Re: The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement
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Notes
INTRODUCTION
1. Harry Liebersohn, Fate and Utopia in German Sociology, 1870-1923 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988), pp. 23-24. Tonnies slowly became prominent in early German sociological thought in the late nineteenth century, starting with the publication of his famous book, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (Community and Society) in 1887.
2. Tonnies did finally find a way to become closer to Nietzsche by befriending Nietzsche's close companions, Lou Andreas-Salome (1861-1937) and Paul Ree (1849-1901).Ree and Andreas-Salome were the hosts of a lively Berlin salon in the 1880s in the "Boulevard under the Lindens" (Unter dem Linden Strasse), and frequent visitors included not only Tonnies, but also the historian Hans Delbruck (1848-1919), philologist Paul Deussen (1845-1919),and the experimental psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909). Helga Sprung observes that such salons "played a major positive role in the emancipation of women" because "they offered women an immediate possibility for direct participation in the intellectual life of their time." See Helga Sprung, "Bourgeois Berlin Salons: Meeting Places for Culture and the Sciences," in W. R. Woodward and R. S. Cohen, ed., World Views and Scientific Discipline Formation (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1991),p. 402.
3. Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero- Worship and the Heroic in History (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1891 [1841]), pp. 8-9. A useful work that discusses many of the objects of hero worship mentioned in this volume (although very much colored by the tragedy of Nazism) is Eric Russell Bentley,A Century of Hero Worship: A Study of the Idea of Heroism in Carlyle and Nietzsche, with Notes on Wagner, Spengler, Stefan George, and D. H. Lawrence, 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon, 1957).His argument that the common thread of "Heroic Vitalism" in these important figures should not be considered as proto-Nazism is an important analogue to the argument by historians (and supported in this volume) that volkisch philosophies and groups were not all necessarily proto-Nazi.
4. Nietzsche's Also Sprach Zarathustra was published in four separate parts between 1883and 1885,but only in very small editions. They were published together for the first time in an 1892 edition that was widely read and had a major impact on European culture in the 1890s.
5. These works were: Der Fall Wagner (The Case of Wagner) in 1888; Die Gotzen Dammerung (The Twilight of the Idols) in 1889; Der Antichrist (The Antichrist) in 1895; Nietzsche contra Wagner in 1895; and the autobiographical Ecce Homo in 1908.
6. Ferdinand Tonnies, Der Nietzsche-Kultus: Eine Kritik (Leipzig: O. R. Reisland, 1897).
7. Steven Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 1890-1990 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), p. 201.
8. Although rarely given credit for originating with Jung, the enormously popular series of televised interviews with mythologist Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) in 1988 was an effective promotion of Jung's transcendental ideas of a collective unconscious and its archetypes working through the lives (and especially the dreams) of contemporary individuals. A transcript of these interviews appears in Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers, The Power of Myth (New York: Doubleday, 1988). Following the multiple rebroadcasts of these interviews there followed a surge in Jungism that caught the attention of the media: see the multipage article in the 7 December 1992 issue of U.S. News and World Report; also, see the article, "Interest in Carl Jung Experiences Revival as Some Embrace Wider View of Psychodynamics" in the 7 February 1992 issue of Psychiatric News, the professional newspaper of the American Psychiatric Association.
9. George Weisz, "The Posthumous Laennec: Creating a Modern Medical Hero, 1826-1870," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 61 (1987): 541-62.
10. Richard Shryock, "The Medical Reputation of Benjamin Rush," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 45 (1971): 507-52.
11. See the discussion of this bias, and related issues, in the history of psychology by Roy Porter and Mark Micale, "Reflections on Psychiatry and Its Histories," in Mark Micale and Roy Porter, ed., Discovering the History of Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 3-36. I wish to thank Micale for supplying me with prepublication proofs of this important essay. On the shift of the center of scientific research to the United States see Roger Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
12. This issue is the theme of the selections in the annual edited by Hans Rappard, P. J. Van Strien, L. P. Mos, and William Baker, Annals of Theoretical Psychology 8 (1993).
13. Kurt Danzinger, "Psychological Objects, Practice, and History," Annals of Theoretical Psychology 8 (1993): 43. Also relevant is Kurt Danzinger, "Social Context and Investigative Practice in Early Twentieth- Century Psychology," in Mitchell Ash and W. R. Woodward, ed., Psychology in Twentieth-Century Thought and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 13-34.
CHAPTER ONE
1. C. G. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections by C. G. Jung, ed. Aniela Jaffe (New York: Pantheon, 1962). In the first -- and still the best, despite its age -- detailed critical examination of Jung's work, MDR is termed an "automythology" that is in "a special genre of its own." Peter Homans, Jung in Context: Modernity and the Making of a Psychology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 29.
2. C. G. Jung, "Answer to Job," Psychology and Religion: West and East, CW 11 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), para. 645.
3. Of the many biographies of Jung, the one most similar to MDR in its odd mystical presentation of Jung is Marie-Louise von Franz, C. G. Jung: His Myth in Our Time (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975; original German ed., 1972). Von Franz (1915-) met Jung as an eighteen-year-old in 1933 and became one of his closest disciples. She never married, and after Jung built his tower in Bollingen, Switzerland, von Franz bought property nearby and also built her own tower near the house of her companion, Barbara Hannah, who was another close disciple of Jung's and the author of the best (in terms of new historical details) of these works of discipleship, C. G. Jung: His Life and Work, A Biographical Memoir (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1976). A picture of Jung as an intellectual hero by a friend and disciple of Jung's is Laurens van der Post, Jung and the Story of Our Time (New York: Random House, 1977). A new generation of Jung biographers for whom Jung was a spiritus rector have continued the tradition of idealization. See, e.g., Gerhard Wehr, Jung: A Biography (Boston: Shambhala, 1987).
4. I am indebted to Jung scholar Sonu Shamdasani for alerting me to the construction of MDR by Jaffe, the Jung family, and editors at Random House, which published the English-language edition. An edited typescript with editorial markings and material missing from the published versions can be found in the rare books collection of the Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston. An early chapter on Toni Wolff -- one of the few Jung apparently did by hand -- was removed by the Jung family very early in the editorial process, directly following Jung's death, and is not at the Countway. It is said to follow the format of MDR and contain reports of mutually significant dreams, synchronicities, etc., between Jung and Wolff, who maintained an intimate personal relationship for approximately forty years.
5. On the theos aner see David Tiede, The Charismatic Figure as Miracle Worker (Missoula: SBLDS,1972); and Carl Halladay, Theos Aner in Hellenistic Judaism (Missoula: SBLDS,1977). See also the more accessible discussions in Howard Clark Kee, Medicine, Miracle and Magic in New Testament Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 84-86; and in Peter Brown, The Making of Late Antiquity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), pp. 59-72. On the "holy man," see Peter Brown, "The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity," in his Society and the Holy ill Late Antiquity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982).
6. On an analogous phenomenon, the fifteenth-century revival of "historical ideals of life," see Gabor Klaniczay, "Legends as Life-Strategies for Aspirant Saints in the Later Middle Ages," in his collection of essays, The Uses of Supernatural Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
7. Charles Talbert, "Biographies of Philosophers and Rulers as Instruments of Religious Propaganda in Mediterranean Antiquity," Aufsteig und Niedergang der romischen Welt 11.16.2. (1978): 1619-51. According to Talbert, in the pagan biographical tradition "the life of the philosopher functions as a legitimation of his teaching" (p. 1643). The image of this hero personifies the value system of the community that he founded. "Such a life produced directly by a religious community would correctly be called a 'cult legend'" (p. 1626). Similarly, I argue that the idealized and sacralized image of Jung in MDR has become the cult legend of the Jungian movement.
8. Kee, Medicine, Miracle, and Magic, p. 84.
9. Ibid., p. 85.
10. Brown, "The Rise and Function of the Holy Man," p. 142, 121.
11. Ibid., p. 132.
12. Jung's frequent retreats to the stone tower that he built at Bollingen to escape civilization are idealized in the chapter entitled "The Tower" in MDR. The book presents Jung waxing poetic on his self-imposed solitude in nature: "In Bollingen, silence surrounds me almost audibly, and I live 'in modest harmony with nature.' Thoughts rise to the surface and reach back into the centuries, and accordingly anticipate a remote future. Here the torment of creation is lessened; creativity and play are close together" (p. 226). The images of Jung retreating to nature to receive the wisdom of the ages and to see into the future are of Jung as the pagan ascetic holy man. Jung also seems to have been living out a German Romantic fantasy. See Ilza Veith, "Loneliness and Solitude: Historical and Philosophical Reflections on Voluntary Withdrawal from Society," in Hertha Riese, ed., Historical Explorations in Medicine and Psychiatry (New York: Springer, 1978), pp. 87-98.
13. Brown, "The Rise and Function of the Holy Man," p. 101.
14. Ibid., p. 134.
15. See Ronald Glassman, "Manufactured Charisma and Legitimacy," Social Research 42 (1975): 615-36.
16. That is, pre-Aniela Jaffe, the editor of MDR.
17. Nowhere has this been more problematic than in the literature of New Testament scholarship. Although it is now acceptable to speak of an original pre-Pauline "Christ cult" that formed around Jesus of Nazareth and that later developed into the "Jesus movement" and then, even later, organized Christianity, this was not always so. This controversy is briefly summarized in Talbert, "Biographies of Philosophers and Rulers," pp. 1625-26. A similar sequence of development is posited here for the Jung cult although I use the term "cult" broadly to reinforce the idea that the Jungian movement is in fact made up of many decentralized cults.
18. Wilhelm Bousset, Kyrios Christos: A History of the Belief in Christ from the Beginnings of Christianity to Irenaeus (Nashville, 1970), p. 11. For background on the development of the History of Religions School in classical scholarship, see C Colpe, Die religionsgeschichtliche Schule: DarstelJung und Kritik ihres Bildes vom gnostischen Erlosungsmyths (Gottingen, 1961).
19. Marc Galanter, Cults: Faith, Healing and Coercion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 5.
20. Max Weber, The Sociology of Religioll, trans. Ephraim Fischoff (Boston: Beacon, 1991), p. 3. The original "Religionssoziologie" was published as part of his posthumous Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (Berlin: J.C.B. Mohr, 1922).
21. Weber, The Sociology of Religion, p. 2.
22. This is in the extensive revision of a seminal 1916 paper, published in its third and even more expanded form as "The Relations Between the Ego and the Unconscious" (1928), Two Essays on Analytical Psychology CW 7 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966). However, as early as 1917 Jung introduced the prototype of this concept with the idea that the image of a "magical demon" is sometimes projected onto the doctor by the patient. "The picture of this demon is the lowest and the most elementary concept of God. It is the dominant of the primitive tribal magic-man, or a singularly gifted personality endowed with magical power" (Jung, "The Psychology of Unconscious Processes," in Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology, 2d ed., Constance Long, ed. and trans. (London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 1920).
23. Other speakers to this religious youth movement group included Martin Buber and Gertrud Baumler. See Martin Green, The Von Richthofen Sisters: The Triumphant and Tragic Modes of Love (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 224.
24. C. G. Jung Institute of Los Angeles, Matter of Heart (film script), p. 4. Matter of Heart was a documentary produced by the Institute and released in 1983. It was derived from the forty-hour film archive produced by the Jung Film Project between 1975 and 1981.
25. See Guy Oakes, "Weber and the Southwest German School: The Genesis of the Concept of the Historical Individual," in Wolfgang Mommsen and Jurgen Osterhammel, ed., Max Weber and His Contemporaries (London: Unwin Hyman, 1987), pp. 434-46.
26. See the chapter on Jung in Henri Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (New York: Basic Books, 1970), pp. 657-748; and Henri Ellenberger, "Carl Gustav Jung: His Historical Setting," in Riese, Historical Explorations pp. 142-50. Also: "c. G. Jung and the Story of Helene Preiswerk: A Critical Study with New Documents [1991]," in Mark Micale, ed., Beyond the Unconscious: Essays of Henri F. Ellenberger in till' History of Psychiatry (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 291-305.
27. This controversy over Jung's behavior and beliefs in the 1930s has not disappeared. See, e.g., Aryeh Maidenbaum and Stephen Martin, ed., Lingering Shadows: Jungians, Freudians, and Anti-Semitism (Boston: Shambhala, 1991).
28. Goethe has been described as Nietzsche's model of an ubermensch by Walter Kaufmann. In Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), Kaufmann makes this distinction in his chapter on "Overman and Recurrence," and cites the following remarks by Nietzsche on Goethe that are congruent with the former's written descriptions of an ubermensch: '''he disciplined himself into wholeness, he created himself' and became 'the man of tolerance, not from weakness but from strength,' 'a spirit who has become free'" (p. 278).
29. Ellenberger, "Carl Gustav Jung: His Historical Setting," p. 149.
30. C. G. Jung, "The Swiss Line in the European Spectrum" (1928), Civilization in Transition, CW 10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), para. 905.
31. Oswald Spengler, Untergang des Abendlandes, Gestalt und Wirklichkeit (Munich: C. H. Beck'sche VerlagsbuchhandJungen, 1918) and its companion volume, Untergang des Abendlandes, Welthistorische Perspectiven (Munich: C. H. Beck'sche VerlagsbuchhandJungen, 1922). This massive Nietzschean work of historical and metaphysical speculation takes up some of Jung's concerns at this time. For example, Spengler says, "For every man, whatever the Culture to which he belongs, the elements of the soul are the deities of an inner mythology." Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West, 2 vols., trans. Charles Francis Atkinson (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1980), 1:312.
32. "The Psychology of the Transference" (1946), The Practice of Psychotherapy, CW 16 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966).
33. George Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1964), 15.
34. According to Mosse, "Not all of nature, therefore, but only its regional manifestations gave the folk its character, potential, and unity. Nature was defined as a landscape: those features of the environment peculiar and familiar to the members of one Volk and alien to all others" (The Crisis of German Ideology, p. 15). The soul of the land shapes the soul of the person. Interestingly, this volkisch assumption is the basis of Daniel Noel's biographical investigation of how Jung's ideas were influenced by the terrain of places that he visited in the 1920s. In his article Noel asserts that in the 1920s Jung "had started to formulate what I call an ecological notion of the collective unconscious psyche" (p. 72). See Daniel Noel, "Soul and Earth: Traveling with Jung Toward an Archetypal Ecology," in Quadrant: The Journal of Contemporary Jungian Thought 23 (1990): 57-73.
The importance of geography in determining national character was transmitted to the German bourgeoisie in abundance in the 1850s and 1860s through the works of authors such as Bernhard von Cotta, whose book, "Germany's Earth: Its Construction and Influence on the Life of People" (Deutschland's Boden: Sein Bau und dessen Einwirkung auf das Leben der Menschen [Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1853]) was highly influential in the social and political circles of Pan-Germanism. Geographical determinism was also promoted through the many popular science magazines that appeared with the rise of scientific materialism. German culture took on the added dimension of a firm grounding in scientific ideas for the average educated person during this period, and popular periodicals such as Westermann's Monatsheft (which began publication in 1857) vigorously promoted a Weltanschauung based on scientific materialism. The central importance of geography as such an all-encompassing science as presented in Westermann's Monatsheft is discussed in Robert Brain, "The Geographical Vision and the Popular Order of the Disciplines, 1848-1870," in Woodward and Cohen, World Views and Scientific Discipline Formation pp. 367-76.
35. Peter Gay, Weimar Culture: The Outsider as insider (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), pp. 11-12.
36. Basel (or Bale), which lies on both banks of the Rhine, was the capital of the half-canton Basel-Stadt or Bale-ville and by 1899, according to a prominent nineteenth-century travel guidebook, had a population of 99,365: Karl Baedeker, Switzerland, and the Adjacent Portions of Italy, Savoy, and Tyrol: Handbook for Travellers, 18th ed. (Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1899), p. 4. Baedeker also reports data from a census conducted by the government of Switzerland on 1 December 1888 that provides total population figures for each of the twenty-two official cantons. These total figures are further subdivided according to religion. For Bale-ville in 1888, the total population was listed as 74,247, out of which 50,326 were Protestant, 22,402 were Roman Catholic, 1,078 were Jews, and 441 belonged to "Sects" (p. xxxai). These figures give a rough picture of how dominantly Protestant Jung's world was when growing up, and especially how few non-Christians (such as Jews) he would likely meet on any given day.
37. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, p. 662.
38. "Not until I was in my thirties was I able to confront Mater Ecclesia without this sense of oppression. The first time was in St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna." Jung, MDR, p. 17.
39. Fritz Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1890-1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969).
40. The Swiss elements of Jung's Zofingia fraternity are conspicuously stressed by Marie-Louise von Franz in her introduction to Jung's published Zofingia lectures. See The Zofingia Lectures, CW A (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). Jung does indeed refer to the "official displays of public enthusiasm in the pan-German Empire" as "inane" (p. 55) in his 1897 inaugural address. However, in an earlier talk the same year, anti-Semitism (often associated with Pan-Germanism by this time) is evident when he praises his hero, the "noble [Johann] Zollner" (a psychical researcher), for being "mortally wounded in his struggle against the Judaization of science" (p. 35). This latter phrase is absent from the index of the Zofingia Lectures.
41. C. G. Jung, Analytical Psychology: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1925 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), p. 37. Menders work and its suggestion of genes was rediscovered only in 1900. Jung's description here resembles its conceptual precursor in biology, August Weismann's "germ-plasm" theory. As I have found in many other volumes of Jung's Collected Works and seminars, odd, eccentric, unflattering ideas -- such as this one -- are often conspicuously absent from the index at the back of these books, although such concepts or terms are mentioned repeatedly in the text.
42. Ibid., p. 82.
43. Eliza Marian Butler, The Tyranny of Greece Over Germany: A Study of the Influence Exercised by Greek Art and Poetry over the Great German Writers of the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1935).
44. Ibid., p. 46. See also Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Reflections on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1755), trans. E. A. Hyer and Roger Norton (La Salle, Ill: Open Court, 1987).
