an Indian court historian and a British Oriental scholar.
• Tipu Sultan: The Tiger Lord is a Pakistani television series that broadcast on PTV in 1997, deals with the life of Sultan.
• Naseem Hijazi's novels Muazam Ali and Aur Talvar Ṭūṭ Gaye (And The Sword Broke) describe Tipu's wars.
• Wilkie Collins's novel The Moonstone contains an account of Tipu and the fall of Srirangapatna in the prologue.
• In The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen by Rudolf Erich Raspe, Munchausen vanquishes Tipu near the end of the novel.
• Sharpe's Tiger is a novel by Bernard Cornwell in which Napoleonic–era British soldier Richard Sharpe fights at Seringapatam, later killing Tipu.
• Tipu appears as a "Great Person" in the video games, Sid Meier's Civilization: Revolution and Sid Meier's Civilization IV.
• In his historical Konkani-language novels on the Seringapatam captivity of Konkani Catholics by Indian littérateur V. J. P. Saldanha, Belthangaddicho Balthazar (Balthazar of Belthangady), Devache Krupen (By the Grace of God), Sardarachi Sinol (The sign of the Knights) and Infernachi Daram (The gates of Hell), Tipu is portrayed as "cunning, haughty, hard-hearted, revengeful, yet full of self-control".[136]
Family
The mausoleum housing Tipu Sultan's tomb is another example of Islamic architecture. Tipu Sultan's flag is in the foreground.
The tomb of Tipu Sultan at Srirangapatna. Tipu's tomb is adjacent to his mother's and father's graves.
Tipu had several wives.[137] His first wife was Sultan Begum Sahib also known as Padishah Begum.[138] She was the daughter of Imam Sahib Bakhshi Naita from Arcot,[139] and sister of Ghulam Husain Khan, known as the Pondicherry Nawab, a descendant of Chanda Sahib.[138] They married in 1774.[140] Another wife married at the same time was Ruqaya Banu Begum. She was the daughter of Lala Miyan Shaheed Charkoli,[141] and the sister of Sheikh Burhanuddin.[142] She died in February 1792 at the time of the siege of Seringapatam.[139] Another wife was Khadija Zaman Begum. She was the daughter of Mir Sayyid Moinuddin Khan[142] also known as Sayyid Sahib.[143] They married in 1796. She died in childbirth in 1797.[140] Another wife was Buranti Begum. She was the daughter of Mir Muhammad Pasand Beg, a nobleman from Delhi and her mother's father was Sayyid Muhammad Khan, once a subedar of Kashmir. Another wife was Roshani Begum. She was the mother of his eldest son Fath Haider.[138]
His sons were Hyder Ali Khan Sultan,[144] Muin-ud-din Sultan, Abdul Khaliq Sultan, Muiz-ud-din Sultan, Muhammad Subhan Sultan, Shukrullah Sultan, Ghulam Ahmad Sultan, Ghulam Muhammad Sultan, Sarwar-ud-din Sultan, Muhammad Yasin Sultan, Jamal-ud-din Sultan and Munir-ud-din Sultan. One of his daughters was married to Husain Ali Khan.[138] Many of Tipu's descendants live in Kolkata and have expressed objection to use of Tipu Sultan's name by political parties for polarising votes.[145][146]
Image gallery
A view of the Hoally Gateway, Srirangapatnam, where Tipu Sultan was killed, Seringapatam (Mysore), by Thomas Sydenham (c. 1799)
A flintlock blunderbuss, made for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatnam in 1793–94. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[25]
Cannon used by Tipu Sultan in the battle of Srirangapatnam 1799
General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages in the year 1793.
During the Republic Day Parade in 2014, in New Delhi, the tableau of Karnataka, highlighting "Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore," made its way through the Rajpath.
See also
• Muslim warriors
• Mysore invasion of Kerala
• PNS Tippu Sultan
• Tipu Sultan Mosque
• The Sword of Tipu Sultan – an Indian TV series on Tipu Sultan
• Tipu's Tiger
• The Dreams of Tipu Sultan by Girish Karnad
• Mir Ghulam Ali, an official and senior military commander
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95. Cariappa, M. P.; Cariappa, Ponnamma (1981), The Coorgs and their Origins, Aakar Books, p. 48, OCLC 641505186
96. Sarasvati's Children Archived 6 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Joe Lobo
97. Kirkpatrick, W. (1811) Select Letters of Tipu Sultan, London
98. Wilks, M. (1930) Report on the Interior Administration, Resources and Expenditure of the Government of Mysore under the System prescribed by the Order of the Governor-General in Council dated 4 September 1799, Bangalore 1864, and Historical Sketches of the South of India in an Attempt to Trace the History of Mysore, 2 vols, ed. M. Hammick, Mysore.
