CHAPTER 3: The Confederation of Lands and Tribes United to Form the Sea Peoples Front.The debate has settled somewhat and most scholars agree that the Sea Peoples hailed from Asia Minor, the Aegean, the Balkans, and Cyprus.124 In Merneptah’s text, these are noted as “foreign lands of the sea”125 which includes the following tribes: Shardana, Shekelesh, and Eqwosh.126 They are also referred to as “northerners who came from every land”.127 This would encompass the Teresh, Lukki, and the previously mentioned Shardana, Shekelesh, and Eqwosh. Ramesses III calls them “foreign countries (who) made a conspiracy in their isles”128 and also “northern countries who were in their isles”129; or even “the countries who came from their land in the isles in the midst of the sea”.130 Hence the name coined for them, Sea Peoples which aptly describes their surroundings.
Another source, the Papyrus Harris places the Danuna “in their isles” and the Shardana as well as the Washosh “of the sea”.131 Therefore, we can assume that the so called Sea Peoples are mariners and live on a coastline. Birney in her dissertation indicates that their “area is taken by most scholars (and archaeologically supported) to indicate the broader region of western and south western Anatolia, the Dodecanese and Rhodes”.132 Most prior theories are based on linguistics and similar sounding place names to title which the Sea Peoples have been called by the Egyptians, Hittites, and Ugaritans. Birney stresses in her Harvard University dissertation that “the Sea Peoples are not a homogeneous group”.133 She places them as the beginning of a wave of peoples from Asia Minor and the Aegean islands migrating into the Levant.134 Their actions set in motion:
a snowball effect in that whatever the ethnic composition of the Sea Peoples when they began their campaign they likely accrued new members… taking them up as they passed, or displacing others who perhaps later followed in their wake… a ripple effect is observable in the cascade of new settlements and shifting populations.135
Let us start with the Shardana.
We find the Shardana first in the Amarna Letters. They are fighting on the Egyptian side and are stationed at Byblos.136 A home-land is not clearly given. Another source, the Papyrus Harris tells us what happened to them after they are defeated by Ramesses III. It states that the “Shardana (and the Washosh) were brought as captives to Egypt, that Ramesses ‘settled them in strongholds bound in my [Ramesses III] name, and that he ‘taxed them all, in clothing and grain from the storehouses and granaries each year’”.137 Another source, the Onomasticon of Amenemope also referred to as “Wen- Amon’s story” lists the Shardana as one of the peoples ruling the [northern] coast [of the Levant].138 Birney relates that this is the region of Akko.139 In the Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Leahy tells us that the “Sherden are recorded as settled in Middle Egypt in the land survey from the reign of Ramesses V recorded in the Welbour Papyrus”. hey had most likely been rewarded for their mercenary activity for the Pharaoh and were rewarded with land and Egyptian wives therefore taking on Egyptian ways and assimilating into their culture.140 Some scholars including Egyptologists emphasize the similarity in the words Shardana and Sardinia.141 They could have colonized here at any point, but, as Cline and O’Connor point out, there is not at this time any evidence for this settlement unless you count the Bronze Age ruins found on the island of Sardinia in the form of nuraghi (circular stone structures).142 Zertal connects these ruins with similar ones found in El-Ahwat, Israel that are connected to the Iron Age.143
Next we will investigate the Shekelesh ethnic group. In Egyptian it is spelled skls who may, according to Cline and O’Connor, be the “Sikilayu who live in ships”, found in a letter from the Hittite king to the last king of Ugarit.144 Sandars reminds us that a people known as the Sikels were found by the Greeks living in Sicily after the Trojan War, i.e., in the eighth century.145 Maspero’s Anatolian thesis connects them with Asia Minor and the town of Sagalassos.146 Though Woudhuizen doubts this because Suppiluliumas II of the Hittites, rules western Asia Minor around that time and does not talk of the Shekelesh. Therefore, he prefers Stadelmann’s assumption that the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Teresh sailed across the Mediterranean to colonize Sardinia, Sicily, and central Italy where he suggests they kept trading with their allies in the Levant.147 Some Egyptologists connect the Shekelesh with Sicily as well.148 In contrast Stern, the director of the excavation of the Tel of Dor, equates the Sikils with Tel Dor instead of the Tjekru. The Wen-Amon story tells us in a later time period, Beder the prince of Dor was a Sikil, and after leaving, Wen-Amon sees eleven ships belonging to the Sikils following him.149 Stern also believes that the Sikils occupied the northern Sharon plain, where the Sherden settled the Acre valley”.150 Nibbi tells us they are from Canaan.151 Inhabitant’s of Ascalon a city that has historically been aggressive towards Egypt.152 The Old Testament tells us that Ascalon later had Philistines living there. This evidence points towards Ascalon being an important area, since more than one Sea People “tribe” has called it home.