45. In his 1867 essay on Winckelmann, Walter Pater points out Winckelmann's avoidance of the irrational elements of Greek culture, so familiar to fin-de-siecle modernity: "Into this stage of achievement Winckelmann did not enter .... His conception of art excludes that bolder type of it which deals confidently with life, conflict, evil. Living in a world of exquisite but abstract and colorless form, he could hardly have conceived of the subtle and penetrative, but somewhat grotesque art of the modern world." Walter Pater, The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry (New York: Macmillan, 1909), pp. 235-36.
46. In a 28 February 1932 letter to Swiss author and editor Max Rychner, who wrote to Jung and other celebrities asking them for opinions about Goethe and his work, Jung says, "My mother drew my attention to Faust when I was about 15 years old." Jung considered it a Germanic contribution to the world as a sacred text: "Faust is the most recent pillar in that bridge of the spirit which spans the morass of world history, beginning with the Gilgamesh epic, the I Ching, the Upanishads, the Tao-te-Ching, the fragments of Heraclitus, and continuing in the Gospel of St. John, the letters of St. Paul, in Meister Eckhart and in Dante." C. G. Jung, Letters: 1. 1906-1950 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973), p. 89.
47. Largely because of the cultural repercussions of Winckelmann's rediscovery of ancient Greece, the teaching of German Wissenschaft in the nineteenth century originally was not based on the methods of the natural sciences, but instead on those of philosophy and classical philology. Between 1850 and 1880 this emphasis had reversed somewhat. The claims of both Freud and Jung that their psychological theories and methods were indeed science comes from this older view of Wissenschaft that was eventually supplanted by the equation of the scientific with the experimental study of materialist hypotheses. On German education and science during the nineteenth century, see the following: Fritz Ringer, "Higher Education in Germany in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 2 (1967): 125-46; R. Steven Turner, "The Growth of Professional Research in Prussia, 1818 to 1848 -- Causes and Context," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 3 (1971): 137-82; and an older but still useful work, Friedrich Paulsen, German Universities and University Study (New York: Macmillan, 1906).
48. Ernest Jones, Free Associations: Memoirs of a Psycho-Analyst (New York: Basic Books, 1959), p. 35.
49. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 6.
CHAPTER TWO
1. George Mosse, The Culture of Western Europe: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 3d ed. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988). Specifically, according to Mosse, "This change of public spirit after 1870 tended toward a recapturing of the irrational -- a revolt against positivism which was later to form part of the totalitarian movement of this century" (p. 220). The literature on the fin de siecle is quite large, but a useful collection of essays on the technological, economic, social, and scientific innovations of that era can be found in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter, eds., Fill de Siecle and Its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
2. An introduction to the nineteenth-century bourgeois European mentality, useful here because of its focus on German Europe, is the section on "Studies in the History of the Bourgeois-Christian World," in Karl Lowith, From Hegel to Nietzsche: The Revolution in Nineteenth- Century Thought (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964). A useful perspective can also be found in the general introduction to Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience, Victoria to Freud: Volume 1. Education of the Senses (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 3-70; and the second volume, The Tender Passion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
3. In the Jung Oral Archives at the Countway Library of Medicine the lengthy interview with Jolande Jacobi repeatedly brings out her personal observations of Jung's bourgeois conventionality in social situations.
4. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious; "Carl Gustav Jung: His Historical Setting."
5. Max Nordau, Degeneration (New York: D. Appleton, 1895), p. 1. The appearance of the English translation of Degeneration in February 1895 was a major cultural event, as the book ignited outrage among modern artists and fear among many everyday individuals when Nordau argued that they were hereditary degenerates. George Bernard Shaw, among many others, counterattacked Nordau with his own publications. The original German edition was Entartung (Berlin: C. Dunker, 1892).
6. See J. Edward Chamberlin and Sander Gilman, eds., Degeneration: The Dark Side of Progress (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848-1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth- Century France (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991).
7. Friedrich Nietzsche, "Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Part I (1883)," in The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Viking Penguin Books, 1982), p. 187.
8. Jost Hermand, Old Dreams of a New Reich: Volkish Utopias and National Socialism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), pp. 31, 35.
9. The term "decadent" meant many things to the fin-de-siecle generation, but it generally referred to something that was luxurious, sensual, and corrupting. For an engaging meditation on the term, see Richard Gilman, Decadence: The Strange Life of an Epithet (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1979). On the literary movement, see A. E. Carter, The Idea of Decadence in French Literature (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1958); Arthur Symons's signal "The Decadent Movement in Literature," which first appeared in the November 1893 issue of Harper's New Monthly Magazine, is reprinted in Karl Beckson, ed., Aesthetes and Decadents of the 1890s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 134-51.
10. On the individual as "Nietzschean hero," see Leslie Paul Thiele, Friedrich Nietzsche and the Politics of the Soul: A Study of Heroic Individualism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
11. "I was twenty-four when I read Zarathustra. I could not understand it, but it made a profound impression upon me." Jung, Analytical Psychology p. 7. We know, however, from the dates of the Zofingia lectures that Jung was quite familiar with Nietzsche at age twenty-three.
12. Jung, MDR, p. 102.
13. The seminar notes have been edited by James Jarrett and are now available in C. G. Jung, Nietzsche's Zarathustra, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
14. Steven Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany p. 14.
15. This equation of modernity with the dark forces of irrationalism (which has no redeeming value) is a bias argued most recently in Georg Lukacs, The Destruction of Reason, trans. Peter Palmer (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1981).
16. The philosophical work of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) achieved its strongest reception in European culture between 1880 and 1900 and had a great impact on Richard Wagner (1813-1883), Friedrich Nietzsche, and many others who matured during the fin de siecle such as Jung. See David Luft, "Schopenhauer, Austria, and the Generation of 1905," Central European History 26 (1983): 53-75. Jung, while a medical student, was led to his ideas of the unconscious mind through studying Schopenhauer and von Hartmann (1842-1906). He was largely ignorant of the growing psychiatric literature (primarily in French) on dissociation and hypnotism at this time and instead turned to these German philosophers to help him formulate his ideas about the human psyche. "My ideas of the unconscious, then, first became enlightened through Schopenhauer and Hartmann. Hartmann, having the advantage of living in a later period than Schopenhauer, formulates the latter's ideas in a modern way," Jung reported in 1925. See Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 5.
17. On the history of French psychiatry in the nineteenth century and the leading role of the Esquirol circle, see Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). On the leading role of French alienistes such as Benedict Augustin Morel (1809-1873) in establishing hereditary degeneration as the most influential theory of mental illness and therefore the most pressing social concern of the age, see Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness; and Pick, Faces of Degeneration.
18. The theoretical differences between Freud and Janet were significant, and each maintained a very different view of the unconscious. Personally, the two men despised one another. See Campbell Perry and J. R. Laurence, "Mental Processing Outside of Awareness: The Contributions of Freud and Janet," in Kenneth Bowers and Donald Meichenbaum, ed., The Unconscious Reconsidered (New York: John Wiley, 1984). The best history of this French dissociationist tradition is Ellenberger's The Discovery of the Unconscious. Also useful is Onno van der Hart and B. Friedman, "A Reader's Guide to Pierre Janet on Dissociation: A Neglected Intellectual Heritage," Dissociation 2 (989): 3-16.
19. See C. G. Jung, "On the Doctrine of the Complexes" (911), Experimental Researches CW 2 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972); and especially his, "A Review of the Complex Theory" (934), The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, CW 8 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969). The dissociationist basis of this theory is explicitly discussed in Richard Noll, "Multiple Personality, Dissociation, and C. C. Jung's 'Complex Theory,''' Journal of Analytical Psychology 34 (1989): 353-70; and "Multiple Personality and the Complex Theory: A Correction and a Rejection of C. G. Jung's 'Collective Unconscious,'" Journal of Analytical Psychology 38 (993): 321-23.
20. See, e.g., Wilma Koutstaal, "Skirting the Abyss: A History of Experimental Explorations of Automatic Writing in Psychology," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 28 (992): 5-27. One such pioneer of the use of experimental automatic writing was Gertrude Stein, who published papers on her work as a student at Radcliffe in the 1890s. See also Sonu Shamdasani, "Automatic Writing and the Discovery of the Unconscious," Spring 54 (993): 100-131.
21. F.W.H. Myers's theory of the subliminal self can be found in his numerous publications in the 1880s and 1890s in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research and in his posthumous magnum opus, Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death, 2 vols. (London: Longman, Greens, 1903). The crowning achievement of psychical research is the analysis of the "Census of Hallucinations" of apparitions of the living and the dead conducted by Myers and his colleagues, Edmund Gurney and Frank Podmore: Phantasms of the Living, 2 vols. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, 1886). Myers was a close friend of William James (as was Flournoy), who held Myers in such great esteem that he suggested, "What is the precise constitution of the Subliminal -- such is the problem which deserves to figure in our Science hereafter as the problem of Myers." William James, "Frederic Myers' Service to Psychology" (1901), in The Works of William James: Essays in Psychical Research, ed. Frederick Burkhardt and Fredson Bowers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 196.
22. Burckhardt's complaint is in a letter to Johanna Kinke dated 23 August 1843 and is cited in Peter Gay, Education of the Sellses, p. 52n.
23. On Jewish identity and typical patterns of assimilation and nationalism among Jews in late nineteenth-century Austria-Hungary, see the excellent volume by Marsha Rosenblatt, The Jews of Vienna, 1867- 1914: Assimilation and Identity (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983). By the end of the First World War there were 200,000 Jews in Vienna, according to Rosenblatt (p. 196).
24. Lowith, From Hegel to Nietzsche, p. 334.
25. Ibid., p. 22.
26. Roy Pascal, From Naturalism to Expressionism: German Literature and Society, 1880-1918 (New York: Basic Books, 1973), p. 167. See especially Pascal's discussion of theological modernists on pp. 167-71.
27. Ibid., p. 167.
28. Wilhelm Hauer, Karl Heim, Karl Adam, Germany's New Religion: The German Faith Movement, ed. and trans. by T.S.K. Scott-Craig and R. E. Davies (New York: Abingdon Press, 1937).
29. George Bernard Shaw, The Perfect Wagnerite, 4th ed. (London: Constable & Co., 1923). Shaw's first edition of this work appeared in 1898.
30. Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of Its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, trans. by W. Montgomery (New York: Macmillan, 1968), p. 1. This translation is based on the first German edition: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: Eine Geschichte der Leben-Jesu- Forschung (1906); an enlarged and retitled edition appeared in 1913 as Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung. Schweitzer believed he was improving on the advances made by Strauss and by the Tubingen school in this work. Jung was familiar with Schweitzer's works and refers to the 1913 volume in some of his writings. Both men were born in Germanic Europe in the same year -- 1875 -- which makes them contemporaries in many ways.
31. David Friedrich Strauss, The Life of Jesus Critically Examined, trans. George Eliot, ed. Peter Hodgson (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1972). See also Horton Harris, David Friedrich Strauss and His Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973).
32. This tradition continues today, but with much less controversy. See, e.g., John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant (New York: Harper & Row, 1991). For the earliest speculations on the historical Jesus, and the eighteenth-century theologian who provided Schweitzer's starting point, see Charles Talbert, ed., Reimarus: Fragments (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1970).
33. Due to Renan's talents, it was thought that he would become a doctor of theology and teach Oriental languages (Hebrew, Arabic, Aramaic) in a Catholic seminary. Instead, as a disciple and early biographer puts it, "Every month of study led him further and further away from the Church." Madame James Darmesteter, The Life of Ernest Renan (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., 1897), p. 48.
34. Strauss's most famous work in this vein was Der alte und der neue Glaube [The Old Faith and the New] (Leipzig, 1872). On Strauss's mixture of biological evolutionary ideas with political views, see Richard Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany, 1859-1895," Journal of the History of Ideas 54 (1993): 469-88. For the most detailed assessment of the later work of Strauss, which was much informed by Darwin, see Frederick Gregory, Nature Lost? Natural Science and the German Theological Traditions of the Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 67-111.
35. Friedrich Nietzsche, "David Strauss, the Confessor and the Author," Untimely Meditations, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 1-55. For discussions of Nietzsche's evaluation of Strauss, see Kauffman, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist pp. 114-16, 120, 130, 148, 367n; and Carl Pletsch, Young Nietzsche: Becoming a Genius (New York: The Free Press, 1991), pp. 165-67.
36. Jung's personal library contains a German translation of Renan's famous work. Interestingly, Strauss and Jung shared a similar fascination with the famous early spiritualist medium, "the Seeress of Prevorst." Schweitzer notes in The Quest of the Historical Jesus: "Two journeys which Strauss made along with his fellow-student Binder to Weinsberg to see Justinius Kerner made a deep impression upon him. He had to make a deliberate effort to escape from the dream-world of the 'Prophetess of Prevorst.' Some years later, in a Latin note to Binder, he speaks of Weinsberg as 'Mecca nostra'" (pp. 68-69). In a May 1897 lecture to his Zofingia fraternity, Jung quotes from the writings of Strauss on the "Seeress." C. G. Jung, "Some Thoughts on Psychology," in The Zofingia Lectures, paras. 73-75.
37. C. G. Jung, "Thoughts on the Interpretation of Christianity, with Reference to the Theory of Albrecht Ritschl" (1899), in The Zofingia Lectures, para. 251. His reference to seeking the opinions of theologians "for more than two years now" probably is in reference to the freedom he felt in doing so after the death of his father, with whom he had many theological disagreements, in 1896.
38. Ibid., p. 107.
39. This more critical approach of Protestantism fostered a distinctly American form of psychotherapy in the Boston area starting around 1880 that seems to have been based on (1) the spiritual and moral principles of the New England Transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson (and others) and (2) on strengthening the volition ("will training"). See George E. Gifford, Jr. ed., Psychoanalysis, Psychotherapy, and the New England Medical Scene, 1894-1944 (New York: Science/History Publications, 1978); the "Emmanuel Movement" led by Rev. Elwood Worcester of Boston's famous Emmanuel Church spawned a psychotherapeutic movement and even a journal (in 1909) entitled Psychotherapy that was a forum for discussion on the common bond between psychology, medicine, and religion. The works of William James, Henri Bergson, and Emerson were the foundation of most of the discussions. Besides clergymen, eminent physicians and psychiatrists contributed to its early issues. See Robert Fuller, Americans and the Unconscious (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 100-108.
40. A. D. Nock, "Hellenistic Mysteries and Christian Sacraments," in Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, ed. Zeph Stewart, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972), 2:791. Similarly, historians of science who research astrology, magic, and divination within their ancient cultural contexts are also viewed with suspicion. For an argument against such taint, see David Pingree, "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science," Isis 83 (1992): 554-63.
41. James Gilman, "R. G. Collingwood and the Religious Sources of Nazism," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 54 (1986): 111-28. This thesis is also argued in a broader context in George Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975).
42. Georg Lukacs, "Vitalism (Lebensphilosophie) in Imperialist Germany," in The Destruction of Reason, p. 415.
43. Ibid., p. 414. On themes related to mythology and Lebensphilosophie, see Ivan Strenski, "Ernst Cassirer's Mythical Thought in Weimar Culture," History of European Ideas 5 (1984): 363-84; and Jonathan Wagner, "Nazism and Sentimentalism: The Propaganda Career of Karl Goetz," Canadian Journal of History 24 (1989), pp. 63-81.
44. Beatrice Hinkle, "Jung's Libido Theory and the Bergsonian Philosophy," New York Medical Journal 99 (1914): 1080-86. See also Pete Gunter, "Bergson and Jung," Journal of the History of Ideas 44 (1982): 632-52.
45. See Walter Struve, Elites Against Democracy: Leadership Ideas in Bourgeois Political Though in Germany, 1890-1933 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973).
Re: The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement
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Part 2 of 5
CHAPTER THREE1. Ernst Mayr makes the argument that "Darwinism" is not one coherent theory, as Darwin presented it in his 1859 book, but instead five separate theories that other evolutionists rejected in one or more of its components. This confusion has led to ambiguous interpretations of the terms "Darwinian" or the "Darwinian revolution" by others during Darwin's lifetime and it continues today, Mayr asserts. These five theories were:
1. The acceptance of evolution as such, as opposed to a constant, unchanging world
2. Evolution of all life through common descent from a single ancestor.
3. The gradualness of evolution, as opposed to its suddenness (saltationism).
4. Populational speciation.
5. Natural selection.
See Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution and Inheritance (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 505-10.
2. On this issue of variation and descent in Naturphilosophie, see Timothy Lenoir, "Generational Factors in the Origin of Romantische Naturphilosophie," Journal of the History of Biology 2 (1978): 57-100. See also the paper by William Coleman, "Morphology Between Type Concept and Descent Theory," Journal of the History of Medicine 31 (1976): 149-75.
3. On the three basic types of Naturphilosophie (transcendental, romantic, and metaphysical Naturphilosophie) see Timothy Lenoir, "The Gottingen School and the Development of Transcendental Naturphilosophie in the Romantic Era," in William Coleman and Camille Limoges, eds., Studies in the History of Biology, Volume 5 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), pp. 111-205. See also the following: D. M. Knight, "The Physical Sciences and the Romantic Movement," History of Science 9 (1970): 54-75; H.A.M. Snelders, "Romanticism and Naturphilosophie and the Inorganic Natural Sciences, 1798-1840. An Introductory Survey," Studies in Romanticism 9 (1970): 193-215; Charles Culotta, "German Biophysics, Objective Knowledge and Romanticism," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 4 (1975): 3-38; Elke Hahn, "The Philosophy of Living Things: Schelling's Naturphilosophie as a Transition to the Philosophy of Identity," in Woodward and Cohen, World Views and Scientific Discipline Formation pp. 339-50; L. H. LeRoy, "Johann Christian Reil and Naturphilosophie in Physiologie" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1985); Helmut Muller-Sievers, "Epigenesis: Wilhelm von Humbolt und die Naturphilosophie" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1990); and Gunther B. Risse, "Kant, Schelling and the Early Search for a Philosophical Science of Medicine in Germany," Journal for the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 27 (1972): 145-58. Two useful essays on Naturphilosophie appear in the volume edited by G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Eighteenth-Century Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980): Simon Schaffer, "Natural Philosophy" (pp. 55-91), and J. L. Heilbron, "Experimental Natural Philosophy" (pp. 357-87). The best collection of essays on Naturphilosophie, however, can be found in Herbert Harz, Rolf Lather, and Siegfried Wollgast, ed., Naturphilosophie van der Spekulation zur Wissenschaft (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1969).