99. Habib, Irfan (2001). "War and Peace. Tipu Sultan's Account of the last Phase of the Second War with the English, 1783-4", p. 5 in State and Diplomacy Under Tipu Sultan: Documents and Essays, Manohar Publishers and Distributors, ISBN 81-85229-52-X
100. A. Subbaraya Chetty "Tipu's endowments to Hindus and Hindu institutions", p. 111 in Confronting Colonialism
101. Hasan 2005, p. 368.
102. Brittlebank 1999, pp. 2–12.
103. Sampath, Vikram (31 January 2014). "Why we love to hate Tipu Sultan". livemint.com.
104. Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department 1916 pp 10–11, 73–6
105. Hasan 2005, p. 359.
106. Saletare, B.A. "Tipu Sultan as Defender of the Hindu Dharma", pp. 116–8 in Confronting Colonialism
107. Prabhu 1999, p. 223.
108. Hasan 2005, p. 79.
109. Sen, Surendranath (1930). Studies in Indian history. University of Calcutta. p. 157.
110. Sultan, Tipu (1811). Select letters of Tippoo Sultan to various public functionaries. London: Black. p. 228.
111. "CoinArchives.com Lot Viewer". coinarchives.com. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
112. Moudgal, Sandeep (1 November 2019). "Tipu Sultan history lessons can't be erased, says textbook committee chairman". The Times of India.
113. Ramdas, Inayat (27 January 2016). "Bet You Didn't Know All This About the Indian Constitution!". TheQuint. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
114. Aji, Sowmya (26 October 2017). "President Ram Nath Kovind hails Tipu Sultan, sparks war of words between Congress and BJP". The Economic Times.
115. "Pakistan PM Imran pays tribute to Tipu Sultan on his death anniversary". The Hindu. 5 May 2019.
116. "Untitled" (PDF). ccrt.addsofttech.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
117. "Geographical Indications".
118. "The swords of Tipu Sultan". The Hindu. 3 May 2011. Archived from the original on 9 May 2011.
119. "Tipu Sultan and the tiger motif". The Seringapatnam Times. Toshkhana : wordpress. 17 August 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
120. Brittlebank, K. (1995). "Sakti and Barakat: The ∀ Power of Tipu's Tiger. An Examination of the Tiger Emblem of Tipu Sultan of Mysore". Modern Asian Studies. 29 (2): 257–269. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00012725. JSTOR 312813. S2CID 145790819.
121. James, Lawrence (2000). Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-312-26382-9. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
122. "Tippoo's Tiger". Victoria & Albert Museum. 11 April 2004. Archived from the original on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 10 December 2006.
123. "Tiger Motif". Macquarie University Library. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
124. Beatson, Alexander (1800). A View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun. London: G. & W. Nichol. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013.
125. "Ring and sword of Tipu Sultan". Exploring the museum. The British Museum. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
126. Beary, Habib (7 April 2004). "Tipu's sword back in Indian hands". BBC News.
127. Sinha, Kounteya (4 October 2013). "Another Tipu Sultan sword surfaces, to be auctioned". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
128. Nag, Ashoke (21 October 2013). "Tipu Sultan memorabilia goes under hammer at Sotheby's 'The Arts of Imperial India' auction". The Economic Times. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
129. "BJP govt orders cancellation of Tipu Sultan Jayanti". Deccan Herald. 30 July 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
130. "Tipu Sultan Birth Anniversary: Life And Works of the 18th Century Ruler". NDTV. NDTV. 20 November 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2019.
131. Upadhya, Harish (31 October 2016). "Karnataka Prepares To Celebrate Tipu Sultan Jayanti, BJP Threatens Stir Karnataka". NDTV. NDTV. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
132. The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Tiger of Mysore, by G. A. Henty. 12 July 2006 – via Project Gutenberg.
133. "Tipu Sultan (1959)". BFI.
134. Swaminathan, Chitra (20 May 2006). "The return of the Sultan". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 17 August 2007.
135. Khosla, G. D. (1977). "Review of The Sword of Tipu Sultan". India International Centre Quarterly. 4 (2): 214–216. ISSN 0376-9771. JSTOR 23001501.
136. George, K. M. (1992). Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology: Surveys and poems. Vol. 2. Sahitya Akademi. p. 217. ISBN 978-81-7201-324-0.