Next we will investigate the Eqwosh ethnic group. They are equated by some with the Washosh, or Weshesh. These have been connected with Carian Wassos people or the Cretan Waksioi by Hall. Wachsmann connects their boats, on account of the birdheaded bow and stern, to the Urnfield culture.153 Woudhuizen identifies them with the Oscans. He connects his invasion of Italy by bearers of the European Urnfield culture with the stirring up of people in that region and views them as a prime mover of the upheavals of the Sea Peoples. This domino effect started mass migrations. Woudhuizen points out that the pictographs of Sea People ships with protruding bird-head devices at both the bow and the stern are of a typically Urnfield type. Thus for him, the spread of handmade barbarian ware of proto-Villanovan Italian or European Urnfield backgrounds, and the growing popularity of the rite of cremation during and after the catastrophic, Late Bronze Age events may be attributed to the influence of Oscan participants.154 In his study of the papyrus, Harris states about the Weshesh (W’-s-s) [and the Sherden] of the sea, that “they were made as those that exist not, taken captive at one time, brought as captives to Egypt.”155 Then the Pharaoh proceeds to gloat “I settled them in strongholds, bound in my name, [and] numerous were their classes like hundred- thousands.”156 This notice helps to explain where these ethnic groups were settled and what happened to them after their attack on Egypt.
The Teresh (Egyptian Trs)-are first heard of in Merneptah’s inscriptions at Karnak and his Athribis (Kom el Ahmar) stela.157 Sandars points out that the Hittites had a Taruisha, in northern Assuwa. They have also been settled near the future area Lydia, in central western Anatolia. Herodotus places them near Tyrrhenian land. Sandars connects the Teresh-Taruisha-Tyrsenoi and the Etruscans.158 Unfortunately there are no archaeological remains that are clearly labeled Tereshian.159 Some Egyptologists place the Tursha within Tyrsenia or Tyrrhenia being the coasts of Italy.160
The piratical Lk deserves our attention next. Scholars have come to believe that they originated in Lycia, as well as in Caria which is also located in Anatolia.161 At that time, the Amarna letters are the main evidence of their existence. Unfortunately we have not found any Lukki remains yet.162 Bryce concludes that Lukka territory should be included to the coast west of Tarhuntassa, Greek Lycia.163 It is well known that Homer identifies the Lycians geographically with the valley of the Xanthos River in Anatolia.164 Woudhuizen argues that the main area of Lukka refers only to the lower Xanthos valley including Patara, Awarna, Pinata, and Talawa; compared to the Lukka hunting lands that include walking to the north, east, and west of settlement Lukka.165 Drews generalizes that Egyptologists place the Lukka within Lycia.166
The Meshwesh tribe, another supposed Sea People group, was allied with the Libyans and was according to Drews “often identified with the area around Tunis, [North Africa] where Herodotus locates people whom he calls Maxyes”.167
Libyans are often talked of as invading the Egyptian Delta. There were many invasions of Egypt one in 1220 BC, Merneptah’s reign, known as the Libyan war; and again in 1189BC, and again in 1183BC, both in Ramesses III’s reign.168 They originally were from the central Balkans and migrated at some point in the past to become Libyans in Africa, flanking Egypt’s western border.169 When invading Egypt the whole family came with the warriors, along with their possession, with an intention to settle. This was no ordinary war.