4. Richard Owen, On the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton (London: Voorst, 1848). Jung of course later uses it for his own morphology of transcendental Platonic ideas in the human psyche, his own historical taxonomy of human experience, in his theory of dominants (1917) or archetypes (1919).
5. Dieter Oldenburg, Romantische Naturphilosophie und Arzneimittellehre (Brunswick, West Germany: Technische Universitat Braunschweig, 1979); Frederick Gregory, "Regulative Therapeutics in the German Romantic Era: The Contribution of Jakob Friedrich Fries (1773-1843)," Clio Medica 18 (1983): 184-201. Also useful is W. F. Bynum, "Health, Disease and Medical Care," in Rousseau and Porter, The Ferment of Knowledge, pp. 211-53.
6. See Paul Lawrence Farber, "The Type-Concept in Zoology during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century," Journal of the History of Biology 9 (1976): 110; also Lenoir, "The Gottingen School," pp. 111-205.
7. Timothy Lenoir, The Strategy of Life: Teleology and Mechanics in Nineteenth-Century German Biology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 69.
8. See Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious pp. 204-7.
9. According to a 1954 statement by W. Leibbrand, "Jung's teachings in the field of psychology are not intelligible if they are not connected with Schelling" (cited in ibid., p. 204). Jung's posthumous Bibliothek lists editions of the collected works of Schelling and Goethe among its holdings, as well as the works of Gorres and Caruso Whereas the Naturphilosophen are amply represented, the works of the major scientific materialists are almost entirely absent from the shelves of Jung's personal library.
10. MDR, pp. 89, 101.
11. C. G. Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis, CW 14 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), para. 791.
12. See Frank Sulloway, Freud: Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Method (New York: Basic Books, 1979), pp. 146-47; Iago Galdston, "Freud and Romantic Medicine," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 30 (1956): 489-507; Paul Cranefield, "Some Problems in Writing the History of Psychoanalysis," in George Mora and Jeanne Brand, ed., Psychiatry and Its History: Methodological Problems in Research (Springfield, Ill.: Charles Thomas, 1970), pp. 41-55.
B. See Sulloway, Freud: Biologist of the Mind pp. 14-28, 65-66; Paul Cranefield, "The Philosophical and Cultural Interests of the Biophysics Movement of 1847," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 21 (1966): 1-7; Paul Cranefield, "Freud and the 'School of Helmholtz,'" Gesnerus (1966) 23: 35-39.
14. The research program of the "teleomechanists" is identified and described in Lenoir, The Strategy of Life. However, it must be noted that not all scholars agree with Lenoir's thesis that a separate school of "teleomechanists" existed along with vitalistic Naturphilosophie and reductionistic materialism. See the criticisms in a review of Lenoir's book by K. Caneva, "Teleology with Regrets," Annals of Science 47 (1990): 291-300.
15. See Frederick Gregory, Scientific Materialism in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1977). In line with Jung's lifelong allegiance with the vitalists and the Naturphilosophen, in a 9 June 1934 letter to his disciple Gerhard Adler Jung says that Freud's "materialistic, rationalistic view of the world" is due to the fact "he is simply a typical exponent of the expiring 19th century, just like Haeckel, Dubois- Reymond, or that Kraft und Stoff ass Buchner." See Jung, Letters: 1.1906-1950, p. 164.
16. Useful historical reviews of evolutionary biology are Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought; Ernst Mayr, Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); Robert Richards, Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987; Robert Richards, The Meaning of Evolution: Morphological Construction and Ideological Reconstruction of Darwin's Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); and Peter Bowler, Evolution: The History of an idea (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984). Also of value are the contributions to Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth Lloyd, ed., Keywords in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
17. John Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud and Sabina Spielrein (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1993).
18. On the influence of nineteenth-century concepts of genius on the Nietzsche-Wagner relationship, and on Nietzsche's development as an intellectual, see Pletsch, Young Nietzsche.
19. Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud, Studien uber Hysterie (Leipzig and Vienna: Deuticke, 1895); English edition: Studies On Hysteria, trans. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1975).
20. Stanley Rothman and Philip Isenberg, "Sigmund Freud and the Politics of Marginality," Central European History 7 (1974): 58-78. This same Viennese milieu, with its additional volkisch elements of Teutonic occultism and Pan-Germanism, also forged the psyche of a young and destitute Adolf Hitler, who lived there from 1906 to 1911, the years of first significant fame for Freud and psychoanalysis. "Vienna, the city so widely considered the very essence of innocent gaiety, the festive home of happy crowds, is to me, unfortunately, but a living reminder of the saddest period in my life .... But more than this, I formed at this time an image and a concept of the world which have become the rock-ribbed foundation of my present activity. I have had but to learn a little beyond what I then created; there was nothing I had to change." Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (New York: Stackpole Sons, 1939), 1: 35. The original German edition appeared separately in two volumes, in 1925 and in 1927.
21. See Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method.
22. On the nineteenth-century controversy over Jewish ethnicity as degeneracy, see S. Almog, "Judaism as Illness," History of European ideas 13 (1991): 793-804.
23. Sander Gilman, "Sexology, Psychoanalysis and Degeneration: From a Theory of Race to a Race to Theory," in Chamberlin and Gilman, Degeneration: The Dark Side of Progress, p. 89. Gilman's article is the single best exploration of Freud's transformation of nineteenth-century medical theories of hereditary degeneration. Freud's rejection of hereditary degeneration theory was noted, but not fully explored, in Sulloway's exemplary work, Freud, Biologist of the Mind pp. 289- 97, 423.
24. Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method.
25. Frank Sulloway, "Reassessing Freud's Case Histories: The Social Construction of Psychoanalysis," in Toby Gelfand and John Kerr, ed., Freud and the History of Psychoanalysis (Hillsdale, N.J.: The Analytic Press, 1992), pp. 154, 180. See also G. Weisz, "Scientists and Sectarians: The Case of Psychoanalysis," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 11 (1975): 350-64. The work of Sulloway, Jeffrey Masson, and Peter Swales in the 1970s and 1980s may be credited for sparking the diminution of charisma from Freud as evidenced by the following: Frederick Crews, "The Unknown Freud," The New York Review of Books 40 (19),18 November 1993; and especially the cover story of the 29 November 1993 issue of Time ("Is Freud Dead?") by Paul Gray, "The Assault on Freud," pp. 47-51. For a sociological discussion of "Freudian psychotherapy" as a "client cult," see Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge, "Who Joins Cult Movements?" in R. Stark and W. Bainbridge, eds., The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 394-424.
26. See Georg Lukacs, "Vitalism (Lebensphilosophie) in Imperialist Germany," which comprises chapter 4 of his Destruction of Reason, pp. 403-546.
27. The charismatic nature of Freudism is observed by Weber in a 13 September 1907 letter to Else Jaffe. Excerpts can be found in Marianne Weber, Max Weber: A Biography, trans. Harry Zorn (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988), p. 379. The sociological phenomenon of groups like Freud's and similar "aesthetic sects" -- such as that centered on poet Stefan George -- were Weber's living models of charismatic cults or sects that had the potential to "routinize" and form quasi-religious institutions. In a talk given at the very first meeting of the Society of German Sociologists in 1910 he cited George and his fanatic circle in this connection. For the text of Weber's brief remarks on the charismatic group of the George-Kreis, see Max Weber, "Geschaftsbericht und Diskussionsreden auf den deutschen soziologischen Tagungen," ("1910, 1912) in Gesammelte Allfsatze zur Soziologie und Sozialpolitik (Tubingen: Verlag von J.C.B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1924), pp. 446, 453. Weber had his initial personal encounter with George in August 1910 and, impressed with the eccentric poet, maintained a fruitful personal relationship with him until June 1912. On the Weber- George relationship, and Weber's public defense of the George-Kreis, see Arthur Mitzman, The Iron Cage: An Historical Interpretation of Max Weber (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1970), pp. 262-71.
28. The Clink Conference is exhaustively covered in the useful, but somewhat eccentric, volume by Saul Rosenzweig, Freud, Jung and Hall the King-Maker: The Expedition to America (1909) (Seattle: Hogrefe & Huber, 1992).
29. Robert S. Woodworth, letter to the editor, The Nation 103 (1916): 396.
30. Knight Dunlap, Mysticism, Freudianism, and Scientific Psychology (St Louis, Mo.: Mosby, 1920), p. 8.
31. An excellent review of the rejection of psychoanalysis on these grounds in the United States is found in Gail Hornstein, "The Return of the Repressed: Psychology's Problematic Relations with Psychoanalysis, 1909-1960," American Psychologist 47 (1992): 254-63.
32. William Montgomery, "Germany," in Thomas Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Darwinism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974), p. 107.
33. Ernst Haeckel, Naturliche Schopfungsgeschichte (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1868), pp. 5,93. His view on the struggle for the "survival of the fittest" in human society also appear in this book. See Weikart, "The Origins of Social Darwinism in Germany," pp. 469-88.
34. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought p. 70.
35. Cited in the exemplary paper by Niles Holt, "Ernst Haeckel's Monistic Religion," Journal of the History of Ideas 32 (1971): 270.
36. Haeckel's explicit call for a revolutionary Kulturkampf through a monistic religion comes in his chapter, "Our Monistic Religion," in this famous book, which sold more than 300,000 copies in Germany alone by Haeckel's death in 1919. For a review of the many twists and turns in the development of monistic religion, see ibid.
37. See especially Ernst Haeckel, Kunstformen der Natur: 100 Illustrationstafeln mit beschreibendem Text (Leipzig: Verlag der Bibliographischen Instituts, 1899-1904). On the "evolutionary aesthetics" movement inspired by Haeckel, see C. Kockerbeck, Ernst Haeckel's 'Kunstformen der Natur' und ihr Einfluss auf die deutsche bildene Kunst der Jahrhundertwende (Frankfurt, 1986), and Kurt Bayertz, "Biology and Beauty: Science and Aesthetics in Fin-de-Siecle Germany," in Teich and Porter, Fin de Siecle and Its Legacy, pp. 278-95.
38. A poster announcing performances by Haeckel in Berlin in April 1905 is reproduced between pp. 8 and 9 in the exemplary volume by Daniel Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism: Social Darwinism ill Ernst Haeckel and the German Monistic League (London: Macdonald, 1971), which is the best book on Haeckel in English. An image on the poster shows a lecture hall with skeletons and all of Haeckel's nature drawings prominently displayed in what Gasman refers to as "a sinister environment for a Darwinian Passion Play." Compare Jung's dream with the images in Ernst Haeckel, Die Radiolarien (Rhizopoda radiaria): fine Monograph, 2 vols. (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1862). The illustrations from these technical works of Haeckel found their way into innumerable popular magazines and other readily accessible publications. They may have appeared in the books or the "scientific periodical" Jung "read with a passionate interest" when an adolescent and which his parents paid for him to receive (see MDR, pp. 83-85).
39. Ernst Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe at the Close of the Nineteenth Century, trans. Joseph McCabe (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1900), p. 382.
40. Montgomery, "Germany," p. 85.
41. Duncan read the English translation of The Riddle of the Universe and other works by Haeckel, and after reading the press reports of Haeckel's seventieth birthday in February 1904 sent him a letter of congratulations in which she told him, "Your works had brought me also religion and understanding, which count for more than life." A correspondence between Duncan and Haeckel ensued, and while performing at Bayreuth she held a dinner party in his honor and sat with him in the Wagner family box at the Festspielhaus through a performance of Parsifal, which Duncan said did not appeal to Haeckel because "his mind was too purely scientific to admit the fascination of a legend." This story is cited in Victor Seroff, The Real Isadora (New York: Dial Press, 1971), pp. 66-67. See also the earlier biography by Allan Ross Macdougall, Isadora, a Revolutionary in Art and Love (New York: Thomas, 1960), pp. 90, 92, 132, 258.
42. Steiner and Haeckel corresponded in the 1890s and recognized a common bond in their philosophical work. This was prior to Steiner's break with the Theosophical movement. Gasman says, "Haeckel, however, eventually dissociated himself from Steiner, fearing the idealistic implications of the word, theosophy" (The Scientific Origins of National Socialism, p. 79). See Johannes Hemleben, Rudolph Steiner und Ernst Haeckcl (Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistesleben, 1965); also, Rudolph Steiner, Haeckel, die Weltratsel, und die Theosophie (Dornach, Switzerland: Philosophisch-Anthropologischer Verlag, 1926).
43. Forel is open about his participation in the Monistic movement, and his rejection of its support of German imperialism during the First World War in his autobiography Out of My Life and Work (New York: Norton, 1937).
44. In The Discovery of the Unconscious, Ellenberger does not mention Forel's advocacy of eugenics, Social Darwinism, or the monistic religion, although his great achievements as director of the Burgholzli and in psychiatric treatment are deservedly lauded (see, e.g., pp. 285-86). Forel's lifelong passion was not psychiatry, but ants; he was an internationally recognized expert on their biology and behavior. His observations of ants and the results of his eugenics experiments with them led to analogies with human society and suggestions for its improvement. In his epilogue to his two-volume magnum opus, The Social World of Ants, trans. C. K. Ogden (New York: Albert & Charles Boni, 1930; original English edition, 1928), Forel outlines his utopian vision. "We may hope that the eugenics of the future, if well applied, will even be able to improve by small degrees the quality of our higher races" (2:350), he writes, and, to accomplish this, advocates the establishment of a "scientific religion of man's well-being" that "must be the religion of the future" and "must be free from doctrine and metaphysics, uniting all that is truly good and purely human in the ancient religions" (2:351). Neither Haeckel nor the monistic religion are mentioned by name here, but Forel's ideas clearly reflect these influences. Forel's remarks demonstrate how tempting it was for psychiatric authorities at the turn of the century to use their influence to advocate avenues of Lebensreform for society as a whole, including proposals for new religions.
45. For more on Ostwald, and his prominent role in promoting eugenics and Social Darwinism in Germany, both later incorporated into Nazi culture, see Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism. Jung's personal library contains several volumes by Ostwald from this Monistenbund period: Grosse Manner (1910), Modernenaturphilosophie. 1. Die Ordnungswissenschaften (1914), and Die Philosophie der Werte (1913). See C. G. Jung Bibliothek: Katalog (Kusnacht-Zurich, 1967), pp. 55-56.
46. See the interesting interview with Ostwald and the background details of his life in Edwin E. Slosson, Major Prophets of To-Day (Boston: Little, Brown, 1914), pp. 190-241. Slosson even includes a very useful bibliographic section on "How to Read Ostwald" (pp. 238-41). Other modern "prophets" of the prewar era interviewed and profiled by Slosson, the literary editor of The Independent, include Maurice Maeterlinck, Bergson, Henri Poincare, Elie Metchnikoff, and Haeckel.
47. C. G. Jung, "A Contribution to the Study of Psychological Types" (1913), Psychological Types, CW 6 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), para. 870.
48. Ibid., chapter 9.
49. Ibid., para. 699. This appears in the "Definitions" section at the end of Psychological Types under the entry for "concretism."
50. Jung mentions the Annalen der Naturphilosophie, which was a place for prominent members of the scientific community to publish their own speculative philosophies, in a lecture given in December 1922 to the students of Zurich University but published years later: "The Love Problem of a Student" (1928), Civilization in Transition, para. 214. Ostwald's theory of energetics is clearly a reference point in his "On Psychic Energy" (1928), Structure of Dynamics of the Psyche where Ostwald and his theory are briefly dismissed in two early footnotes.
51. See the chapter on "Monism and Marxism" in Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism, pp. 106-25. For a sampling of the East German literature on the cross-correspondences between monism and Marxism, and a brief discussion of early German communists who were also monists, see the following: Hermann Ley, "Der Deutsche Monistenbund -- zur Aktualitat seiner Aufgaben und Ziele," in Uwe Niedersen, ed., Komplexitat-Zeit-Methode (I): Komplexitatsbewaltigung -- eine Einfuhrung (Halle-Wittenberg, DDR: Martin-Luther-Universitat, 1986), pp. 179-94; E. Teumer, "Aus dem Kampf des 'Deutschen Monistenbundes' um eine wissenschaftliche Weltanschauung," in H. Harz, R. Lather and S. Wollgast, ed., Naturphilosophie -- von der Spekulation zur Wissenschaft (Berlin, DDR: 1969); Reinhard Mocek, "Two Faces of Biologism: Some Reflections on a Difficult Period in the History of Biology in Germany," in Woodward and Cohen, World Views and Scientific Discipline Formation, pp. 279-91.
52. I am indebted to Peter Swales for this information about the Haeckel Museum in Jena and for directing my attention to the importance of Haeckel for understanding Fliess and Freud.
53. MDR, pp. 100-101.
54. Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe pp. 148-49.
55. See C. G. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious: A Study of the Transformation and Symbolisms of the Libido, CW B, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), paras. 36, 43.
56. Ibid., para. 36.
57. Ibid., para. 43.
58. Ibid., para. 51.
59. See Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, "Wagner and Wagnerian Ideas in Russia," in David Large and William Weber, ed., Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984), pp. 198-245.
60. On the Marxist god-building movement," see George Kline, "The God-Builders: Gorky and Lunacharsky," chap. 4 in his Religious and Anti-Religious Thought in Russia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975); and Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism. Volume 2: The Golden Age, trans. P. S. Falla (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 446-47.
61. Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983). The quote from the 1913 letter of Lenin is reproduced on p. 22 of Tumarkin's book. For an account of the gradual demise of the Lenin cult in Russia, and a return to the reverence of ancestors, see Nina Tumarkin, "Myth and Memory in Soviet Society," Society 24 (1987): 69-72. Nietzschean god-building and Carlylian hero worship were very much a part of communism and fascism: Jeremy Paltiel, "The Cult of Personality: Some Comparative Reflections on Political Culture in Leninist Regimes," Studies in Comparative Communism 16 (1983): 49-64; Graham Gill, "Personality Cult, Political Culture and Party Structure," Studies in Comparative Communism 17 (1984): 111-21; and Romke Visser, "Fascist Doctrine and the Cult of the Romanita," Journal of Contemporary History 27 (1992): 5-22.