137. Howes, Jennifer (October 2021). "Tipu Sultan's female entourage under East India Company rule". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 31 (4): 855–874. doi:10.1017/S135618632000067X. ISSN 1356-1863. S2CID 229455847.
138. Hasan 2005, p. 372.
139. Brittlebank, K. (1997). Tipu Sultan's Search for Legitimacy: Islam and Kingship in a Hindu Domain. Oxford University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-19-563977-3.
140. Brittlebank, K. (2022). Tiger: The Life of Tipu Sultan. Claritas Books. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-905837-87-8.
141. Mahmood, M.K. (2013). Kingdom of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan: Sultanat E Khudadad. Xlibris US. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4836-1536-3.
142. Nadvī, M.I. (2004). Tipu Sultan, a Life History. Institute of Objective Studies. p. 216.
143. Hoover, J.W. (2007). Men Without Hats: Dialogue, Discipline, and Discontent in the Madras Army 1806-1807. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. p. 83. ISBN 978-81-7304-725-1.
144. "Karunanidhi to release stamp on Vellore sepoy mutiny". The Hindu. 9 July 2006.
145. "Descendent objects to use of Tipu Sultan's name for polarising votes | News – Times of India Videos". The Times of India. 21 February 2023.
146. "Misuse His Name and We'll Sue for Defamation, Say Tipu Sultan's Descendants as Karnataka Poll Heat Rises". News18. 14 February 2023.
Cited sources
• Brittlebank, Kate (1999). Tipu Sultan's Search for Legitimacy. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563977-3. OCLC 246448596.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Tippoo Sahib" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1005.
• Dalrymple, William (2019). The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company (Hardcover). New York: Bloomsbury publishing. ISBN 978-1-63557-395-4.
• Fernandes, Praxy (1969). Storm over Seringapatam: the incredible story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan. Thackers..
• Habib, Irfan, ed. (2002). Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modernization Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan (Anthem South Asian Studies). Anthem Press. ISBN 1-84331-024-4.
• Hasan, Mohibbul (2005), History of Tipu Sultan, Aakar Books, ISBN 978-81-87879-57-2
• Knight, Charles (1858). The English cyclopædia: a new dictionary of universal knowledge, Volume 6. Bradbury & Evans. Retrieved 28 November 2011..
• Moienuddin, Mohammad (2000). Sunset at Srirangapatam: After the Death of Tipu Sultan. London: Sangam Books. ISBN 978-0-86311-850-0. OCLC 48995204.
• Palsokar, R. D. (1969). Tipu Sultan. s.n..
• Punganuri, Ram Chandra Rao (1849). Memoirs of Hyder and Tippoo: rulers of Seringapatam, written in the Mahratta language. Simkins & Co. Retrieved 28 November 2011..
• Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011). Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0.
• Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
• Roy, Kaushik (2011). War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-79087-4.
• Sastri, K.N.V. (1943). Moral Laws under Tipu Sultan. Indian History Congress. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
• Sen, Sailendra Nath (1995). Anglo-Maratha Relations, 1785-96. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 9788171547890.
• Sharma, Hari Dev (1991). The real Tipu: a brief history of Tipu Sultan. Rishi Publications..
• Wenger, Estefania (March 2017). Tipu Sultan: A Biography. Vij Books India Private Limited. ISBN 9789386367440.
Further reading
• Balakrishna, Sandeep, Tipu Sultan, The Tyrant of Mysore, Rare Publications
• Sen, Surendra Nath (1930), Studies in Indian History, University of Calcutta, OCLC 578119748
• Subramanian, K. R. (1928), The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore, self-published, OCLC 249773661
• William, Logan (1887), Malabar Manual, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 978-81-206-0446-9
• Grose, John Henry; Charmichael (1777), A Voyage to the East Indies
• Thompson, Rev. E. W. (1990) [1923]. The last siege of Seringapatam. Mysore City: Wesleyan Mission. ISBN 978-8120606029.
• Agha, Shamsu. Tipu Sultan", "Mirza Ghalib in London";, "Flight Delayed", Paperback, ISBN 0-901974-42-0
• Ali, B Sheik. Tipu Sultan, Nyasanal Buk Trast
• Amjad, Sayyid. 'Ali Ashahri, Savanih Tipu Sultan, Himaliyah Buk Ha®us
• Banglori, Mahmud Khan Mahmud. Sahifah-yi Tipu Sultan, Himālayah Pablishing Hā'ūs,
• Bhagwan, Gidwami S (1976). The Sword of Tipu Sultan: a historical novel about the life and legend of Tipu Sultan of India. Allied Publishers. OCLC 173807200. A fictionalised account of Tipu's life.