The Tjekker are known as from the Wen-Amun story to have controlled the town of Dor, in the Levant.170 They are known as pirates here as well. In 1872, Chabas connected them with north western Asia Minor and the Teukroi settled there. Later Sandars writing concurred.171
The notable of the Sea Peoples are the Philistines, known to the Egyptians as the Peleset. Champollion noted and connected them after he deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphics. They are first talked about in the reign of Ramesses III when they attacked in both the fifth and eighth year of his reign. Drews describes Chabas’ theory of 1872: that Peleset were Pelasgians in the Aegean Sea region and after migrating for a long time, they were pushed back from Egypt and were settled in the Levant to become known as the Philistines.172 Strange thinks that they were most likely settled in the Levantine city-states as Egyptian garrisons keeping down any Palestinian uprising.173 Then, as I have said before, the Egyptian power waned in the Levant. Nibbi accepts them as the ancient Peleset (PRST or PLST) living in Ascalon.174 Woudhuizen calls them new settlers to the Levant. They started a pentapolis consisting of the towns or confederation of city-states being Ekron, Askelon, Gaza, Asdod, and Gath (at the time of the upheavals of the Sea Peoples).175 Strange places their territory between Gaza in the south to Ekron and Ashdod in the north while the eastern boarder was Gath.176 The Old Testament states that the Philistines came from Caphtor (Amos 9:7).177 The path is followed when “as for the Avvim, who lived in villages as far as Gaza, The Caphtorim [Philistines, Peleset], who came from Caphtor, destroyed them and settled in their stead (Deuteronomy 2:23).178 The Papyrus Harris tells of the Peleset settled by Ramesses III as vassals. After being settled in Palestine, the Philistines were in a position of power holding military superiority over the Canaanites which was owed to their hold on resources and iron production in the Levant the bible informs us (I Samuel 13, 19- 3).179 The Old Testament continues (Jeremiah 47:2-5) to describe “the day that is coming to destroy all the Philistines” and talks of what we would call a tsunami: “Behold, waters are rising out of the north and shall become an overflowing torrent; they shall overflow the land and all that fills it, the city and those who dwell in it” (Jeremiah 47:2).180 The Old Testament describes “for the LORD is destroying the Philistines, the remnant of the coastland of Caphtor; baldness has come upon Gaza, Ash’kelon has perished” (Jeremiah 47:4-5).181 This puts the onus of the Philistines demise at the hands of the LORD. In fact some Philistines must have escaped to continue their people on the coast, told of in the oracles of prophets during the 7th and 6th century BC. 182
The Danuna, Denye(n) or Danaoi are different spellings of another tribe thought to be the Sea Peoples. Yadin tells us the Tribe of Dan had been nomadic, though some make a camp at Mahaneh Dan. The tribes migrate with their women and children like the Libyans, armed for protection. An enemy, the Amorites, forced the children towards the hill country and out of the valley (Judges I, 34-35). Camps were made in Zorah and Eshtaol and the Danites wished to settle, they scouted a safe looking place known as Laish so they took it and named it Dan.183 The tribe of Dan is known in the bible extensively. Woudhuizen thinks the Denye(n) hail from Tel Qasile and have Mycenaean forefathers.184 Woudhuizen further specifies their territory as Joppa thus placing them between Asdod in the south and Dor in the north. They then conquered Zora and Eshtaol continuing onto Laish.185
This confederation of tribes did settle separately in the Levant. The Peleset thought of as Philistines settled Askelon, Asdod, Gaza, Ekron, and Gath, their pentapolis. The Tjeker thought to be Teukroi settling and ruling Dor. The Sherden maybe Sardinians, found in Akko. The Denye(n) or Dan inherit Joppa and take over Laish. In Hamath, we find the culture of European Urnfielders some identify with the Weshesh or Oscans. Ekwesh also connected to Akhaians settle in the Cilician plain.186 While trying to find the first stirrings of interest in other lands for the Sea Peoples Nibbi relates that people called Asiatics, low born and domesticated were placed in Egypt from 2050-1786 BC. Their livelihood was animal husbandry, and shepherding, they imported the animals from Syria and Palestine. Craftsmanship in bronze and lapis lazuli is brought to Egypt during this period.187 “During the eighteenth dynasty, the number of workers and slaves from the northern countries” multiplied exponentially.188
Asiatic artisans brought their skill of metalwork and stone working to Egypt, and, during the eighteenth dynasty an influx of people began to migrate to Egypt for work and a better life. Word probably spread back to a homeland that was lacking in some way. Hayes tells us in the Cambridge Ancient History vol. II, that Egypt’s “exploitation of such natural resources as the mines of Nubia and the eastern desert made Egypt in gold alone the richest nation on earth”.189 Nibbi further explains that a large annual tribute was indebted to Egypt by pharaoh’s vassals.190 As we follow this spread of power the fact that tribute was being demanded and threatened is significant, resentment must have abound. 191 Nibbi reminds us that we have records of Libyan people paying tribute starting at the first dynasty.192 This display of wealth by the Egyptians and the unfolding picture of opportunity that is being seen by the different Sea Peoples (as mercenaries or artesans) is of a better life. Nibbi reminds us that Asiatic Bedouins have been shepherding their flocks with permission in the Eastern Delta for a while. 193