62. Nietzsche," Also Sprach Zarathustra: Third Part," in The Portable Nietzsche, p. 315.
63. Struve, Elites Against Democracy. Rather than review the vast literature on elites theory (such as Pareto's, etc.), I refer the reader to the first chapter of Struve's book and to its bibliographical essay, which contain extensive references to both the English and German literatures.
64. Ibid. pp. 41-45.
65. Jung, "Introduction to Toni Wolff's 'Studies in Jungian Psychology,''' Civilization in Transition, para 887. This "silent experiment" was the Psychological Club-the germ-cell of Jung's movement.
CHAPTER FOUR1. For a colorful description of these volkisch examples of politics conducted in "a sharper key," see Carl Schorske, Fin-de-Saxle Vienna: Politics and Culture (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1980), pp. 116-80. For a brief critique of the historical work of Schorske and others on fin-de-siecle Vienna and Austria-Hungary, see M. P. Steinberg, "'Fin de Siecle Vienna Ten Years Later: Viel Traum, Wenig Wirklichkeit," Austrian History Yearbook 22 (1991): 151-62. On the intellectual sources of German Jews in the nineteenth-century see George Mosse, German Jews Beyond Judaism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985).
2. See George Drinka, The Birth of Neurosis: Myth, Malady and the Victorians (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984).
3. This sociological hypothesis has also been put forth to explain the preponderance of female mediums or "wise women" in possession and trance-type religious practices in traditional societies that are otherwise male-dominated. See I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religions: An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism (Middlesex: Penguin, 1971).
4. Pierre Chuvin, A Chronicle of the Last Pagans, p. 16.
5. Roman pagans burned their corpses, which were considered unclean, and were horrified at the Christian practice of saving body parts and (through pagan eyes) defiling sacred sites by keeping such relics on or near altars. See Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981). During the European Middle Ages, monasteries and other Christian orders would have an envied or ridiculed social status depending on the nature and source of their relics (i.e., the more noted or powerful a saint, the more supernatural power accrued in that Christian community). Thus, it has been documented that Indiana Jones-like raids by monks from one monastery to steal the relics of another took place and resulted in the passage of ecclesiastical codes to ban such theft. See Patric Geary, Furta Sacra: Thefts of Relics in the Central Middle Ages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
6. Ross Shepard Kraemer, Her Share of the Blessings: Women's Religions Among Pagans, Jews, and Christians in the Greco-Roman World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 174.
7. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, trans. Joseph Ward Swain (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1915), p. 61.
8. Mircea Eliade, "The Occult and the Modern World," (1974) in Occultism, Witchcraft and Cultural Fashions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), pp. 64-65. The scholarly opinion on Christianity's rejection of pagan mysteries-type "secret initiations" is reviewed in Mircea Eliade, Rites and Symbols of Initiation: The Mysteries of Birth and Rebirth (New York: Harper Colophon, 1958), pp. 115-38. See also Nock, "Hellenistic Mysteries and Christian Sacraments," 2:791-820.
9. Erika Bourguignon, Possession (San Francisco: Chandler and Sharp, 1976).
10. For spiritualistic traditions in pagan antiquity, see the following: E. R. Dodds, "Supernormal Phenomena in Classical Antiquity," Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research 55 (1971): 189-237; E. R. Dodds, The Creeks and the Irrational (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1951); John Pollard, Seers, Shrines, and Sirens: The Creek Religious Revolution in the Sixth Century B.C. (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1965); Joseph Fontenrose, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and its Origins (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959); H. W. Parke, Sybils and Sibylline Prophecy in Classical Antiquity, edited by B. C. McGing (London: Routledge, 1988); and H. W. Parke and D.E.W. Wormell, The Delphic Oracle, 2 vols. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1956).
11. Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1978). A brief (and unconvincing) critique of Smith's hypothesis can be found in Kee, Medicine, Miracle and Magic pp. 112-14.
12. See David Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmanns, 1983).
13. See James Webb, The Occult Underground (La Salle, Ill.:Open Court, 1974), and his scholarly companion volume, The Occult Establishment (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1976).
14. This was not as true in many Roman Catholic countries, especially Spain, where inquisitions in 1808 and 1815 forced many to flee to more tolerant Catholic countries, such as France.
15. Sydney Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972).
16. Emma Hardinge, Modern American Spiritualism; or, A Twenty Years Record of the Communion Between Earth and the World of Spirits, From 1848 to 1868 (New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1970). This is a modern reprint of the first edition of 1869. An excellent contemporary historical narrative can be found in Ruth Brandon, The Spiritualists: The Passion for the Occult in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1983).
17. See James, The Works of William James. His final assessment of spiritualism and psychical research, published in the year before his death and included in this volume, especially rewards consulting: "The Confidences of a 'Psychical Researcher'" (1909). See especially Eugene Taylor, William James on Exceptional Mental States: The 1896 Lowell Lectures (New York: Scribner's, 1982).
18. Mesmeric circles waxed and waned in European and American cultures in the nineteenth century. Ultimately, the greatest cultural influence of Mesmerism came in the legitimization of hypnosis in late nineteenth century French psychiatry, which formed the basis of Jung's clinical training. Useful cultural histories of Mesmerism are: Robert Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968); Jean-Roch Laurence and Campbell Perry, Hypnosis, Will & Memory: A Psycho-Legal History (New York: Guilford, 1988); Robert Fuller, Mesmerism and the American Cure of Souls (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982): and Fuller's Americans and the Unconscious (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
19. John Symonds, Madame Blavatsky, Medium and Magician (London: Yoseloff, 1960); Geoffrey Barborka, H. P. Blavatsky: Tibet and Tulku (Adyar, India: Theosophical Society, 1966).
20. Annie Besant (1847-1933) was a remarkable woman in her own right. She played an early key role in the Indian nationalist movement against British rule and was jailed for a short while following her founding of the Home Rule for India League in 1916. See A. H. Nethercot, The First Five Lives of Annie Besant (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); and also A. H. Nethercot, The Last Four Lives of Annie Besant (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963).
21. John Symonds, "Mme. Blavatsky," in Richard Cavendish, ed., Man, Myth and Magic, Volume 2. (New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1970), pp. 286-89.
22. Such was the case for the Paris daily, Le Petit Journal. Similar gigantic increases in circulation due to innovative technologies and a greater literacy among European and American populations could be found in London, Berlin, and New York newspapers. See Patrick Bratlinger, "Mass Media and Culture in Fin-de-Siecle Europe," in Teich and Porter, Fin de Siecle and Its Legacy, pp. 98-114.
23. The only historical work on the Theosophical movement at the turn of the century that is not written by a believer traces its influence among the occultist intelligentsia of Russia. See Maria Carlson, "No Religion Higher than Truth": A History of the Theosophical Movement in Russia, 1875-1922 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
24. See Martin Green, Mountain of Truth: The Counterculture Begins: Ascona, 1900-1920 (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1986).
25. Jung, Letters, Volume I, p. 24.
26. Jung, "The Structure of the Unconscious" (1916), Two Essays, para. 494.
27. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology (New York: New York University Press, 1992), pp. 265-87.
28. According to the C. G. Jung Bibliothek: Katalog, pp. 49-50, these are as follows: Apollonius of Tyana, the Philosopher-Reformer of the First Century A.D. (1901); The Chaldean Oracles, 2 vols. (1908); Did Jesus Live in 100 B.C. 7 (1903); The Doctrine of the Subtle Body in Western Tradition (1919); Fragments of a Faith Forgotten: Some Short Sketches Among the Gnostics Mainly of the First Two Centuries (1906); The Gnostic Crucifixion (1907); The Gnostic John the Baptizer (1924); The Hymn of Jesus (1907); The Hymn of the Robe of Glory (1908); A Mithraic Ritual (1907); Simon Magus, an Essay (1892); Some Mystical Adventures (1910); Pistis Sophia, a Gnostic Miscellany (1921); Thrice-Greatest Hermes, 3 vols. (1906); The Vision of Aridaeus (1907); The Wedding-Song of Wisdom (1908); and The World- Mystery (1907). Most scholars who analyze the Gnostic elements in Jung's work ignore the materials that initially attracted Jung to Gnosticism -- Mead's "occult" writings -- and instead focus on mainstream academic scholars of Gnosticism (such as Gilles Quispel) who entered Jung's life much later. Despite his importance, Mead is not even mentioned, for example, in Robert Segal, The Gnostic Jung (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992). Also on Jung's shelves were the following works of major Theosophists, some perhaps purchased during Jung's student years: by H. P. Blavatsky: The Secret Doctrine, 2 vols. (1893, 1897); Hollen Traume (1908); and The Theosophical Glossary (1930); by C. W. Leadbeater: Die Astral-Ebene (1903); and Die Devachan-Ebene: Ihre Charakteristik und ihre Bewohner (n.d.).
29. This is how Mead describes this series, which he edited:
ECHOES FROM THE GNOSIS
Under this general title is now being published a series of small volumes, drawn from, or based upon, the mystic, theosophic and gnostic writings of the ancients, so as to make more easily audible for the ever-widening circle of those who love such things, some echoes of the mystic experiences and initiatory lore of their spiritual ancestry. There are many who love the life of the spirit, and who long for the light of gnostic illumination, but who are not sufficiently equipped to study the writings of the ancients first hand, or to follow unaided the labours of scholars. These little volumes are therefore intended to serve as introduction to the study of the more difficult literature of the subject; and it is hoped that at the same time they may become for some, who have, as yet, not even heard of the Gnosis, stepping-stones to higher things.
Mead, A Mithraic Ritual, 1907), p. 6.
30. Ulrich Muller, "Wagner and Antiquity," in U. Muller and Peter Wapnewski, ed., Wagner Handbook, trans. John Deathridge (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 227-35.
31. Richard Wagner, Samtliche Schriften und Dichtungen, 16 vols. (Leipzig: 1911-1913). The first ten volumes were originally published under Wagner's supervision in Leipzig between 1871 and 1883. An incomplete English translation by William Ashton Ellis is the eight-volume Richard Wagner's Prose Works (London: 1892-1899; reissued 1972). An unparalleled summary is Jurgen Kuhnel, "The Prose Writings," in Muller and Wapnewski, Wagner Handbook.
32. The best source are the superb literature reviews in Muller and Wapnewski, Wagner Handbook.
33. See. e.g., Jacques Barzun, Darwin, Marx, Wagner: Critique of a Heritage, 2d ed. (New York: Vantage, 1958).
34. Cited in Leon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe, trans. Edmund Howard (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 313.
35. Mark Twain, What Is Man? And Other Essays (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1972), pp. 226-27.
36. George Bernard Shaw, The Perfect Wagnerite, 4th ed. (London: Constable, 1923), p. 3.
37. On Wagnerism, see especially the following: Erwin Koppen, "Wagnerism as Concept and Phenomenon," in Muller and Wapnewski, Wagner Handbook, pp. 343-53; Large and Weber, Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics; and Anne Dzamba Sessa, Richard Wagner and the English (Rutherford, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1979).
38. This is from an entry on 19 April 1878. Cosima Wagner, Cosima Wagner's Diaries, 2 vols. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977), 2:63.
39. His first visit to Bayreuth as fuhrer is described in vivid detail in the memoirs of Siegfried Wagner's daughter. See Friedelind Wagner and Page Cooper, Heritage of Fire: The Story of Richard Wagner's Granddaughter (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1945), pp. 97-124.
40. Geoffrey Field, Evangelist of Race: The Germanic Vision of Houston Stewart Chamberlain (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 444.
41. Aldo Carotenuto, A Secret Symmetry: Sabina Spielrein Between Jung and Freud (New York: Pantheon, 1982).
42. Trigant Burrow, A Search for Man's Sanity: The Selected Letters of Trigant Burrow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), pp. 25, 27.
43. Laurens van der Post, Jung and the Story of Our Time (New York: Random House, 1976), p. 67. Despite this testimony by van der Post -- and the evidence from others who knew Jung earlier in life -- Wagner is conspicuously absent from the list of Jung's musical "favorites" given by Jaffe in an essay of fond reminiscences concerning her experiences with Jung. Bach, Handel, Mozart, "pre-Mozartians," and "Negro spirituals" were all mentioned by Jaffe as Jung's preferred tastes in music. This is oddly conflictual with van der Post's statement since they both knew Jung during the same period, and as such this may be yet another indication of how Jung's disciples have taken it upon themselves to wash away any potential taint of Nazism from Jung's image. See Aniela Jaffe, "From Jung's Last Years," in From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung, trans. KF.C. Hull (New York: Harper Colophon, 1971), p. 116. Original German edition: Aus Leben und Werkstatt von C. G. Jung: Parapsychologie, Alchemie, Nationalsozialismus, Erinnerungen aus der Letzten Jahren (Zurich: Rascher & Cie, 1968).
44. This is an often-analyzed dream that appears time and again in the secondary Jungian literature, Jung's first public report of this dream was during his 1925 seminar on analytical psychology. See Jung, Analytical Psychology, pp. 48, 56-57, 61-62. Jaffe used the transcript of this 1925 seminar to construct the chapter "Confrontation with the Unconscious" in MDR, which also mentions this dream, but with many details left out.
45. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, pp. 335-36. In his 1952 rewrite of this book, Jung expands this discussion and attempts to ground Wagnerian mythology into his archetypal theory (see C. G. Jung, Symbols of Transformation, CW 5 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), paras. 357-569.
46. Cartotenuto, A Secret Symmetry, p. 86.
Re: The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement
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Part 4 of 5
CHAPTER SIX1. It is Letter 199a F in McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, pp. 332-35.
2. On the talented actress and lecturer, whose birth name was indeed Frank Miller, see the stunning photographs of her in costume and the discussion of her case and its relevance to Jung in the exemplary paper by Sonu Shamdasani, "A Woman Called Frank," Spring 50 (1990): 26-56. For a brief period (1899-1900) Miller was a student of Flournoy's in Geneva, and her brief report of her fantasies (which includes an introduction by Flournoy) attempts to trace the source of her visions and reveries to cryptomnesia, not to otherworldly or transcendent sources such as the spiritualist mediums were claiming. See Frank Miller, "Some Instances of Unconscious Creative Imagination," Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research 1 (1907): 287-308.
3. This is argued throughout by Peter Homans in his Jung in Context: Modernity and the Making of a Psychology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979). See especially pp. 64-73.
4. Ibid., p. 66.
5. John Kerr, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle and Back Again: Freud, Jung and Sabina Spielrein," in Paul Stepansky, ed., Freud: Appraisals and Re-Appraisals, Contributions to Freud Studies, vol. 3 (Hillsdale, N.J.: The Analytic Press, 1988), p. 40. I highly recommend this work to anyone wishing to understand Wandlungen from a psychoanalytic perspective, and from the perspective of psychoanalytic history. Pages 40-50, in my opinion, contain the clearest and most critical summary of Wandlungen to be found in the English language.
6. Ibid., p. 40.
7. This is argued at length in Noll, "Jung the Leontocephalus," pp. 12-60.
8. Jung, "New Paths in Psychology" (1912), Two Essays.
9. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 25.
10. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, p. 5.
11. Ibid., p. 6.
12. After determining to his satisfaction what the vocabulary of this reconstructed proto-Indo-European language was, Schleicher wrote a folk tale in it entitled Avis akvasas ka, or "The Sheep and the Horses."
13. Just one of several examples: After analyzing one of Miller's creations as a "religious hymn" down to its "erotic root," Jung says that,
It is not too much to say that we have herewith dug up the erotic root, and yet the problem remains unsolved. Were there not bound up with that a mysterious purpose, probably of the greatest biological meaning, then certainly twenty centuries would not have yearned for it with such intense longing. Doubtless this sort of libidian current moves in the same direction as, taken in the widest sense, did that ecstatic ideal of the Middle Ages and of the ancient mystery cults, one of which became later Christianity. There is to be seen biologically in this ideal an exercise of psychologic projection (of the paranoian mechanism, as Freud would express it. (Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, pp. 62-63)
14. Ibid., para. 56.
15. Interestingly, Muller's ideas did not enter into Freud's thinking -- perhaps yet another of the fundamental distinctions between the two men. Freud admits that Jung's researches into ethnology and comparative mythology that letter formed Wandlungen were the initial stimulus for researching and writing Totem and Taboo, published in toto in 1913 after appearing in multiple parts in the psychoanalytic journal Imago, starting with its first issue in 1912. On Freud's sources, which include Wundt, James Frazer, and Muller's arch-nemesis Andrew Lang, see the exemplary volume by Edwin Wallace, Freud and Anthropology: A History and Reappraisal (New York: International University Press, 1983).
16. The distillation of Muller's basic ideas is drawn from several of his many works, but primarily from his Lectures on the Science of Religion (London: Houghton, 1870).
17. Later F.W.H. Myers, the psychical researcher from Cambridge, borrowed this term from Muller to describe the apparent myth-making functions of the subliminal self.
18. Muller, Lectures on the Science of Religion, p. 71.
19. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 45.
20. To be fair and accurate, however, this would fit in with Jung's greater methodological assumptions, as Miller was of Aryan (Indo-European) ancestry.
21. For a typical example of Jung's lengthy etymological excursions, see the two full pages of etymological connection between "nightmare" and "mare" in Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, paras. 378-81.
22. See McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, letter 2977. See also McGuire's introduction in Jung, Psychology of the Unconscious, p. xxiii.
23. See ibid., pp. 76-77.
24. Ibid., para. 145.
25. Ibid., para. 149.
26. Ibid., para. 150.
27. See the discussion in Homans, Jung in Context, pp. 130-32.
28. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, paras. 150-51.
29. Ibid., para. 152.
30. Ibid., paras. 173-75.
31. Ibid., para. 155.
32. Ibid., para. 158.
33. Ibid., para. 163.
34. Ibid., para. 180.
35. Ibid., para. 155n.
36. Ibid., para. 201.
37. Ibid., para. 203.
38. Ibid., para. 204n.
39. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 26.
40. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, pp. 335-41.
41. Homans, Jung in Context, p. 67. Homans's language is stronger elsewhere: "Still, Symbols of Transformation was an attempt to come to terms with the two modes of experience of religion, assimilating to a limited degree the personal mode and strongly repudiating the traditional mode" (p. 130).