• Buddle, Anne. Tigers Round the Throne, Zamana Gallery, ISBN 1-869933-02-8
• Campbell, Richard Hamilton. Tippoo Sultan: The fall of Srirangapattana and the restoration of the Hindu raj, Govt. Press
• Chinnian, P. Tipu Sultan the Great, Siva Publications
• Hashimi, Sajjad. Tipu Sultan, Publisher: Maktabah-yi Urdu Da®ijast
• Home, Robert. Select Views in Mysore: The Country of Tipu Sultan from Drawings Taken on the Spot by Mr. Home, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-1512-3
• Kareem, C.K (1973). Kerala Under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. Kerala History Association: distributors, Paico Pub. House.
• V.M. Korath, P. Parameswaran, Ravi Varma, Nandagopal R Menon, S.R. Goel & P.C.N. Raja: Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993). ISBN 9788185990088
• Mohibbul Hasan. Tipu Sultan's Mission to Constantinople, Aakar Books, ISBN 81-87879-56-4
• Pande, B. N. Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of their religious policies (IOS series), Institute of Objective Studies
• Sil, Narasingha P. "Tipu Sultan: A Re-Vision," Calcutta Historical Journal' (2008) 28#1 pp 1–23. historiography
• Strandberg, Samuel. Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore: or, to fight against the odds, AB Samuel Travel, ISBN 91-630-7333-1
• Taylor, George. Coins of Tipu Sultan, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0503-9
• Wigington, Robin. Firearms of Tipu Sultan, 1783–99, J. Taylor Book Ventures, ISBN 1-871224-13-6
• Ashfaq Ahmed Mathur – "SALTANATH-E-KHUDADAT" and a book by Allama Iqbal ahmed (RH) "Daana e Raaz Diyaar e Dakan mein"
External links
• Media related to Tipu Sultan at Wikimedia Commons
• The Sword of Tipu Sultan – Volume 1
• The Tiger of Mysore – Dramatised account of the British campaign against Tipu Sultan by G. A. Henty, from Project Gutenberg
• Illuminated Qurʾān from the library of Tippoo Ṣāḥib, Cambridge University Digital Library
• UK Family Finds Tipu Sultan's Gun, Sword In Attic
• Tipu's Legacy
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Re: FREDA BEDI CONT'D (#4)
by admin » Sat Nov 09, 2024 11:23 pm
Fardunjee Marzban
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/9/2024
Fardunjee Marzaban or Fardoonjee Marazban (22 August 1787– 17 March 1847)[1] was, among other things, a printer and a newspaper editor. He established the first vernacular printing press in Bombay, India.[2] He also started India’s oldest running periodical called the Bombay Samachar, which was printed primarily in Gujarati. He pioneered vernacular journalism in India,[3] as also the production of Gujarati types.[4]
Life and work
Fardunjee Marzban was born at Surat[5] in 1787 into a family of Parsi-Zoroastrian priests in Gujarat, and initially trained for the priesthood. His father and grandfather had been scholars of Zoroastrian religious literature (i.e. Middle Persian and Avestan texts), and Marzban followed their example.
In 1805, Fardunji went to Bombay[1] and learnt Persian and Arabic languages under Mulla Feroze. In 1808, Fardunji opened a book-bindery.[2]
It was while working as a book binder that he met the printer Jijibhai Chhapghar. Perhaps it was his interaction with Jijibhai Chhapghar that inspired Fardunji to open an Indian printing press.[6]
A Page from Fardunji's Dabistān-i Mazāhibm (1815)
The press was set up in 1812, but the first book would not be printed until 1814. This book would be an Almanac for the Hindu Samvat Year 1871.[2] No copy of the work survives.[2]
Between 1814 and 1822 he printed several other works. In 1815 he printed a Gujarati translation of the Persian book Dabistān-i Mazāhibm,[1] which he had himself prepared. The work was priced at Rs 15 per copy.[2]
In 1817 he published a Gujarati translation of the Khordeh Avesta.
Later, he would also publish translations of the Shahnameh in 1833,
the Gulistan in 1838,
the Bostan (posthumously in 1849).
He even published a Persian dictionary in 1833.