In the Amarna Letter Rib-addi, governor of Byblos writes to Egypt of his enemies uniting with the Gaz people, known to be refugees and outlaws. He talks of an enemy leader named Abdi-Ashirta who “all lands unite with the Sa. Gaz people”…and his sons whom the “whole land belongs… have now entered Amurra”.194 This is where we start to see rebellion and the uniting of different people. Again the Amarna Letters are the first source to speak of the uniting of Egypt’s enemies geographically to the north. It is a starting point of action based on the coveting of Egyptian wealth and Egypt’s diminishing power in the Levant. Nibbi observes that many city-states such as Ascalon, Lachish and Gezer had allied with the Sa. Gaz refugees and outlaws. These people controlled the metal resources and they were all up in arms rebelling against Egyptian dominion.195 She further classifies the Sea People in that one group of them the Tyrrhenians are a conglomeration of tribes who sailed together with the purpose of survival and dominance.196
Here we see metal resources taken by outlaws. Its importance known by all and its value given to whoever dominates. We are reminded that Egypt received copper from the mines of the Sinai Peninsula. During ancient times Asiatics worked as slaves in these mines.197 Nibbi lets us know that artesans were taught to manipulate copper and iron within Hittite territory.198 She continues to tell us that there were ancient copper and bronze centers in the Levant and that “copper production in Egypt by the time of Ramesses III (1198-1166 BC) reached enormous proportions” due to the reference in the Papyrus Harris of “large quantities of copper work”.199 From the Old Testament we get a clear view that the Philistines, a tribe in the confederation of Sea Peoples, were expert metal smiths and guarded their secrets to deter the enemy from amassing more weapons than themselves. Peter Machinist explains that they “controlled the metallurgical expertise…[and] hint[s] at special weaponry on the Philistine side”.200 This would explain why the Sherden were welcomed into the Egyptian army and fought for Egypt as mercinaries for a period of time. Strange adds to this “summing up, the Philistine cities were all solidly fortified [and] there is also some evidence that the Philistines initially enjoyed superior knowledge of metal-working, which would have given them a military advantage.”201 This explains their gravitation towards the areas of the known world with metal resource deposits. This conglomeration of different ethnic groups combined their manpower to be stronger in attaining their goal of dominance in the coveted lands.
_______________
Notes:1 A. Leahy, “Sea Peoples”, in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, ed. Donald Redford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 257.
2 Leahy, Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 257.
3 James F.K. Hewitt, The Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times in India, South Western Asia, and Southern
Europe, vol.1 (Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company, 1894), x.
4 Leahy, Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 259.
5 Leahy, Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 259.
6 Leahy, Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 260.
7 Tristan Barako, “One if by Sea…Two if by Land: How Did the Philistines Get to Canaan? Part One: by Sea,” BAR:29:02 (Mar/April 2003), under “Sea Peoples,”
http://www.basarchive.org.proxy.librari ... bPrintPage (accessed October 13, 2008).
8 R. Cohen and R. Westbrook, Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations (Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 6-8.
9 Cohen and Westbrook, Amarna Diplomacy, 6-8.
10 Cohen and Westbrook, Amarna Diplomacy, 6-8.
11 Cohen and Westbrook, Amarna Diplomacy, 6-8.
12 Cohen and Westbrook, Amarna Diplomacy, 6-8.
13 W. Moran, The Amarna Letters (Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), xxxix.
14 Lorenz,”The Amarna Letters”,under “Sea Peoples on the web,”
http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams400w_aek11/amarnal.html (accessed September 14, 2008)
15 Lorenz,”The Amarna Letters”, under “Sea Peoples on the web,”
http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams400w_aek11/amarnal.htm (accessed September 14, 2008)
16 Moran, The Amarna Letters, EA 81, 150-151.
17 F.C. Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples’ ” (PhD diss. Erasmus University. Rotterdam, 2006), 35.
http://hdl.handle.net/1765/7686 .
http://repub.eur.nl/publications/index/339136379/18 Lorenz,”The Amarna Letters”,
http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams400w_aek11/amarnal.htm (accessed September 14, 2008)
19 Moran, The Amarna Letters, EA 151, 238-239.
20 Moran, The Amarna Letters, EA 151, 238-239.
21 Moran, The Amarna Letters, EA 151, 238-239.
22 Lorenz,”The Amarna Letters”,
http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams400w_aek11/amarnal.htm (accessed September 14, 2008)
23 Moran, The Amarna Letters, 111.
24 Lorenz,”The Amarna Letters”,
http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams400w_aek11/amarnal.htm (accessed September 14, 2008)
25 Lorenz,”The Amarna Letters”,
http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams400w_aek11/amarnal.htm (accessed September 14, 2008)
26 James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: The Nineteenth Dynasty, vol.3 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1906, 2001), 240-252.