42. I discuss the historical context of this fin-de-siecle classical scholarship concerning the mystery cults at length in my introduction to Mysteria: Jung and the Ancient Mysteries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). See also the very useful paper by Bruce Metzger, "Considerations of Methodology in the Study of the Mystery Religions and Early Christianity," Harvard Theological Review 48 (1955): 1-20.
43. Franz Cumont, Textes et monuments figures relatifs aux mysteres de Mitra, 2 vols. (Brussels: H. Lamertin, 1896 [1], 1899 [2]).
44. The work appeared rather quickly in an English translation as well. See Franz Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra (New York: Open Court, 1903).
45. Luther Martin explains the problem in his extremely useful book, Hellenistic Religions: An Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 114-15:
Unlike the myths of the other mystery deities, no received myth of Mithras survives, nor does the iconographic evidence seem to reflect any such official narrative of the deity's life. Mithraic iconography seems rather to depict isolated scenes of Mithraic activity from which modern attempts to reconstruct a mythic narrative have been made. Even the scenes, with several exceptions, seem to express regional variations of the cult expression.
46. For Weber's participation in this early Eranos group, see Weber, Max Weber: A Biography, p. 356. It is not known whether this prominent Heidelberg circle of scholars was Rudolph Otto's inspiration for the name of the later (1933) Eranos Conferences at Ascona. What is certain is that Dieterich was disseminating his knowledge of Mithraism and the Mithraic Liturgy to Weber and other scholars, and Weber mentions Mithraism in his works on the sociology of religion.
47. Albrecht Dieterich, Eine Mithrasliturgie (Leipzig: Verlag B. G. Teubner, 1903; 2d ed., 1910). Dieterich dedicated this work to Cumont.
48. The English translation of the Mithraic Liturgy can be found in H. D. Beck, The Creek Magical Papyri in Translation (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1986), pp. 48-54.
49. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, letter 210 J.
50. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, p. 66
51. Burkert translates Renan's famous line as follows: "If the growth of Christianity had been halted by some mortal illness, the world would have become Mithraic" (Ernest Renan, Marc Aurele et la fin du monde antique [Paris, 1882]). Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, p. 3.
52. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 99.
53. Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithras, p. 4.
54. Ibid., p. 1.
55. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 127.
56. Ibid., para. 124.
57. See Gunter, "Bergson and Jung," 635-52.
58. A similar idea concerning the continuity of animate and inanimate matter through their status as constraints for "invariant free dynamics" (laws and forces of nature) is discussed by Wolfgang Kohler. Kohler, however, was avowedly nonvitalistic as well as nonmechanistic in this theoretical contribution to gestalt psychology. The result was a very monistic position that resembles Haeckel's in many respects (including a lingering reputation for its philosophical vagueness). See the various discussions of this "postulate of invariance in evolution" in Mary Henle, ed., The Selected Papers of Wolfgang Kohler (New York: Liveright, 1971), pp. 72-77, 330, 349-50, 371. For an intriguing discussion of holism as a German cultural style of psychobiological theory and research in the 1920s and 1930s as, in part, an answer to the spiritual crisis of modernity, see Anne Harrington, "Interwar 'German' Psychobiology: Between Nationalism and the Irrational," Science in Context 4 (1991): 429-47.
59. Dieterich, Eine Mithrasliturgie, p. 161.
60. On the separate and distinct differences between pagan mysteria and the mysteries mentioned in the texts of Hellenistic Judaism and early Christianity, see Nock, "Hellenistic Mysteries and Christian Sacraments," 2:791-820; and Hugo Rahner, "The Christian Mystery and the Pagan Mystery (1944)," in Joseph Campbell, ed., The Mysteries: Papers From the Eranos Yearbooks (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955), pp. 337-404.
61. See Poliakov, The Aryan Myth.
62. Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), p. 239. On Freud's own implicit cognitive categories of racial differences, see Sander Gilman, Freud, Race, and Gender (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
63. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Die Grundlagen des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, 2 vols. (Munich: Bruckmann, 1899). This work was a bestseller and went through multiple editions. It first appeared in English as The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 2 vols. (London: John Lane, 1911). According to Field, "Cosima [Wagner] strongly encouraged him, for she believed the book would be a Wagnerian Kulturgeschichte" (p. 171). On the writing and reception of Grundlagen, see Field, Evangelist of Race pp. 169-224.
64. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 136n.
65. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology, pp. 93, 97.
66. Field, Evangelist of Race, p. 223.
67. Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism, p. 177.
68. Mosse, "The Mystical Origins of National Socialism," p. 93.
69. R. Andrew Paskauskas, ed., The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908-1939 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 180, 182 (letters 107 and 108).
70. James Jackson Putnam, Letters (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 376.
71. Historians of this period have mentioned Jung's book in this regard, usually in one-sentence statements without elaboration. Mosse (The Culture of Western Europe, p. 275) charges Jung with fostering a "racial mysticism, which, in turn, derived some scientific respectability through its incorporation in his psychoanalytical theories." According to Green (Mountain of Truth, p. 137), "[1912] was the year of Jung's Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido, a book that gave scholarly respectability to one of Ascona's most prized truths, the value of sun worship."
72. Although there were scattered Germanic cults actually attempting to revive a votive religion with mystery-cult elements based on the worship of the Germanic Gods (such as Wotan), nothing much came of this. However, Hauer's German Faith Movement was a revival of volkisch religion in other respects during the Nazi era. See Hauer, Heim, and Adam, Germany's New Religion. Formally founded in July 1933, it incorporated many traditional volkisch elements. Hauer argued that there is "an antithesis between an alien faith and the German genius" (p. 42)-the "alien faith," of course, being Christianity. The use of the word "genius" is significant here, as it directly refers to the ancient Roman pagan belief that a genius (or anima) resided in the head and was the source of inspiration when it possessed a like and alien spirit. The "German genius" is another way of saying the "German god within." Mediation through "a sacred person, a sacred book, or a sacred rite" is rejected by Hauer "not indeed because we deny the existence of God or of the eternal powers which govern life, but because we have found from experience that it is possible to have immediate contact with those powers" (p. 48). This was also the appeal of the ancient Hellenistic mysteries of pagan antiquity and modern groups based on this model. Hauer was an associate of Jung's and participated in the Eronos Conference in 1934, during which he spoke on "Symbols and Experience of the Self in Indo-Aryan Mysticism."
73. Self-deification, or becoming one with the god within, was a pagan appeal to reject Christianity, its symbols, and its Semitic god. The dynamic swastika was hailed as the alternative to the cross. An article on the swastika in a 1918 issue of Die Tat by Ilse Alma Drews exemplifies the use of metaphors in a neopagan (but not political) sense, much as Jung sometimes uses them through Wandlungen and elsewhere: "As the Christians joyfully gather round their cross symbol, so should all of us, too, who confess the new religion, meet each other under the common sign of the swastika .... The swastika can, like no other sign, warn and arouse us, light the holy flame in us, so that we become joyful sacrifices to the highest ... a victory sign of the new, inner-world God." Green, Mountain of Truth, p. 241.
74. Jung, Civilization in Transition.
75. Jung, Letters: 1. 1906-1950, pp. 39-40.
76. Jung, Psychological Types, para. 324.
77. Means, Things That Are Caesar's, p. 163. Means's book provides an introductory summary of the various neopagan volkisch movements in German Europe from the fin de siecle to Nazi Germany in his chapter on "Nationalist Religion, the New Paganism of the Young Germanic Folk Movement" (pp. 163-84).
78. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology, pp. 15-151. Mosse's chapter, "Education Comes to the Aid," traces the widespread infiltration of volkisch thought into the educational system in Germanic lands between 1873 and 1918 (pp. 152-70).
79. Fritz Stern, Dreams and Delusions: National Socialism in the Drama of the German Past (New York: Vintage, 1989), p. 122.
80. Although other examples will be provided in this book, the language of a contemporary Jungian analyst is typical for Jungian publications and contains Nietzschean metaphors of liberation and individuation (a term Jung borrowed from Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, and Nietzsche): "Analysis is a formal process of self-reflection and understanding, meant to free one from unnecessary bondage to complexes that are dominant in one's personal psychology. Jungian analysis is also intended to help one find the path of one's own individuation, which can never be defined in general or cultural terms." James Hall, The Jungian Experience: Analysis and Individuation, p. 121.
CHAPTER SEVEN1. Jung, "Some Thoughts on Psychology," p. 31.
2. Ibid., pp. 31-32.
3. Jung rhetorically asks: "Why do the sermons about the historical Jesus make no sense? Why are people more interested in attending scientific lectures than in going to church? Why is their interest focused on Darwin, Haeckel, and Buchner?" The Zofingia Lectures, p. 107.
4. The similarity between the later monism of Haeckel and the "philosophy of the unconscious" of von Hartmann has been noted by David DeGroot, Haeckel's Theory of the Unity of Nature: A Monograph in the History of Philosophy (Boston: The Christopher Publishing House, 1965), p, 38, Jung's personal library contains the fifth edition of von Hartmann's work: Eduard von Hartmann, Philosophie des Unbewussten (Berlin: Carl Dunkers Verlag, 1873). Von Hartmann's work is Schopenhauerian philosophy combined with evolutionary Wissenschaft circa 1870. This work therefore made sense to many at the end of the nineteenth- century who were trying to reconcile personal iconographies of the transcendent with the compelling contradictions provided by evolutionary biology. Philosophie des Unbewussten went through many editions and was one of the most popular books in fin-de-siecle Central Europe. The evolutionary works of Haeckel (as well as Darwin, Wallace, Buchner, etc.) are cited by von Hartmann, but Haeckel's Monism is not, as Haeckel was at the time only just mentioning such an idea without elaboration. Yon Hartmann seizes upon this lack of a vitalistic element in the evolutionary work of Haeckel of this period and points out the inconsistencies in his biological statements on the "Begriff der Individualitat" (the concept of the individual). Von Hartmann instead argues for a "unitary concept of organic individuals [einheitlichen Begriff des organischen Individuums]" (p. 491) that can include vitalism. Haeckel, as has been noted, adopted a similar view in later years.
5. Jung, "Some Thoughts on Psychology," para. 136. For an exemplary examination of the ideas of these materialists (and a critique of von Hartmann), see the translation of the second edition (1873) of Friedrich Albert Lange, The History of Materialism: And Criticism of Its Present Importance (New York: Humanities Press, 1950). Lange's critique of von Hartmann is in the chapter on "Darwinism and Teleology," and his opinion is clear: "It will hardly be necessary for our readers once more to disturb the illusion that the 'Philosophie des Unbewussten' contains 'speculative results on the inductive scientific method.' There can hardly be another modern book in which the scientific material swept together stands in such flagrant contrast to all the essential principles of scientific method" (p. 80).
The scientific materialism that arose in Germany in the 1850s in response to the Idealist and Naturphilosophie establishment was led by Karl Vogt, Jacob Moleschott, Ludwig Buchner, and Heinrich Czolbe in academic circles and supported in popular science journals such as Die Natur (which first appeared in 1852) that also appeared during this decade. Jung read such journals as a youth. See Gregory, Scientific Materialism in Nineteenth-Century Germany.
6. Jung, The Zofingia Lectures, p. 105.
7. Ibid., p. 93. On Schopenhauerian genius, see below.
8. Ellenberger discusses this controversy in detail in his "Carl Gustav Jung," pp. 147-48. See also James Hillman, "Some Early Background to Jung's Ideas: Notes on C. G. Jung's Medium by Stefanie Zumstein- Preiswerk," Spring (1976): 123-36.
9. C. G. Jung, Psychiatric Studies, CW 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970).
10. James Witzig, "Theodore Flournoy -- A Friend Indeed," Journal of Analytical Psychology 27 (1982): 138-41. Jung actually states that Flournoy was perhaps more of a long-lasting influence on him than Freud, and also acknowledges the importance of William James on his work, in sections of MDR not included in the published edition but which can be found in the editorial prepublication manuscript of MDR at the Countway Library of Medicine. Further information on Jung's relationships with Flournoy, James, and others can be found in the works of Eugene Taylor: "William James and Jung," Spring (1980): 157-68; "C. G. Jung and the Boston Psychopathologists, 1902-1912," Voices: The Art and Science of Psychotherapy 21 (1985): 132-45; and in "Jung and His Intellectual Context: The Swedenborgian Connection," Studia Swedenborgiana 7 (1991): 47-69.
11. Ellenberger, "Carl Gustav Jung," p. 149.
12. MDR, pp. 30-32.
13. Drinka, The Birth of Neurosis, p. 53.
14. For further exploration of this theme, see Richard Noll, "Max Nordau's Degeneration, C. G. Jung's Taint," Spring 55 (1994).
15. Mitchell Ash, "Academic Politics in the History of Science: Experimental Psychology in Germany, 1879-1941," Central European History 13 (1980): 263. See also Marilyn Marshall and Russel Wendt, "William Wundt, Spiritism, and the Assumptions of Science," in Wolfgang Bringmann and R. D. Tweny, ed., Wundt Studies (Toronto: Hogrefe, 1980), pp. 158-75.
16. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, p. 674. See also Aniela Jaffe, "Parapsychology: Experience and Theory, Occultism and Spiritualism, Synchronistic Phenomena," in her From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung.
17. On the importance to nineteenth-century German Europe of the Seeress of Prevorst (Friedericke Hauffe), whose trances between 1827 and 1829 included visionary travels to other worlds, communications with the dead, the articulation of neo-Platonic philosophy, and the prescription of medicinal and herbal cures, and were recorded by the Kerner (1786-1862), see Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, pp. 79-81. The book that fascinated Goethe, Jung, Nietzsche, and many others was Justinius Kerner, Die Seherin von Prevorst, Eroffnen uber das innere Leben und uber das Hineinragen einer Geistwelt in die unsere, 2 vols. (Stuttgartt-Tubingen: Cotta, 1829).
18. In future publications, Shamdasani will argue that Jung's work was in actuality a "project for a mediumistic psychology."
19. Jung's publications in this area appear in Experimental Researches.
20. See Daniel Schacter, "Implicit Memory: History and Current Status," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13 (1987); 501-8. Implicit memory is in evidence when "information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection" (p. 501). This is precisely what Jung and his coworkers were trying to experimentally demonstrate through the word-association protocol and reaction-time differentials that hinted at affectively toned memories that influenced the present behavior of the subjects, but without their awareness. Schacter credits the nineteenth-century literature of psychical researchers as "the first to document implicit memory phenomena on the basis of controlled empirical observation" (p. 503). Although Schacter docs not mention Flournoy in his review, another expression for a form of implicit memory is, of course, cryptomnesia. This, too, has undergone recent experimental study by cognitive psychologists: Alan Brown and Dana Murphy, "Cryptomnesia: Delineating Inadvertent Plagiarism," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15 (1989): 432-42.
21. For example, Psychiatric Studies contains such scientific papers as "On Hysterical Misreading" (1904) and "Cryptomnesia" (1905), and his doctoral dissertation on the case of the medium "S. W.," which also analyzes the content of her trance utterances in terms of cryptomnesia. Experimental Researches contains his "Experimental Observations on the Faculty of Memory" (1905) and his word-association studies.
22. Jung, The Zofingia Lectures, p. 102.
23. Ibid., pp. 103-4.
24. See, e.g., Douglas Hermann, ed., Memory in Historical Perspective: The Literature Before Ebbinghaus (New York: Springer, 1988).
25. The original German publication of Jung and Riklin appears in English translation as "The Associations of Normal Subjects" (1904), in Experimental Researches. CW 2. See also William McGuire, "Jung's Complex Reactions (1907): Word Association Experiments Performed by Binswanger," Spring (1984): 1-34.
26. Jung and Riklin, "The Associations of Normal Subjects," para. 210.
27. Peter Swales, "What Jung Didn't Say," Harvest: Journal of Jungian Studies 38 (1992): 30.
28. The best source is, of course, Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method. What sparked interest in the Spielrein/Jung relationship -- which was apparently unknown to his later generations of disciples although quite well known before World War I -- is the collection of Spielrein's letters and diary entries in Carotenuto, A Secret Symmetry. See also: Aldo Carotenuto, "Sabina Spielrein and C. G. Jung: Some Newly Discovered Documents Bearing on Psychotic Transference, Counter Transference, and the Anima," Spring (1980): 128-44; Aldo Carotenuto, "More About Sabina Spielrein: A Response to Bettelheim," Spring (1985): 129-36; Aldo Carotenuto, "Jung's Shadow Problem with Sabina Spiel rein," in Mary Ann Mattoon, ed., The Archetype of Shadow in a Split World: Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Analytical Psychology, Berlin 1986 (Zurich: Daimon Verlag, 1987), pp. 240-53, and see also the discussion by Peter Mudd that follows (pp. 254-60); and Swales, "What Jung Didn't Say," pp. 30-37.
29. Carotenuto, A Secret Symmetry, p. 100.
30. The choice of this pseudonym for the "Jewish girl" in the earlier protocol was "Alice Stern," and Stern is the German word for star.
CHAPTER EIGHT1. Eugen Bleuler, "Die Prognose der Dementia Praecox -- Schizophreniengruppe," Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie 65 (1908): pp. 436-64.
2. C. G. Jung, "The Content of the Psychoses" (1908), Psychogenesis of Mental Disease, CW 3 (New York: Pantheon, 1960).
3. It is often incorrectly understood (and often incorrectly reported in Jungian publications) that Jung came up with the first biochemical theory of schizophrenia. His only innovation was that this "toxin" could be produced environmentally, through trauma, rather than through strict heredity. In fact, Jung's talk of a toxin in the etiology of schizophrenia echoes one of the first published descriptions of dementia praecox, as a metabolic disorder. He thought that it was caused by auto-intoxication through a "tangible morbid process occurring in the brain." Emil Kraepelin, "Dementia Praecox," in John Cutting and Michael Shepherd, ed., The Clinical Roots of the Schizophrenia Concept: Translations of Seminal European Contributions on Schizophrenia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 23.
4. This was published in an English translation by William Alanson White as Wishfulfillment and Symbolism in Fairy Tales, Nervous and Mental Disease Monograph Series, No. 21 (New York: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1915). On Riklin, see Dieter Baumann, "In Memory of Franz Riklin," Spring (1970): 1-6.