Fardunji’s Bombay Samachar, which started off as a weekly paper, priced at Rs 2 per month,[5] was turned into a daily in 1832.[2] It would serve as a template for the foundation of several other Parsi-run newspapers, including the Indian Spectator (later the Voice of India) and the Bombay Times (now a supplement of the Times of India).
1832 was not a fortuitous year for Fardunji Marzban. He had to withdraw from the Bombay Samachar that year. It appears that his printing Gujarati translations of Parsi scriptures caused great controversy. In addition to this, he also lost his trading ship (which traded with China) that he owned. The ship was called Hindustan. Perhaps because of these double losses in his journalistic enterprise and trade, he had to leave Bombay.[7]
He went to Daman, then a Portuguese settlement, where he practiced medicine.[8] He died on 23 March 1847.[1]
Notes
1. CE Buckland, Dictionary of Indian Biography, (New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 1999), p. 278
2. AK Priolkar, The Printing Press in India: Its Beginnings and Early Development, (Mumbai: Marathi Samsodhana Mandala, 1958), p. 78
3. see endnote: Arun Chaudhuri, Indian Advertising: 1750 to 1950 A.D., (New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2007), p. 256; see also: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city ... 179847.cms (retrieved: 31 August 2010)
4. These types were not, however, very elegant, but it must be remembered that these resulted from a pioneering enterprise. Gujarati types would be improved by Ganpat Kishanji and Javji Dadaji. See Priolkar, The Printing Press in India, pp. 78, 101-2.
5. Veena Naregal, Language Politics, Elites, and the Public Sphere, (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2001), p. 178
6. paraphrase of a quotation in Priolkar, The Printing Press in India, p. 73
7. In a footnote, Naregal, Language Politics, Elites, and the Public Sphere, p. 178
8. The Portuguese settlement would then have been the joint territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. See Buckland, Dictionary of Indian Biography, p. 278; and Naregal’s footnote, Language Politics, Elites, and the Public Sphere, p. 178. Also, Buckland qualifies that it was an ‘oriental’ medicine that Fardunji practiced.
References
• Darukhanawala, Hormusji Dhunjishaw (1939), Parsi Lustre on Indian Soil, vol. 1, Bombay: G. Claridge
See also
• Bhimjee Parikh
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/9/2024
Fardunjee Marzaban or Fardoonjee Marazban (22 August 1787– 17 March 1847)[1] was, among other things, a printer and a newspaper editor. He established the first vernacular printing press in Bombay, India.[2] He also started India’s oldest running periodical called the Bombay Samachar, which was printed primarily in Gujarati. He pioneered vernacular journalism in India,[3] as also the production of Gujarati types.[4]
Life and work
Fardunjee Marzban was born at Surat[5] in 1787 into a family of Parsi-Zoroastrian priests in Gujarat, and initially trained for the priesthood. His father and grandfather had been scholars of Zoroastrian religious literature (i.e. Middle Persian and Avestan texts), and Marzban followed their example.
-- ZEND-AVESTA, WORK OF ZOROASTRE, Containing the Theological, Physical & Moral Ideas of this Legislator, the Ceremonies of the Religious Worship he established, & several important features relating to the ancient History of the Persians: Translated into French on the Original Zend, with Notes; & accompanied by several Treatises specific to clarifying the Matters who are subject to it. By M. ANQUETIL DU PERRON, of the Royal Academy of Inscriptions & Belles-Lettres, & Interpreter of the King for Oriental Languages. FIRST VOLUME. SECOND PART, Which includes the [url=https://survivorbb.rapeutation.com/viewtopic.php?f=60&t=4440&start=210]Vendidad Sade (i.e. I'zeschnè, the Vispered & the VENDIDAD itself), preceded by the Notices of the Zend Manuscripts, Pehlvis, Persians & Indians, deposited by the Translator in the Library of King; Titles & Summaries of Articles & c. both. Volumes of this Work; & of the VIE DE ZOROASTRE: With a plate engraved in intaglio. 1771[/url]
In 1805, Fardunji went to Bombay[1] and learnt Persian and Arabic languages under Mulla Feroze. In 1808, Fardunji opened a book-bindery.[2]
It was while working as a book binder that he met the printer Jijibhai Chhapghar. Perhaps it was his interaction with Jijibhai Chhapghar that inspired Fardunji to open an Indian printing press.[6]
A Page from Fardunji's Dabistān-i Mazāhibm (1815)
The press was set up in 1812, but the first book would not be printed until 1814. This book would be an Almanac for the Hindu Samvat Year 1871.[2] No copy of the work survives.[2]
Between 1814 and 1822 he printed several other works. In 1815 he printed a Gujarati translation of the Persian book Dabistān-i Mazāhibm,[1] which he had himself prepared. The work was priced at Rs 15 per copy.[2]
The Dabestan-e Mazaheb (Persian: دبستان مذاهب) "school of religions" is a Persian language work that examines and compares Abrahamic, Dharmic and other religions of the mid-17th century South Asia and the Middle East. Additionally, it has information on various Hellenic philosophical traditions, such as Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work, composed in the mid-17th century, is of uncertain authorship. The text's title is also transliterated as Dabistān-i Mazāhib, Dabistan-e Madahib, or Dabestan-e Madaheb.