27 Leahy, Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 259.
28 Leahy, Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 259.
29 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (574) 241.
30 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (579) 243.
31 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (580) 243.
32 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (577) 242.
33 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (580) 244.
34 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (587), 247.
35 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol.3, (587-589) 247-251.
36 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol.3, (572) 240.
37 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (572) 238.
38 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (570-571) 239-240.
39 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (593) 252-253.
40 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (593) 253.
41 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (595), 253.
42 E.H. Cline, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’” in Mysterious Lands, eds. D. O’Connor and S. Quirke, (London: UCL Press, 2003), 135.
43 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (596), 253.
44 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (596), 253.
45 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (598), 254.
46 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (600), 255.
47 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (588,601) 255,249.
48 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (602), 256-264.
49 James Bennet Pritchard, ed. The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, trans. W. F. Albright (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), 376.
50 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (603) 257.
51 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (603) 257.
52 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (604) 258.
53 Refers to Ramses III’s eighth year against Sea-Peoples (IV, 66,1. 23).
54 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (604) 258.
55 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (608) 260.
56 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (608) 260.
57 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 3, (610-611) 260-261.
58 R.D. Barnett, “The Sea Peoples”, in The Cambridge Ancient History vol. II, part 2, eds. I.E.S. Edwards, C.J. Gadd, N.J.L Hammond, E. Sollberger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 359-363.
59 Barnett, “The Sea Peoples”, CAH, vol.2, part 2: 360.
60 Barnett, “The Sea Peoples”, CAH, vol.2, part 2:360-361.
61 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 136.
62 Cline and O’Connor , “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 136.
63 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 137.
64 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 137.
65 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 137.
66 Cline and O’Connor , “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 137.
67 N.K. Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean 1250-1150 BC (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1978), 133.
68 Sandars, The Sea Peoples, 133.
69 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 138.
70 Leahy, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 259.
71 William K. Simpson, “Onomastica”, in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, ed. Donald Redford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 605.
72 Simpson, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 605.
73 Cline and O’Connor , “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 138.
74 F.C. Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples” (PhD diss. Erasmus University. Rotterdam, 2006), 54.
http://hdl.handle.net/1765/7686;http:// ... 339136379/ (accessed September 2008)
75 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 138.
76 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’” Mysterious Lands, 138.
77 Cline and O’Connor , “The mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, Mysterious Lands, 138.
78 D.B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 246.
79 Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, 246.
80 Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, 246.
81 Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, 246.
82 Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, 246.
83 John Strange, “The Palestinian City-States of the Bronze Age,” in A Comparative Study of Thirty City- State Cultures, ed. Mogens Herman Hansen (Copenhagen: Det kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabo, 2000), 67-76.
84 John Strange, “The Palestinian City-States of the Bronze Age,” in A Comparative Study of Thirty City- State Cultures, ed. Mogens Herman Hansen (Copenhagen: Det kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabo, 2000), 67-76.
85 Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, 246.
86 Tristan Barako, “One if by Sea…Two if by Land: How Did the Philistines Get to Canaan? Part One: by Sea,” BAR:29:02 (Mar/April 2003), under “Sea Peoples,”
http://www.basarchive.org.proxy.librari ... bPrintPage (accessed October 13, 2008).
87 F.C. Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”(PhD diss. Erasmus University. Rotterdam, 2006), 36.
http://hdl.handle.net/1765/7686;http:// ... 339136379/ (accessed September 2008).
88 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
89 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
90 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
91 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
92 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 37.
93 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 37.
94 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
95 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
96 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
97 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
98 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
99 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
100 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 37.
101 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 37.
102 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 37.
103 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 37.
104 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
105 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
106 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
107 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
108 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
109 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
110 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
111 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 38.
112 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 39.
113 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 39.
114 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 39.