5. Wolfgang Schwentker, "Passion as a Mode of Life: Max Weber, the Otto Gross Circle and Eroticism," in Mommsen and Osterhammel, Max Weber and His Call temporaries, p. 488.
6. The literature on Gross is small but growing. The best single work is Emanuel Hurwitz, Otto Gross: 'Paradies' -- Sucher zwischen Freud und Jung (Zurich and Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1979); in English, see the volumes by Green, The van Richthofen Sisters, and Mountain of Truth; in French, see J. Le Rider, Otto Gross: revolution sur le divan (Paris: Solin, 1988). Most of the scant nonpsychoanalytic literature on Gross concerns his connections with the circle of Max Weber. See Nicolaus Sombert, "Max Weber and Otto Gross: On the Relationship Between Science, Politics and Eros in Wilhelmine Germany," History of Political Thought 8 (1987): 131-52; Schwentker, "Passion as a Mode of Life"; and Guenther Roth, "Marianne Weber and Her Circle," in Weber, Max Weber. The only significant paper that attempts to illuminate the connection between Jung and Gross is Martin Stanton, "Otto Gross's Case Histories: Jung, Stekel, and the Pathologization of Protest," in Renos Papadopoulos, ed., Carl Gustav Jung: Critical Assessments, 4 vols. (London: Routledge, 1992), 1:200-208.
7. Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud. Volume 2: Years of Maturity, 1901-1919 (New York: Basic Books, 1955). Jones took this from Freud's letter to Jung dated 27 February 1908 (see McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, p. 126, letter 74 F). Jones gives Gross credit for helping to put psychoanalysis on the map with a 1904 article and 1907 book that compared Freudian theory with the current psychiatric knowledge on dementia praecox and manic depression. Jones describes Gross as "a genius who later unfortunately developed schizophrenia" (p. 29). Jones also reveals that "he was my first instructor in the practice of psychoanalysis and I used to be present during his treatment of a case."
8. J. E. Michaels, Anarchy and Eros: Otto Gross's Impact on German Expressionist Writers (New York: Peter Lang [Utah Studies in Literature and Linguistics, no. 24], 1983).
9. On the historical significance of Hanns Gross, and an explanation of why he seems to have been passed over in so many history books, see William Johnston, The Austrian Mind (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 94-95.
10. Henry Murger, La vie de Boheme (Paris: 1849), p. 14. This translation is from Jerrold Seigel, Bohemian Paris: Culture Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830-1930 (New York: Viking, 1986), p. 3. Seigel (pp. 401-4) provides a very useful -- if brief -- bibliographic essay, "A Note on Histories of Bohemia." A more comprehensive account of antibourgeois or nonbourgeois subcultures throughout European history can be found in the work of the German sociologist Helmut Kreuzer, Die Boheme. Beitrage zu ihrer Beschreibung (Stuttgart: 1968). To these volumes must, of course, be added the documentation of Bohemia provided by the works of Green.
11. These can be found in the collection edited by Kurt Krieler: Otto Gross, Von geschlechtlicher Not zur sozialen Katastrophe [From Sexual Privation to Social Catastrophe] (Frankfurt: Robinson Verlag, 1980). There is no English language edition of the works of Otto Gross.
12. Green, The von Richthofen Sisters.
13. This is according to Eduard Baumgarten, whose comments are reported in summary by Ellen Kennedy following the translation of the paper by Sombart, "Max Weber and Otto Gross," p. 150. For the original German commentary by Sombart and Baumgarten, see the following: Nicolaus Sombart, "Gruppenbild mit zwei Damen: Zum Verhaltnis von Wissenschaft, Politik und Eros im wilhelminischen Zeitalter," Merkur 30 (1976): 972-90; and Eduard Baumgarten, "Uber Max Weber: Ein Brief an Nicholas Sombart," Merkur 31 (1977): 296- 300.
14. This is cited in Schwentker, "Passion as a Mode of Life," pp. 483, 495. An abbreviated form of the original letter appears in Eduard Baumgarten, ed., Max Weber: Werk und Person (Tubingen: Mohr 1964), pp.644-48.
15. Weber, Max Weber, p. 377. Weber's critique of Gross in this letter is reproduced at length on pp. 375-80.
16. Cited in ibid., p. 376.
17. Ibid., p. 379.
18. Weber, Max Weber, p. 375. This is a remarkable book that documents in vivid detail the Heidelberg circle of the Webers, which included Georg Simmel, Lukacs, Karl Jaspers, and many other noted scholars and political and literary figures.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid., p. 374.
21. Ibid., p. 380.
22. Ibid., pp. 378-79.
23. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, p. 90 (letter 46 J).
24. Paskauskas, The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones p. 1 (letter 1).
25. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, p. 153 (Letter 95 J).
26. Ibid., p. 156 (letter 98 J). See also Jung's letter to Freud of 9 September 1908 (letter 108 J) in which he looks forward to talking with Freud in person again because his last intelligent conversations were with Gross during their mutual analysis: "In this respect Gross as a contrast, no matter how hard to digest, did me a world of good. In spite of his prickliness, talk with him is wonderfully stimulating. have missed that to no end" (p. 171).
27. David Buss, "Toward a Biologically Informed Psychology of Personality," Journal of Personality 58 (1990): 1-16; David Buss, "Evolutionary Personality Psychology," Annual Review of Psychology 42 (1991): 459-92; David Buss, "Sex Differences in Human Mate Preferences: Evolutionary Hypotheses Tested in 37 Cultures," Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12 (1989): 1-49. This essential view of the natural polygamous nature of the human species as a consequence of evolution is argued extensively from a sociobiological perspective in Helen Fisher, Anatomy of Love: The Natural History of Monogamy, Adultery, and Divorce (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992). A related and controversial sociobiological theory by University of Western Ontario professor J. Philippe Rushton, the "Differential K Theory," also argues that individual difference in human personality and behavior are determined by one's biologically based inherited "reproductive strategy" along a continuum from "r" to "K": that is, from maximum egg output and no parental care (the extreme r-strategist) to a few offspring intensively nurtured (an extreme K-strategist). Current species such as oysters, who produce five hundred million eggs per year with no parental care, would be among the many r-strategists in evidence today. Although humans are the most K-oriented of all species, Rushton argues that many humans are far more "r-strategists" (i.e., polygamous) than others and that this evolutionary heritage of common descent from our nonhuman ancestors still determines much of human behavior. It must be remembered that according to Darwinian theory, all forms of life evolved from a single ancestor, and so the common ancestors of humans, oysters, and even fungi spent many millions of years as r-strategists. Thus, from the point of view of evolutionary epistemology, the miniscule period of human life and especially civilization could not be a sufficiently long enough period to eliminate such deeply embedded adaptations as the r-reproductive strategies of our ancestors. See J. P. Rushton, "Differential K Theory: The Sociobiology of Individual and Group Differences," Personality and individual Differences 6 (1985): 441-52; also, "Sir Francis Galton, Epigenetic Rules, Genetic Similarity Theory, and Human Life-History Analysis," Journal of Personality 58 (1990): 117-40.
28. Carotenuto, A Secret Symmetry, p. 107.
29. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, p. 207 (letter 133 J).
30. Ibid., p. 289 (letter 175 J).
31. See Philipp Wolff-Wind egg, "C. G. Jung -- Bachofen, Burckhardt and Basel," Spring (1976): pp. 137-47.
CHAPTER NINE1. Green, Mountain of Truth, p. 17.
2. Green, The van Richthofen Sisters, p. 44.
3. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 249.
4. See Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, pp. 218-23.
5. Ibid., p. 222.
6. In his autobiographical notes to his Artistic Form and Yoga in the Sacred Images of India, trans. Gerald Chapple and James Lawson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), Zimmer reveals the hereditarian concerns, belief in Bachofenian matriarchy, and nineteenth-century cognitive categories of race that also characterized Jung. Zimmer states that:
[His mother's] father's side was of German-Saxon extraction .... Her mother ... was of Wendish stock. ... This Saxon-Wendish stock is inclined to mysticism, as are kindred folk in Silesia .... This may account for my predilection for mysticism, myths, and symbols, while the Pre-German, Pre-Celtic, Pre-Aryan descent of my father from the ancient European matriarchical civilization explains my penchant for the corresponding stratifications in ancient Pre-Aryan Hindu civilization (the Great Mother, the feminine principle in Tantrism). (p. 253)
7. Johann Jakob Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht: Eine Untersuchung uber die Gynaekokratie der alten Welt nach ihrer religiosen und rechtlichen Natur (Stuttgart: Kreis & Hoffman, 1861). Selections from this volume and other works by Bachofen can be found in J. J. Bachofen, Myth, Religion, and Mother Right: Selected Writings of J. J. Bachofen, trans. Ralph Manheim (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967).
8. See Hermann Glaser, ed., The German Mind of the Nineteenth Century: A Literary and Historical Anthology (New York: Continuum, 1981).
9. C. G. Jung Bibliothek: Katalog, p. 8.
10. The evidence supporting this argument, and a modern reassessment of Bachofen's ideas, are cogently presented by Fisher in Anatomy of Love, pp. 281-84.
11. Marianne Weber, Ehefrau und Mutter in der Rechtsentwicklung (Tubingen: Mohr, 1907).
12. Roth, "Marianne Weber and Her Circle," p. xxii.
13. Otto Gross, "Zur Uberwindung der kulturellen Krise," Die Aktion 3 (1913): 384-87. This essay appears in Gross, Van geschlechtlichter Not zur sozialen Katastrophe, pp. 13-15.
14. Sombart, "Max Weber and Otto Gross," p. 138.
15. Ibid.
16. The small but influential Cosmic Circle is frequently mentioned in many publications, but the best treatment is in Green, The von Richthofen Sisters, pp. 73-85.
17. A useful treatment of George's cultic practices and metaphors in his work is the two-volume work by Hansjurgen Linke, Das Kultische in der Dichtung Stefan Georges und seiner Schule (Munich and Dusseldorf: Helmut Kupper vormals George Bondi, 1960). Linke extensively documents just how far George and his circle would go in the practice of their religious cultism in a fascinating, almost ethnographic, style. A lucid account of George's life and cultic activities can also be found in Wayne Andrews, "The Gospel According to Stefan George," a chapter in his book Siegfried's Curse: The German Journey From Nietzsche to Hesse (New York: Atheneum, 1972), pp. 171-97.
18. On French decadent "satanism," see James Laver, The First Decadent: The Strange Life of J. K. Huysmans (New York: Citadel Press, 1955), pp. 110-55. Huysmans's famous novel, La-Bas (1891), with its graphic descriptions of the satanic black mass, reflected the practices among some of the decadents in the French occult underground. On the Golden Dawn and its practices, see Ellic Howe, The Magicians of the Golden Dawn: A Documentary History of a Magical Order, 1887-1923 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972).
19. Michael Metzger and Erika Metzger, Stefan George (New York: Twayne, 1972), p. 35.
20. This is incorrectly reported by Joseph Campbell as happening in the 1920s. See Joseph Campbell, "Introduction," in Bachofen, Myth, Religion, and Mother Right, p. xxv.
21. Linke, Das Kultische in der Dichtung Stefan Georges und seiner Schule, pp. 60-61.
22. At a ritual gathering of the members of the Sera Circle and Free German Youth on the Hohen Meissner mountain in 1913 that was organized by Diederichs, Klages gave a talk in which he argued that modern civilization was drowning the soul of humanity and that what was needed was a return to nature and to Mother Earth. See Masse, "The Mystical Origins of National Socialism," p. 83. For a description of this event and the texts of talks by Klages, Julius Langbehn, and others, see Eugen Diederichs, ed., Freideutsche Jungend: Zur Jahrhundertfeier auf dem Hohen Meissner Gena: Diederichs, 1913).
23. Green, The von Richthofen Sisters, p. 80.
24. See Webb, The Occult Establishment, pp. 395, 397-98.
25. Ludwig Klages, Ausdrucksbewegung und Gestaltungskraft. Grundlagung der Wissenschaft vom Ausdruck, 3d ed. (Leipzig: Barth, 1923).
26. The rising influence of characterology and expression analysis are discussed at length by Ulfried Geuter in The Professionalization of Psychology in Nazi Germany, trans. R. Holmes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992; original German edition, 1984). See also, Ulfried Geuter, "German Psychology During the Nazi Period," in Ash and Woodward, Psychology in Twentieth-Century Thought and Society; and C. F. Graumann, ed., Psychologie im Nationalsozialismus (Berlin: Springer, 1985).
27. For this view of Klages, see Lukacs, "Pre-Fascist and Fascist Vitalism," in his The Destruction of Reason, pp. 522-46.
28. C. G. Jung, "Psychologische Typen," Zeitschrift far Menschenkunde. Blatter fur Charakterologie ... 1 (1925): 45-65. This can be found in Psychological Types. The connection with Klages and his characterology is not mentioned in the Collected Works, which leaves out the identifying subtitle given above.
29. Fanny zu Reventlow's affair with Rilke is unfortunately only obliquely referred to in Wolfgang Leppmann, Rilke: A Life (New York: Fromm International Publishing, 1984), pp. 60-61. Leppmann does, however, acknowledge that except for his association with Reventlow, Rilke was not among the cafe society denizens of Schwabing.
30. Cited and translated by Green, The von Richthofen Sisters, p. 94. Her autobiography also contains descriptions of the ritual invocations of the Earth Mother by the Cosmic Circle. See Grafin Franziska zu Reventlow, Herrn Dames Aufzeichnungen oder Begebenheiten aus einem merkwurdigen Stadtteil (Munich: Langen, 1913).
31. The goals of the Cosmic Circle were very much in tune with the neopagan sentiments that also stimulated Jung:
The Kosmiker proceeded from the idea that the total decay of the soul of mankind through rationalism and believed in salvation by reawakening the myths of those cultural strata which had become lost through the history of Judeo-Christian Western civilization. Both Klages and Schuler believed that a re-establishment of man's mystical rapport with the ultimate forces of life could be brought about by an ecstatic embrace of paganism; in Klages's opinion that of the Germanic tribes before their conversion to Christianity, to Schuler that of the mystery religions practices in imperial Rome. (Metzger and Metzger, Stefan George, pp. 35-36).
32. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 290.
33. Ibid., para. 315.
34. Ibid., para. 316. The diagrams he then interprets in this text are between paras. 316 and 317 on p. 198.
35. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, p. 223.
36. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, p. 503 (letter 313 J).
37. Ibid., p. 504 (letter 314 F).
38. This citation and translation is by Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, p. 816. The original reference is Sigmund Freud, "Gross ist die Diana der Epheser," Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse, 2 (1912): 158-59. It is also included in Freud's Standard Edition, 12: 342-44.
39. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, p. 816.
40. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 317.
41. Ibid.
42. This is documented in the enlightening volume by Harold Jantz, The Mothers in Faust: The Myth of Time and Creativity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969).
43. This is translated and cited by Burkert in his exemplary book, Ancient Mystery Cults, p. 21. Of particular value for understanding the experience of the Hellenistic mysteries are his chapters on "Personal Needs" and "The Extraordinary Experience."
44. Cited in Jantz, The Mothers in Faust, p. 71.
45. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 458.
46. Ibid., para. 459.
47. Sombart, "Max Weber and Otto Gross," p. 139.
48. C. G. Jung, "The Significance of the Father in the Destiny of the Individual" (1909), Freud and Psychoanalysis, CW 4 (New York: Pantheon, 1961) para. 692n.
49. C. G. Jung, "The Content of the Psychoses," para. 160.
50. Ibid., paras. 341-42.
Re: The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement
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Part 5 of 5
CHAPTER TEN
1. MDR, pp. 158-60. Another version is found in E. A. Bennet, Meetings with Jung: Conversations Recorded During the Years 1946-1961 (Zurich: Daimon, 1985), pp. 117-18. Rather than the usual transcendental interpretations of this dream by Jung, in Bennet's account Jung associates the supposedly "impersonal" material from collective unconscious sources with some very personal ones: "When he reflected on it later the house had some association in his mind with his uncle's very old house in Basel which was built in the old moat of the town and had two cellars; the lower one was very dark and like a cave."
2. Jung, Analytical Psychology, pp. 22-23.
3. Ibid., p. 23.
4. Ibid.
5. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, letter 157 J.
6. Ibid., letter 159 J.
7. Jung's Bibliothek catalog gives the dates 1810-1821 for the complete four volumes of Creuzer's work, which seems to indicate that Jung had some volumes from the first edition and some from the second. There is no more specific information to be found than this, which appears in the C. G. Jung Bibliothek: Katalog, p. 17. The particulars for the first two editions of Friedrich Creuzer, Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen, are as follows: for the first edition, all of which were published in Leipzig and Darmstadt, the first volume of 1810 was published by Leske, and the following three, in 1811 and 1812, were published by Heyer and Leske. The entire second edition of four volumes was published in Darmstadt by Heyer and Leske, and they appeared in 1819, 1820, and 1821. The second edition was greatly expanded by hundreds of pages in volumes 1,2, and 4.
8. Metzger, "Considerations of Methodology in the Study of the Mystery Religions and Early Christianity," p. 1. Metzger cites as the primary "precritical" works those of both Creuzer and of G.E.J. de Sainte Croix, whose Recherches historiques et critiques sur les mysteres du paganisme ... (Paris, 1784), also supported this same hierarchical "secret society" image of the ancient mysteries. Jung's Bibliothek lists these very early works by Creuzer and Sainte Croix among the volumes in his personal library.