The text is best known for its dedication of an entire chapter to Din-i Ilahi, the syncretic religion propounded by the Mughal emperor Jalāl ud-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar after 1581 and is possibly the most reliable account of the Ibādat Khāna discussions that led up to this. It is also one of the first works in history to make any mention of Sikhism.
-- Dabestan-e Mazaheb, by Wikipedia
In 1817 he published a Gujarati translation of the Khordeh Avesta.
Khordeh Avesta, meaning 'little, or lesser, or small Avesta', is the name given to two different collections of Zoroastrian religious texts. One of the two collections includes the other and takes its name from it.
In a narrow sense, the term applies to a particular manuscript tradition that includes only the five Nyayesh texts, the five Gah texts, the four Afrinagans, and five introductory chapters that consist of quotations from various passages of the Yasna.[1] More generally, the term may also be applied to Avestan texts other than the lengthy liturgical Yasna, Visperad and Vendidad. The term then also extends to the twenty-one yashts and the thirty Siroza texts, but does not usually encompass the various Avestan language fragments found in other works.
In the 19th century, when the first Khordeh Avesta editions were printed, the selection of Avesta texts described above (together with some non-Avestan language prayers) became a book of common prayer for lay people.[2] In addition to the texts mentioned above, the published Khordeh Avesta editions also included selections from the Yasna necessary for daily worship, such as the Ahuna Vairya and Ashem Vohu. The selection of texts is not fixed, and so publishers are free to include any text they choose. Several Khordeh Avesta editions are quite comprehensive, and include Pazend prayers, modern devotional compositions such as the poetical or semi-poetical Gujarati monagats, or glossaries and other reference lists such as dates of religious events.
-- Khordeh Avesta, by Wikipedia
Later, he would also publish translations of the Shahnameh in 1833,
The Shahnameh (Persian: شاهنامه, romanized: Šāhnāme, lit. 'The Book of Kings', modern Iranian Persian pronunciation [ʃɒːh.nɒː.ˈme]),[a] also transliterated Shahnama,[ b] is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 50,000 distichs or couplets (two-line verses) the Shahnameh is one of the world's longest epic poems, and the longest epic poem created by a single author. It tells mainly the mythical and to some extent the historical past of the Persian Empire from the creation of the world until the Muslim conquest in the seventh century. Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and the greater region influenced by Persian culture such as Armenia, Dagestan, Georgia, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan celebrate this national epic.
The work is of central importance in Persian culture and Persian language. It is regarded as a literary masterpiece, and definitive of the ethno-national cultural identity of Iran.
-- Shahnameh, by Wikipedia
the Gulistan in 1838,
Gulistān (Persian: گُلِستان, romanized: Golestān, lit. 'The Rose Garden'; [golestɒːn]), sometimes spelled Golestan, is a landmark of Persian literature, perhaps its single most influential work of prose. Written in 1258 CE, it is one of two major works of the Persian poet Sa'di, considered one of the greatest medieval Persian poets. It is also one of his most popular books, and has proved deeply influential in the West as well as the East.
The Gulistan is a collection of poems and stories, just as a rose-garden is a collection of flowers. It is widely quoted as a source of wisdom. The well-known aphorism still frequently repeated in the western world, about being sad because one has no shoes until one meets the man who has no feet "whereupon I thanked Providence for its bounty to myself" is from the Gulistan.
The minimalist plots of the Gulistan's stories are expressed with precise language and psychological insight, creating a "poetry of ideas" with the concision of mathematical formulas. The book explores virtually every major issue faced by humankind with both an optimistic and a subtly satirical tone. There is much advice for rulers, in this way coming within the mirror for princes genre. But as Eastwick comments in his introduction to the work, there is a common saying in Persian, "Each word of Sa'di has seventy-two meanings", and the stories, alongside their entertainment value and practical and moral dimension, frequently focus on the conduct of dervishes and are said to contain Sufi teachings. Idries Shah elaborates further. "The place won by the Gulistan as a book of moral uplift invariably given to the literate young has had the effect of establishing a basic Sufic potential in the minds of its readers."