115 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
116 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
117 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
118 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
119 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
120 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
121 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
122 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
123 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 40.
124 John Strange, “The Philistine City-states,” in A Comparative Study of Thirty City State Cultures, ed. Mogens Herman Hansen (Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Vindens Dabernes Selskab, 2000), 129-140.
125 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol.3, 249,255.
126 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111.
127 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Breasted, vol. 3, 241.
128 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Edgerton and Wilson, 53.
129 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Edgerton and Wilson, 41.
130 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Edgerton and Wilson, 42.
131 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Breasted, vol.4, 201.
132 Birney, “Sea People or Syrian Peddlers?” (PhD diss. Harvard University, 2007), 422.
133 Birney, “Sea People or Syrian peddlers?” (PhD diss. Harvard University, 2007), 53.
134 Birney, “Sea People or Syrian peddlers?” (PhD diss. Harvard University, 2007), 439.
135 Birney, “Sea People or Syrian peddlers?” (PhD diss. Harvard University, 2007), 439.
136 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Moran, 201-202.
137 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Breasted vol.4, 201; Sandars, 133.
138 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 111; citing Sandars, 133.
139 Birney, “Sea People or Syrian Peddlers?” (PhD diss. Harvard University, 2007), 425.
140 Leahy, “Sea Peoples”, in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 259.
141 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 49.
142 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113.
143 Cline and O’Connor , “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113.
144 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113.
145Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113; citing Sandars, 112-113.
146 G. Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, ed. A.H. Sayce and Trans from the French by M.L. McClure (New York: D. Appleton and Co, 1897), 432, note 2.
147 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples,” 38.
148 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 49.
149 Ephraim Stern, “The Many Masters of Dor, Part 1: When Canaanites Became Phoenician Sailors, “BAR 19:01 (Jan/Feb 1993), under “Sea Peoples”
http://www.basarchive.org/bswbBrowse.as ... A&Volume... (accessed October 9, 2008).
150 Ephraim Stern, “The Many Masters of Dor, Part 1: When Canaanites Became Phoenician Sailors, “BAR 19:01 (Jan/Feb 1993), under “Sea Peoples”
http://www.basarchive.org/bswbBrowse.as ... A&Volume... (accessed October 9, 2008).
151 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 26.
152 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 24.
153 Shelley Wachsmann, “To the Sea of the Philistines”, in The Sea Peoples and Their World: A Reassessment, ed. Eliezer D. Oren (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum, 2000), 122.
154 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 119.
155 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 4, 201.
156 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. 4, 201.
157 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113.
158 Sandars, The Sea Peoples, 112.
159 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113.
160 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 49.
161Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113
162 Cline and O’Connor, “The Mystery of the ‘Sea Peoples’”, 113
163 Trevor R. Bryce, “Lukka revisited” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Apr., 1992), under “JSTOR”
http://www.jstor.org/stable/545499 (accessed September 23, 2008).
164 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 57.
165 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 58.
166 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 49.
167 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 50.
168 Sandars, The Sea Peoples, 203.
169 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 57.
170 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 52.
171 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 35.
172 Drews, The End of the Bronze Age, 55.
173 Strange, “The Philistine City-states,” 136.
174 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 26.
175 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 95.
176 Strange, “The Philistine City-states,” 130.
177 9 Amos 7(Revised Standard Version).
178 2 Deuteronomy 23, (NSV).
179 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 96.
180 47 Jeremiah 2 (NSV).
181 47 Jeremiah 4-5 (NSV).
182 Strange, “The Philistine City-states,” 130.
183 Yigael Yadin, “And Dan, Why Did He Remain In Ships,” Australian Journal of Biblical Archaeology Vol. 1 (1968): 11-12.
184 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 74.
185 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples”, 78.
186 Woudhuizen, “The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples,” 119.
187 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 3.
188 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 3.
189 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 4; citing: C.A.H., W.C. Hayes, Vol. II, IX, Part I, Section VI.
190 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 4.
191 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 4.
192 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 9.
193 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 9.
194 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 5.
195 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 6.
196 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 21.
197 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 7.
198 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 7.
199 Nibbi, The Tyrrhenians, 7-8.
200 Peter Machinist, “Biblical Traditions: The Philistines and Israelite History,” in The Sea Peoples and Their World: A Reassessment, ed. Eliezer D. Oren (Philadelphia: University Museum Publications, 2000), 58.
201 Strange, “The Philistine City-states”, 135.