-- Gulistan (book), by Wikipedia
the Bostan (posthumously in 1849).
The Bustan (Persian: بوستان, also transliterated as Būstān, Bustān; "the orchard") is a book of poetry by the Persian poet Saadi, completed in 1257 CE and dedicated to the Salghurid Atabeg Sa'd I or Sa'd II. Bustan is considered one of two major works of Saadi.
It was Saadi's first work. The book contains the fruits of Saadi's long experience and his judgements upon life, and is illustrated by a vast collection of anecdotes. It includes accounts of Saadi's travels and his analysis of human psychology. He often mentions his accounts with fervour and advice similar to Aesop's fables. The book has ten chapters regarding the issues of ethics and training; namely, justice, mercy, love, humility, contentment, devotions, education, gratitude, repentance, and praying.
This book is one of the 100 greatest books of all time according to Bokklubben World Library. It is composed in mathnawī style (rhyming couplets), and has been translated into English. The Bustan was translated into Dutch in 1688 by Daniel Havart.
In India, Bustan and Gulistan were taught to schoolboys in maktabs, and it had to be learnt by heart.4
[Glimpses of World History, Being Further Letters to His Daughter, Written in Prison, and Containing a Rambling Account of History for Young People, by Jawaharlal Nehru, 1934]Firdausi lived at the turn of the century and the millennium, from 932 to 1021. Soon after him came a name famous in English as it is in Persian—Omar Khayyam, the astronomer-poet of Nishapur in Persia. And Omar was followed by Sheikh Sadi of Shiraz, one of the greatest of Persian poets, whose Gulistan and Bustan schoolboys in Indian maktabs have had to learn by heart for generations past.
-- Glimpses of World History, Being Further Letters to His Daughter, Written in Prison, and Containing a Rambling Account of History for Young People, by Jawaharlal Nehru, 1934
-- Bustan (book), by Wikipedia
He even published a Persian dictionary in 1833.
Fardunji’s Bombay Samachar, which started off as a weekly paper, priced at Rs 2 per month,[5] was turned into a daily in 1832.[2] It would serve as a template for the foundation of several other Parsi-run newspapers, including the Indian Spectator (later the Voice of India) and the Bombay Times (now a supplement of the Times of India).
1832 was not a fortuitous year for Fardunji Marzban. He had to withdraw from the Bombay Samachar that year. It appears that his printing Gujarati translations of Parsi scriptures caused great controversy. In addition to this, he also lost his trading ship (which traded with China) that he owned. The ship was called Hindustan. Perhaps because of these double losses in his journalistic enterprise and trade, he had to leave Bombay.[7]
He went to Daman, then a Portuguese settlement, where he practiced medicine.[8] He died on 23 March 1847.[1]
Notes
1. CE Buckland, Dictionary of Indian Biography, (New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 1999), p. 278
2. AK Priolkar, The Printing Press in India: Its Beginnings and Early Development, (Mumbai: Marathi Samsodhana Mandala, 1958), p. 78
3. see endnote: Arun Chaudhuri, Indian Advertising: 1750 to 1950 A.D., (New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2007), p. 256; see also: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city ... 179847.cms (retrieved: 31 August 2010)
4. These types were not, however, very elegant, but it must be remembered that these resulted from a pioneering enterprise. Gujarati types would be improved by Ganpat Kishanji and Javji Dadaji. See Priolkar, The Printing Press in India, pp. 78, 101-2.
5. Veena Naregal, Language Politics, Elites, and the Public Sphere, (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2001), p. 178
6. paraphrase of a quotation in Priolkar, The Printing Press in India, p. 73
7. In a footnote, Naregal, Language Politics, Elites, and the Public Sphere, p. 178
8. The Portuguese settlement would then have been the joint territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. See Buckland, Dictionary of Indian Biography, p. 278; and Naregal’s footnote, Language Politics, Elites, and the Public Sphere, p. 178. Also, Buckland qualifies that it was an ‘oriental’ medicine that Fardunji practiced.
References
• Darukhanawala, Hormusji Dhunjishaw (1939), Parsi Lustre on Indian Soil, vol. 1, Bombay: G. Claridge
See also
• Bhimjee Parikh
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Re: FREDA BEDI CONT'D (#4)
by admin » Sat Nov 09, 2024 11:46 pm
Dabestan-e Mazaheb
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/9/24
Mughal Emperor Akbar (c. 1556–1605) holds interfaith dialogue in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri; the two men dressed in black are the Jesuit missionaries Rodolfo Acquaviva and Francisco Henriques. Illustration to the Akbarnama, miniature painting by Nar Singh, c. 1605.
The Dabestan-e Mazaheb (Persian: دبستان مذاهب) "school of religions" is a Persian language work that examines and compares Abrahamic, Dharmic and other religions of the mid-17th century South Asia and the Middle East. Additionally, it has information on various Hellenic philosophical traditions, such as Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work, composed in the mid-17th century, is of uncertain authorship. The text's title is also transliterated as Dabistān-i Mazāhib, Dabistan-e Madahib, or Dabestan-e Madaheb.
The text is best known for its dedication of an entire chapter to Din-i Ilahi, the syncretic religion propounded by the Mughal emperor Jalāl ud-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar after 1581 and is possibly the most reliable account of the Ibādat Khāna discussions that led up to this. It is also one of the first works in history to make any mention of Sikhism.
Authorship
by Wikipedia
Accessed: 11/9/24
Mughal Emperor Akbar (c. 1556–1605) holds interfaith dialogue in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri; the two men dressed in black are the Jesuit missionaries Rodolfo Acquaviva and Francisco Henriques. Illustration to the Akbarnama, miniature painting by Nar Singh, c. 1605.
The Dabestan-e Mazaheb (Persian: دبستان مذاهب) "school of religions" is a Persian language work that examines and compares Abrahamic, Dharmic and other religions of the mid-17th century South Asia and the Middle East. Additionally, it has information on various Hellenic philosophical traditions, such as Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work, composed in the mid-17th century, is of uncertain authorship. The text's title is also transliterated as Dabistān-i Mazāhib, Dabistan-e Madahib, or Dabestan-e Madaheb.
The text is best known for its dedication of an entire chapter to Din-i Ilahi, the syncretic religion propounded by the Mughal emperor Jalāl ud-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar after 1581 and is possibly the most reliable account of the Ibādat Khāna discussions that led up to this. It is also one of the first works in history to make any mention of Sikhism.
Authorship
Gentlemen,
I turn with delight from the vast mountains and barren deserts of Turan over which we travelled last year with no perfect knowledge of our course, and request you now to accompany me on a literary journey through one of the most celebrated and most beautiful countries in the world; a country, the history and languages of which, both ancient and modern, I have long attentively studied, and on which I may without arrogance promise you more positive information, than I could possibly procure on a nation so disunited and so unlettered as the Tartars: I mean that, which Europeans improperly call Persia, the name of a single province being applied to the whole Empire of Iran, as it is correctly denominated by the present natives of it, and by all the learned Muselmans, who reside in these British territories....
The rare and interesting tract on twelve different religions, entitled the Dabistan, and composed by a Mohammedan traveller, a native of Cashmir, named MOHSAN, but distinguished by the assumed surname of FANI, or Perishable, begins with a wonderfully curious chapter on the religion of HUSHANG, which was long anterior to that of ZERATUSHT, but had continued to be secretly professed by many learned Persians even to the author's time; and several of the most eminent of them, dissenting in many points from the Gabrs, and persecuted by the ruling powers of their country, had retired to India; where they compiled a number of books, now extremely scarce, which MOHSAN had perused, and with the writers of which, or with many of them, he had contracted an intimate friendship: from them he learned, that a powerful monarchy had been established for ages in Iran before the accession of CAYUMERS, that it was called the Mahabadian dynasty for a reason, which will soon be mentioned, and that many princes, of whom seven or eight only are named in the Dabistan, and among them MAHBUL, or MAHA BELI, had raised their empire to the zenith of human glory. If we can rely on this evidence, which to me appears unexceptionable, the Iranian monarchy must have been the oldest in the world ...
[S]ince I have no system to maintain, and have not suffered imagination to delude my judgement; since I have habituated myself to form opinions of men and things from evidence, which is the only solid basis of civil, as experiment is of natural knowledge; and since I have maturely considered the questions which I mean to discuss; you will not, I am persuaded, suspect my testimony, or think that I go too far, when I assure you, that I will assert nothing positively, which I am not able satisfactorily to demonstrate.
-- III. The Sixth Discourse; on the Persians, by Sir William Jones, Delivered 10th February, 1789, from Asiatic Researches; or Transactions of the Society