9. Goethe's Bibliothek: Katalog, ed. Hans Ruppert (Weimar: Arion Verlag, 1958), pp. 280-81.
10. A chicken or the egg argument arises here, for in the opinion of Jung and his disciples, the transcendent archetypes worked through Goethe and Wagner, and it was Jung's genius to discover the imprint of these extramundane forces in Faust and in Wagnerian opera. Jungians dismiss the idea that Goethe and Wagner (and later Jung) could have been consulting the same German-language source materials for their mythological studies and that this could account for the similarity of motifs in their work instead of transpersonal archetypes. Jungian interpretations of Goethe and especially Wagner work backward in their logic by positing transcendental forces-the archetypes of the collective unconscious-as the true creative influence on these men. It does not occur to them that Creuzer, Goethe, and Wagner influenced Jung and that he only later claimed it was not these men per se, but transcendental forces working through them and through him that accounted for such similarities. This faulty logic, based on an essentially religious belief in the occult realm of the collective unconscious, permeates the Jungian literature and is evident, for example in analyses of the archetypal origins of Wagner's genius. See, e.g., Robert Donnington, Wagner's "Ring" and Its Symbols: The Music and the Myth (New York: St. Martin's, 1974),and the recent work, Jean Shinoda Bolen, The Ring of Power: The Abandoned Child and the Authoritarian Father (San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1993).
11. Wagner, Cosima Wagner's Diaries 2:565.
12. The sobriquet "Solar Phallus Man" is the invention of Sonu Shamdasani.
13. Shamdasani, "A Woman Called Frank," p. 40.
14. See McGuire and Hull, C. G. Jung Speaking, pp. 433-35.
15. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, para. 173.
16. Mead, A Mithraic Ritual.
17. Dieterich, Eine Mithrasliturgie. The first edition of this work appeared in 1903.
18. McGuire and Hull, C. G. Jung Speaking, p. 435.
19. For Jung's revised versions, see "The Structure of the Psyche" (1928/1931), Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, para. 319; and especially "The Concept of the Collective Unconscious" (936), Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, para. 105. It is dismaying to note that so many of Jung's closest collaborators also repeated this story as a way of offering dramatic evidence for the collective unconscious without mentioning Honegger's role or the 1903 edition of Dieterich's book. Their repetition of this story should be seen more as acts of devout discipleship than as ignorance of the truth. See, e.g., von Franz, C. G. Jung: His Myth in Our Time, p. 124; and C. A. Maier, Soul and Body: Essays on the Theories of C. G. Jung (Santa Monica, Calif.: Lapis Press, 1986), p. 78.
20. I am indebted to William McGuire for this fact.
21. I am again indebted to McGuire for sharing this information with me. As these papers remain under restriction at the insistence of C. A. Maier, further examination of Honegger's papers and the case of the Solar Phallus Man must await future publications.
22. Jung, "The Concept of the Collective Unconscious," para. 105n.
23. Creuzer, Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, 3:335.
24. Bachofen, Myth, Religion, and Mother Right, pp. 114-15.
25. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, letter 175J. Also see McGuire, introduction, to Jung, Psychology of the Unconscious, p. xviii.
26. The abstract is reprinted in full in Hans Walser, "An Early Psychoanalytical Tragedy: J. J. Honegger and the Beginnings of Training Analysis," Spring (1974): 253-54.
27. After the devastation of the First World War, the only persons with resources enough to pay for psychoanalysis were to be found outside of Continental Europe, the caseloads of both Freud and Jung were made up of predominantly English-speaking patients. By the 1920s Jung spoke and wrote English fluently, but Freud had great difficulty mastering English in his sixties just to understand and talk to the majority of his patients, and this was not helped by his growing mouth cancer at this time. As persons from England and particularly America (even college-educated ones) did not have the sort of intensive classical education so prominent in Hellenized Germany, Jung's frequent claims that his patients "could not have possibly known" such material were far more believable to them. As for the mythological content of their own dreams, by the 1920s most of the well-to-do American and British patients who made the pilgrimage to see Jung had been involved in occult traditions such as Theosophy, had read Jung's works, or were attracted to his spiritual and mythological themes, and wanted more of the same. Hence, Jung's clinical evidence for a collective unconscious comes from a highly biased subject pool.
28. C. G. Jung, "A Study in the Process of Individuation," (1950), Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, para. 542. For the record, Jung had indeed already begun his intense study of alchemical symbols earlier in the 1920s, and was quite familiar with them through other works as early as 1909.
29. For a discussion of Mann and her Swedenborgian family heritage and her possible exposure to alchemical ideas because of this, see Webb, The Occult Establishment, pp. 388-94.
30. Cited in McGuire, introduction to Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious, p. xxiii. The original reference is Sigmund Freud, "Uber einige Ubereinstimmungen im Seelenleben der Wilden und der Neurotiker, I: Die Inzestscheu," Imago 1 (1912): 18.
31. Kerr, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle and Back Again."
32. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 99.
33. McGuire, The Freud/Jung Letters, p. 296 (letter 180J).
34. Homans gives psychoanalytic historian John Gedo the credit for astutely "[putting] his finger on a critical point in the Freud-Jung relationship" in an unpublished paper by Gedo. This critical point came in 1910 when, according to Homans, "Jung tried to endow Freud and psychoanalysis with religious powers" (Jung in Context, p. 56).
35. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, p. 288 (letter 174 F).
36. Ibid., p. 294 (letter 178 J).
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid., p. 295 (letter 179 F, 13 February 1910).
41. Ibid., p. 296.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid., p. 308 (letter 186 J).
44. Ibid., p. 346 (letter 206 J).
45, Unlike Jung's own case histories claiming to support the phylogenetic hypothesis, these papers by his assistants provide much more information regarding personal history. Nelken cites Cumont and Dieterich on Mithras and amplifies the delusion of his patient with references to solar mythology, the tree of life, the snake, and other mythological symbols of interest to Jung during this period. At the very end of his paper, Nelken claims (like Jung) that it is "out of the question" ("ausgeschlossen") that the patient was conscious of the meaning of his mythological symbolism, although Nelken does honestly admit that, after examining the patient in numerous interrogations concerning his prior knowledge of solar worship and the Mithras cult, "the knowledge of the patient in this regard has, however, proven itself to be more than superficial" ("Die kentnisse des Patienten in dieser Richtung haben sich aber mehr als oberflachlich erwiesen."). See Jan Nelken, "Analytische Beobachtungen uber Phantasien eines Schizophrenen" ("Analytical Observations on the Fantasies of a Schizophrenic"), Jahrbuch fur psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen 4 (1912): 504-62. See also Sabina Spielrein, "Uber den psychologischen Inhalt eines Falls von Schizophrenie," Jahrbuch far psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen 3 (1912): 329-400.
46. Jung, Letters: I. 1906-1950, p. 24. Letter to Freud of 12 June 1911.
47. See Shamdasani, "A Woman Called Frank," pp. 26-55.
48. Kerr, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle," p. 41.
49. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 27.
50. Paskauskas, Freud/Jones Correspondence, p. 160 (letter 94, 18 September 1912).
51. Fortunately, this is summarized for us in Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, pp. 809-16.
52. Ibid., p. 813.
53. Ibid., p. 814.
54. McGuire, Freud/Jung Letters, p. 487 (letter 300 J).
55. Ibid., p. 478 (letter 291 J).
56. Ibid., p. 480 (letter 293 F of 10 January 1912).
57. See the excellent biography by Rudolph Binion, Frau Lou: Nietzsche's Wayward Disciple (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), especially pp. 335-99.
58. A list of the programs of the society held between October 1912 and July 1913 appeared in the "Bulletins" section of the Internationale Zeitschrift fur arztliche Psychoanalyse 1 (1913): 635.
59. See McGuire, "Introduction," in Jung, Dream Analysis, p. vii.
60. Jung, Freud and Psychoanalysis.
61. See Noll, "Jung the Leontocephalus," pp. 12-60.
62. See Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method.
63. McGuire Freud/Jung Letters, p. 491 (letter 303 J).
64. See pp. 131-32, above.
65. Von Franz gives this date in her introduction to The Zofingia Lectures: "In 1912 he came to the conclusion that he personally could not return to the medieval or original Christian myth and set his foot on the path of finding his own myth by a form of meditation that he later called 'active imagination'" (p. xxiv).
66. Jung, Two Essays.
67. See Phyllis Grosskurth, 'The Idyll in the Harz Mountains: Freud's Secret Committee," in Gelfand and Kerr, Freud and the History of Psychoanalysis, pp. 341-56.
68. Jung, "New Paths in Psychology," para. 430.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., para. 437.
71. Ibid., para. 438.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid., para. 441.
74. C. G. Jung, "Preface to the First Edition (1917)," in Two Essays.
75. C. G. Jung, "Preface to the Second Edition (1918)," ibid.
76. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 42.
77. Ibid.
78. The speculation in the Jungian literature that the voice was Spielrein's. See William McGuire's footnote in ibid.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid., p. 46.
81. Ibid., p. 33.
82. Ibid., p. 46.
83. The first compilation of works by Jung's group can be found in C. G. Jung, ed., Psychologische Abhandlungen (Leipzig and Vienna: Deuticke, 1914). It was to be the first of many volumes of this group, but further volumes under the name of this series did not appear until 1928. In the foreword to the book dated May 1914 Jung explains: "The present state of psychology seems to make it advisable that schools or movements have their own organs of publication." The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings CW 18, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), para. 1825. Jung clearly sees his group as a school or movement at this time.
84. Jones wrote to Freud from Rome on 29 December 1912 (Paskauskas, Freud/Jones Correspondence, p. 189, letter 112). This appeared as Ernest Jones, "Der Gottmensch-Komplex; der Glaube, Gott zu Sein, und die daraus folgenden Charactermerkmale," Internationale Zeitschrift fur artzliche Psychoanalyse 1 (1913): 313-29. An English translation can be found under the title "The God Complex: The Belief That One Is God and the Resulting Character Traits," in Ernest Jones, Essays in Applied Psycho-analysis, Volume II (New York: International Universities Press, 1964).
85. Ibid.
86. Jones, Essays im Applied Psycho-Analysis, Volume II, p. 255.
87. C. C. Jung, "Psychoanalysis and the Association Experiments" (1906), Experimental Researches, para. 727.
88. Jones, Essays, Volume II, p. 247.
89. Ibid., p. 248.
90. Ibid., p. 260.
91. Ibid., p. 261.
92. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 41.
93. Ibid., p. 44.
94. Ibid., p. 43.
95. See Homans, Jung in Context. Homans gives priority to an argument in an unpublished manuscript by John Cedo, "Magna est vis et veritatis tuae et praevalebit: Comments on the Freud-Jung correspondence" (1974).
96. Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, 2:33
97. MDR, p. 176.
98. Jung, Analytical Psychology, pp. 43-44.
99. See Jaffe, "Introduction," MDR, p. vii.
100. Ibid.
101. MDR, pp. 181-84.
102. Jung, Analytical Psychology, pp. 63-64, 88-89.
103. MDR, p. 181.
104. He does not, however, examine possible personal sources of inspiration for these figures. For example, they may well have corresponded to concerns with Freud and Andreas-Salome.
105. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 89.
106. MDR, p. 182.
107. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 89.
108. MDR, p. 182.
109. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 93.
110. Ibid., p. 95.
111. Franz Joseph Mone, Geschichte des Heidenthums, 2 vols. (Leipzig and Darmstadt: Carl Wilhelm Leske, 1822 and 1825). Although these two volumes by Mone are distinct from Creuzer's four volumes, Creuzer is responsible for having them published and it is Creuzer's name on the spines of these books. The individual volumes under Creuzer in Jung's Bibliothek are not listed.
112. Jung, Analytical Psychology, p. 96.
113. Ibid.
114. Ibid., p. 37.
115. Ibid., p. 98.
116. Ibid., p. 98.
117. Ibid., p. 99.
118. Ibid.
119. On the multiple interpretations of Aion, see the following: Howard Jackson, 'The Meaning and Function of the Leontocephaline in Roman Mithraism," Numen 32 (1985): 17-45; R. L. Gordon, "Reality, Evocation, and Boundary in the Mysteries of Mithras," Journal of Mithraic Studies 3 (1980): 19-99; and Doro Levi, "Aion," Hesperia 13 (1944): 269-314; and Ulansey, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries.
120. Jung, therefore, never having set foot in Rome, never saw this actual statue of the lion-headed god in person.
121. See the following recent biographies that document this relationship: Forrest G. Robinson, Love's Story Told: A Life of Henry A. Murray (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); and Claire Douglas, Translate the Darkness: The Life of Christiana Morgan, the Veiled Woman in Jung's Circle (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993).
122. See McGuire, "Introduction," in Jung, Dream Analysis.
123. This is immediately clear when one closely examines Jung's pattern of publications, chronologically listed in the General Bibliography (CW 19; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), especially for his publications in his native German.
124. These publications were somewhat akin to today's politically conservative Reader's Digest, and not at all similar to medical, professional, or scientific journals in any way.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
1. C. G. Jung, "La Structure de l'inconscient," Archives de Psychologie 16 (1916): 152-79. Jung's original manuscript was in German, and an English translation of this appeared in Long, Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology. It was subsequently revised and greatly expanded into an almost entirely new paper and published in 1928 as "The Relations Between the Ego and the Unconscious." The original German manuscript was found in 1961 after Jung's death, and forms the basis of the translation of the original that appears in the appendix of Two Essays as "The Structure of the Unconscious."
2. Jung, "The Structure of the Unconscious," para. 446.
3. Ibid., para. 450.
4. Ibid., para. 456.
5. Ibid., para. 455.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., para. 456.
8. Ibid., para. 454.
9. Ibid., para. 470.
10. See R.F.C. Hull, "Bibliographic Notes on Active Imagination in the Works of C. G. Jung," Spring (1971): 115-20.
11. Jung, "The Structure of the Unconscious," para. 464n.
12. Ibid., para. 466.
13. Ibid., para. 467.
14. Ibid.
15. There is much private speculation over whether the charges of Jones and Freud that Jung believed himself to be the "Aryan Christ" had a basis in Jung's subjective experience. There is an unsubstantiated report that the famous "Red Book" in which Jung inscribed and illustrated his active-imagination fantasies may contain just such evidence. 16. Jung, "The Structure of the Unconscious," para. 468.
17. Ibid.
18. C. G. Jung, The Transcendent Function, trans. A. R. Pope (Zurich: C. G. Jung Institute Students Association, 1957). This translation from Jung's original document is twenty-three pages long. Jung added material primarily to the end of this document in the version that appears as "The Transcendent Function" (1916/1958), in The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. A preface by James Hillman is included in the 1957 publication.
19. Ibid., p. 5.
20. Ibid., p. 6.
21. Ibid.
22. For a description of the use of "evolution" in the biological sciences to describe both embryological development and species change, see Richards, The Meaning of Evolution.
23. Jung, The Transcendent Function, p. 5.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid., p. 6.
26. Ibid., p. 7.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid., p. 10.
29. Ibid., p. 11.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid., p. 23.
32. Ibid., p. 13.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid., p. 22.
35. Ibid., p. 18. For a description of the role of Ascona in the birth of the modern dance movement, see Green, The Mountain of Truth.
36. Ibid., p. 22.
37. However, the English translation in the Collected Works appeared in Hull, "Bibliographic Notes."
38. C. G. Jung, "Adaptation, Individuation, Collectivity" (1916), Miscellaneous Writings, para. 1087.
39. Ibid., para. 1090.
40. Ibid., para. 1094.
41. Ibid.
42. Von Hartmann, devotes an entire section to "Der Begriff der Individualitat" ("The Concept of Individuality") and its syncretic blend of Schopenhauerian philosophy and vitalistic evolutionary biology in Philosophie des Unbewussten, pp. 515-34. He also includes a chapter on "Die Individuation" ("Individuation") and its likelihood (rare) and resulting personality characteristics (Schopenhauerian) on pp. 612-32. Schopenhauer first mentions the principium individuationis (which he admits is an expression he borrowed from "the old scholasticism") in the first volume (1819) of The World as Will and Representation, trans. E.F.J. Payne (New York: Dover, 1969), 1:112. Nietzsche refers to it in the first section of his very first book (1872), Die Geburt der Tragodie aus dem Geist der Musik (The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music). See Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy and The Case of Wagner, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), p. 36.
43. Jung, "Adaptation, Individuation, Collectivity," para. 1103.
44. Ibid., para. 1094
45. Ibid., para. 1097.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid., para. 1099.
48. On Alcoholics Anonymous as a charismatic group, see Galanter, Cults: Faith, Healing and Coercion.
49. Hugo Ball, Hermann Hesse: Sein Leben und Werk (Berlin: S. Fischer Verlag, 1927). A later special edition was Hugo Ball, Hermann Hesse: Sein Leben und Werk (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1956). Ball's summary of these notes appear on pp. 142-45 of this later edition.
50. Ralph Freeman, Hermann Hesse: Pilgrim of Crisis (New York: Pantheon, 1978). Freeman is using the 1956 edition of Ball's biography.
51. This is my translation of the following: "23. X. 17. Du wirst Horen die Stimme, die aus den Urtiefen der Erde ruft, verkunden werde ich Dir die Gesetze des Magmas, in dessen Quellen ich throne, vernehmen sollst Du von mir die Gesetze der Toten, welches sein werden Satzungen der neuen Zeit." Ball, Hermann Hesse, pp. 158-59.
52. "Gehe ruhig zur Ruhe, ich bin Dir immer nahe, sende aber oft des Tages und wahrend der Nacht die Strahlen Deiner Gedanken in den finsteren Schacht Deiner SeeIe, wo ich mich Du zu nahen suche, urn Beruhrung zu gewinnen." Ball, Hermann Hesse, p. 159.
53. "Ich hammere in Deinem Schachte, einmal wirst Du verstehen und lesen die Runen, die ich im Gestein Deiner Seele herausgeschlagen habe, die Urschrift des Menschen, die Du sie lehren musst, die Gesetzestafeln des Kommenden." Ball, Hermann Hesse, p. 159. In reading this passage, it is difficult not to imagine the musical hammering of the subterranean Niebelungs in Wagner's Das Reingold, Jung's favorite opera.
54. Diederichs was the publisher of an early collection of Hesse's poetry. For an appreciation of the publisher by the author, see Hermann Hesse, "Der Verlag Eugen Diederichs," Marz 3 (1909): 318-20.
55. Freeman, Hermann Hesse, p. 109.
56. Guido von List, Die Geheimnis der Runen. Band 1, Guido von List Bucherei (Gross-Lichterfeld: P. Zillman, 1908). For an English translation and a biographical essay by Stephen Flowers, see Guido von List, The Secret of the Runes (Rochester, Vt.: Destiny Books, 1988).
57. Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Modern Nazism, p. 49. The speculation about ancient mystery initiations among the Germanic tribes can be traced at least as far back as the work of Justus Moser (1720-1794). Moser argues in "Von den Mysterien und dem Volksglauben der alten Deutschen und Gallier" (Samtliche Werke, 2, p. 402) that mystery initiations took place in secret underground churches in the form of ritual dramatic performances, much like the Mithraic and Dionysiac cults of the Greeks.
58. Jung, "On the Psychology of the Unconscious," Two Essays, para. 118.
59. Ibid.
60. Jules Verne, A Journey to the Center of the Earth (Pleasantville, N.Y.: The Reader's Digest Association, 1992), p. 1. This modern edition uses the same anonymous English translation of the work that has been used for over a century. For the purposes of convenience, all references will be from this easily accessible edition.
61. Ibid., p. 2.
62. Ibid., p. 5.
63. Ibid., p. 8.
64. Ibid., p. 16.
65. Ibid., pp. 21-22.
66. Jaffe, C. G. Jung: Word and Image, p. 76 Jung's detailed explanation of this mandala precedes it on p. 75.
67. MDR, pp. 189-92.
68. Jung, Letters, I: 1906-1950, p. 34.
69. On the real Basilides, see Gilles Quispel, "Gnostic Man: The Doctrine of Basilides," in Joseph Campbell, ed., The Mystic Vision: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks, Volume 6 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), 210-46. Also useful is Giovanni Filoramo, A History of Gnosticism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990), pp. 159-61.
70. MDR, p. 190.
71. The translation used for this summary can be found in Segal, The Gnostic Jung, pp. 181-93. The critical seventh sermon appears on pp. 192-93, which is the source of my references to the work that follow.
72. For a useful summary of perspectives and a comprehensive footnote citation of the interpretive literature on the "Seven Sermons," see ibid., pp. 35-48.
73. Metzger and Metzger, Stefan George, pp. 157-58.
74. See Peter Gay, "The Secret Germany: Poetry as Power," a chapter in Weimar Culture, pp. 46-69. According to Gay, "Stefan George was the king of a secret Germany" (p. 47).
75. See the poems "Templars" and "The Guardians of the Forecourt" in Stefan George, The Works of Stefan George, trans. Olga Marx and Ernst Morwitz (New York: AMS Press, 1966), pp. 177-79.
76. Stefan George, "The Star of the Covenant" (1913), in ibid., p. 248.
77. After years of teaching his disciples how to reach the god within, Jung formalized this idea as the "self" in his psychological theory in his 1928 essay on "The Relations Between the Ego and the Unconscious." Jung had, however, hinted at such a concept in 1921 in his Psychological Types (CW 6, para. 623) and, of course, in his 1916 exposition on "godlikeness" in his essay on "The Structure of the Unconscious."
CHAPTER TWELVE
1. Jung, "Adaptation, Individuation, Collectivity," para. 1099.
2. Jung, "Introduction to Toni Wolff's 'Studies in Jungian Thought,'" para. 887.
3. See the discussion in chapter 7 of Jung, Zofingia Lectures.
4. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology, p. 43.
5. In "The Structure of the Unconscious," Jung says that "the faculty of imitation" is "most pernicious for individuation," and he condemns those who "are content to ape some eminent personality ... thereby achieving an outward distinction from the circle in which they move" (para. 463). Jung was no doubt aiming this arrow at the Freudians, but was also no doubt warning those within his own circle that his official position on their own "imitation of Jung" was one of intolerance. 6. Jung, "The Relations Between the Ego and the Unconscious," para. 399.
7. Ibid., para. 401.
8. See, for example, the 26 May 1923 letter of Jung to Oskar Schmitz (chap. 6). Jung repeatedly warned his fellow Europeans about the dangers of pursuing spiritual paths originating in lands or from peoples who had a different geographical or especially biological heritage. Jung persisted in this attitude even after studying Chinese alchemy with Richard Wilhelm. In his "Commentary on The Secret of the Golden Flower" (1929), a translation of an ancient Chinese alchemical text by Wilhelm, Jung devotes his entire first section to "Difficulties Encountered By A European in Trying to Understand the East" and includes the warning that, "It is not for us to imitate what is foreign to our organism or to play the missionary; our task is to build up our Western civilization, which sickens with a thousand ills" (para. 5). A further discussion of Jung's rejection of Eastern spirituality for Westerners on these volkisch grounds can be found in Harold Coward, Jung and Eastern Thought (New York: State University of New York Press, 1985), pp. 8-11.
9. These facts came to light during a seminar on "Jung and Anti-Semitism" at a conference of Jungian analysts in Paris in 1989. See Mary Ann Mattoon, ed., Paris 89: Proceedings of the Eleventh International Congress for Analytical Psychology, August 28-September 2, 1989: Personal and Archetypal Dynamics in the Analytical Relationship (Einsiedln, Switzerland: Daimon Verlag, 1991).
10. Nietzsche, "The Birth of Tragedy," in The Birth of Tragedy and the Case of Wagner, p. 123.
11. Ibid., p. 124.
12. Ferdinand Tonnies, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1979; original edition, 1887). An English-language translation by Charles Loomis is Community and Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1963). However, perhaps the best summary of Tonnies' utopianism can be found in Liebersohn, Fate and Utopia in German Sociology, pp. 11-39.
13. Interestingly, in an unpublished essay written between 1920 and 1925, Tonnies proposed an apocalyptic vision of a coming new age of history in which Christianity would be overthrown and a cosmic oneness with the natural world would mark humankind's new spiritual freedom. Tonnies even entitled his prophetic essay Die neue Botschaft ("The New Gospel"). Tonnies was no doubt influenced by his participation in the monistic religion of Haeckel and Ostwald.
14. On the Rosicrucian influences on Goethe, and for information on the history of the construction of this poem, see the commentary to Goethe's "Die Geheimnisse" by Erich Trunz in Goethes Werke, Band II, 7th ed. (Hamburg: Christian Wegner Verlag, 1965), pp. 653-58.
15. The volkisch movement and especially Nazi Germany deliberately used similar fantasies of an elite order of Grail-Knights in their rhetoric. During the Nazi era Heinrich Himmler's elite SS corps comprised just such an organization. As Hermand tells it, "Pushing aside a semitic Christianity in favor of an Indo-Germanic religion, Himmler wanted to construct a series of SS monasteries -- a desire partly realized in the mid-1930s with the transformation of Wevelsburg castle near Paderborn into a racial cultic shrine -- where those SS leaders who were especially 'adept' in the mysteries of the SS came together every year to participate in occult meditation practices" (Old Dreams of a New Reich, p. 243).
16. Cited in Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, p. 8.
17. Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, p. 272.
18. Ibid., p. 262.
19. Nietzsche, "Thus Spoke Zarathustra, First Part," in The Portable Nietzsche, p. 187.
20. Typical nineteenth-century views on the degenerate nature of genius can be found throughout the highly influential work of Cesare Lombroso, The Man of Genius (London: Walter Scott, 1910; original Italian edition, 1888). For an exemplary modern review of the issue, see George Becker, The Mad Genius Controversy (New York: Sage, 1978). A useful summary of the relationship between genius, IQ, and "eminence" is found in the collection by Robert S. Albert, ed., Genius and Eminence: The Social Psychology of Creativity and Exceptional Achievement (New York: Pergamon Press, 1983).
21. Jung, "Thoughts on the Interpretation of Christianity," para. 243.
22. See Becker, The Mad Genius Controversy.
23. C. G. Jung, "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena" (1902), Psychiatric Studies, para. 3.
24. Jung, "Cryptomnesia," para. 175. Jung's paper was originally published in the weekly Berlin journal Die Zukunft as one in a series of articles published in 1904-1905 that discussed a possible instance of plagiarism by a noted drama critic. Writing this article was a way for Jung to participate in the cultural dialogue of his day at the highest levels, for the previous discussant of the case in an earlier issue had been Arthur Schnitzler (1862-1931), the famous Viennese novelist, playwright, and physician.
25. Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, 2:386. The first German edition of only the first volume appeared in 1819; the second German edition containing the additional second volume of supplements in which Schopenhauer's famous chapter "On Genius" first appeared was published in 1844.
26. Ibid., 2:379.
27. Carl Pletsch, "The Self-Sufficient Text in Nietzsche and Kierkegaard," in S. N. Godfrey, ed., The Anxiety of Anticipation (Yale French Studies, no. 66) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984). See also PIetsch's superb Young Nietzsche.
28. Schopenhauer, The World as Will, 2:385.
29. See R. B. Onians, The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time and Fate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), pp. 160-62, 168-73.
30. Benedict Augustin Morel, Traite des Degenerescences physiques, intellectuelles et morales de l'Espece humaine et des Causes qui produiscent ces Varietes maladaptives (Paris: Bailliere, 1857), p. 5. Cited and translated in Nordau, Degeneration, p. 16.
31. Jung, Letters, I: 1906-1950, p. 35.
32. Jung, "On the Psychology of the Unconscious," para. 186.
33. Beatrice M. Hinckle, The Re-Creation of the Individual (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1923).
34. See the discussion at the beginning of chapter 3. Also see: Lenoir, "The Gottingen School," pp. 111-205.
35. Jung, "The Structure of the Unconscious," para. 495.
36. This antiscientific bias has been faithfully carried on by generations of Jungians, who in social interactions and Jungian publications often clearly use the adjective "scientific" in a devaluing, pejorative sense. Many of these same persons, however, would be equally offended if it were pointed out to them that their Jungian ideas were occultist or "New Age," despite Jung's open derivation of these ideas from such occultist sources.
37. This essay does not appear in the Collected Works. See C. G. Jung, "The Psychology of Unconscious Processes," in Long, Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology, pp. 352-444.
38. Ibid., p. 432.
39. C. G. Jung, "Instinct and the Unconscious," British Journal of Psychology 10 (1919): 15-26. This first reference to archetypes also appears in Structure and Dynamics, para. 270.
40. See Brigitte Hoppe, "Polaritat, Stufung, und Metamorphose in der spekulativc Biologic der Romantik," Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau 20 (1967): 380-83. The explicit connection between Jung's archetypal theory and early nineteenth-century Naturphilosophie was noted by Poliakov: "Here, under the guise of spirituality, we see a complete return has been made to Naturphilosophie, in the wake of Haeckel's 'soul of the protista,' or of 'the soul of the world'" (The Aryan Myth, p. 288).
41. Lenoir, "The Gottingen School," p. 195.
42. Several of Jung's disciples did begin contact with him in the late 1920s, and of these Hannah and Meier are the most prominent.
43. For a sensitive explanation of the "pseudo-religious" nature of the National Socialist movement and its seductive appeal, see Stern, "National Socialism as Temptation," in his Dreams and Delusions, pp. 147-92.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
1. Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 246-99, 1111-56. For an overview of the extension of Weber's concept of charisma to contemporary historical events, leaders, movements, and organizations, see the selections in Ronald Glassman and William Swatos, eds., Charisma, History, and Social Structure (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
2. Gerald Gieson, "Scientific Change, Emerging Specialties, and Research Schools," History of Science 19 (1981): 20-40.
3. Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: Macmillan, 1947), pp. 363-364.
4. Weber, The Sociology of Religion, p. 46.
5. For example, by 1920 Max Eitington ( a "secret committee" member) had set up the Psychoanalytic Clinic and Training Institute in Berlin with Freud's blessing. It was the first of its kind. A second such clinic was set up in Vienna in 1922. For Freud's own perspective on his movement in 1914, see his On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, trans. James Strachey (New York: Norton, 1966). On the rise of psychoanalysis in America, see the useful volume by C. P. Oberndorf, A History of Psychoanalysis in America (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1953).
6. Michael Fordham, "Analytical Psychology in England," Journal of Analytical Psychology 24 (1979): 280.
7. Joseph Henderson, "Reflections on the History and Practice of Jungian Analysis," in Murray Stein, ed., Jungian Analysis (La Salle: Open Court, 1982), p. 11. Henderson makes much of the role of women in the growth of the Jungian movement in this century, but instead of looking at admittedly more mundane psychological or especially sociological hypotheses to explain the phenomenon, Henderson in true Jungian fashion attributes it to their desire to make men see the archetypal feminine in themselves, too, and thereby lessen male-female tensions in the Western world.
8. On the founding of Bollingen Foundation, see the useful memoirs of the editor of Bollingen Series for more than thirty years: William McGuire, Bollingen: An Adventure in Collecting the Past (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989).
9. Cited in McGuire and Hull, C. G. Jung Speaking, p. 29.
10. See Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, pp. 12-29.
11. Cited in McGuire and Hull, C. G. Jung Speaking, p. 29.
12. This pyramid-shaped economic system that places such a high emphasis on selling distributorships to others resembles those of other charismatic economic movements in the Us. such as the Amway and Nu-Skin enterprises. There seem to be four levels of initiation in the current Jungian movement, each increasingly smaller in size in this pyramid. They range from "interested nonpatient," who may attend Jungian programs, buy Jungian books, etc., to "patient of a Jungian analyst or trainee," to "trainee" (essentially an elevated status of patienthood) in one of the approved institutes, to finally "Jungian analyst." In 1991, based on an official list of approximately five hundred certified analysts and an estimated figure of about one thousand trainees, I found that Jungian analysis was indeed a major capitalist enterprise that had a total market size of almost $80 million. This is not including the countless workshops, publications, etc., that also go on in Jung's name. Thus, worldwide, the Jungian movement is generating income in the hundreds of millions of dollars annually.
13. C. G. Jung, "Analytical Psychology and Weltanschauung" (1928/1931), Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, para. 740.
14. Jung, "The Role of the Unconscious," para. 13.
15. Ibid., para. 26.
16. Kathe Bugler, "Die Entwicklung der analytischen Psychologie in Deutschland," in Michael Fordham, ed., Contact with Jung: Essays on the Influence of his Work and Personality (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1963), pp. 24-25.
17. McGuire and Hull, C. G. Jung Speaking, p. xvii.
18. The text of this fawning interview is reprinted in ibid., pp. 50-56.
19. Weber, The Sociology of Religion, p. 55.
20. MDR, p. 209.
21. This Eranos lecture formed the basis of sections of his 1944 book, Psychology and Alchemy (CW 12).
22. See Large and Weber, Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics.
23. C. G. Jung Institute of Los Angeles, Matter of Heart, p. 11.
24. Liliane Frey interview, Jung Oral Archives, p. 4.
25. Ibid., p. 8.
26. Jolande Jacobi interview, ibid., p. 27. Jacobi's interview makes fascinating reading. She is blunt about Jung's "contradictions" on the issue of anti-Semitism, but claims he once said to her, "you know, I would never like to have children from a person who has Jewish blood" (p. 19).
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid., p. 28.
29. See David Large, "Wagner's Bayreuth Disciples," in Large and Weber, Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics.
30. Max Weber, "The Nature of Charismatic Authority and its Routinization," in On Charisma and Institution Building, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 57.
31. Sheila Grimaldi-Craig, "Dirty Harry," Spring 54 (1993): 149.
32. Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, p. 366.
33. Jacobi interview, Jung Oral Archives, p. 81.
34. Aniela Jaffe, "From Jung's Last Years," in Jaffe, From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung, p. 99.
35. C. G. Jung, "Address On the Occasion of the Founding of the C. G. Jung Institute, Zurich, 24 April 1948," Miscellaneous Writings, para. 1129.
36. C. A. Maier, Antike Inkubation und moderne Psychotherapie, Studien aus dem C. G. Jung Institut, Vol. I, Zurich (Zurich: Rauscher Verlag, 1949). The English translation by Monica Curtis appeared as Antique Incubation and Modern Psychotherapy (Evanston: Illinois University Press, 1967). In his epilogue Maier could not help addressing the similarities between the ancient healing cult of Asclepius and the modern Jung cult, although he vehemently denies that Jung's psychology is a cult or an esoteric secret society as he says has been charged (English edition, p. 123).
37. C. A. Meier interview, September 1970, Jung Oral Archives, p. 80.
38. For the ancient phenomenon, see A. J. Festugiere, Personal Religion Among the Greeks (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1954). This view of the mystery cults of pagan antiquity is also found in Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults. Burkert, a leading authority on Greek religion, notes: "Mysteries are a form of personal religion, depending on private decision and aiming at some form of closeness to the divine" (p. 12). Also useful is Arthur Darby Nock, Conversion: The Old and New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933).
39. James Hall, The Jungian Experience: Analysis and individuation (Toronto: Inner City Books, 1986).
40. On the classical, developmental, and archetypal schools of thought among Jungian analysts, see Andrew Samuels, Jung and the Post-Jungians (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985).
41. See Noll, "Multiple Personality and the Complex Theory," pp. 321-23.
42. For example, in a recent biography of one of Jung's most prominent patients, Christiana Morgan, the prominent Jungian analyst Claire Douglas makes the following blatantly incorrect series of statements: "In 1912 the younger man broke with Freud, ostensibly because Jung could not accept Freud's dogma of sexuality and because to Freud, Jung's idea of the collective unconscious was heresy. After a severe mental crisis brought about by this rupture, Jung emerged with his own theories in the form of The Psychology of the Unconscious, in which he postulated a collective as well as a personal unconscious, a potentially optimistic view of the psyche rather than a pessimistic one, and an amplificatory as well as a reductive mode of treatment that aimed at individuation rather than a narrow adjustment to reality" (Translate the Darkness: The Life of Christiana Morgan, the Veiled Woman in Jung's Life [New York: Simon and Schuster, 19931, p. 129). Not only is the sequence of historical events wrong, the details are completely wrong as well. Such ignorance of the history of Jung's thought and life are typical among Jungian analysts.
43. Margot Adler, Drawing Down the Moon (New York: The Viking Press, 1979).
44. M. D. Faber, Modern Witchcraft and Psychoanalysis (Cranbury, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1991).
45. Tanya Luhrmann, Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 281.
46. Ibid., p. 282.
47. Flowers, "Revival of Germanic Religion in Contemporary Anglo-American Culture," pp. 279-94.
48. See Melton and Poggi, Magic, Witchcraft, and Paganism in America: A Bibliography, pp. 233-36.
49. Flowers, "Revival of Germanic Religion in Contemporary Anglo-American Culture," pp. 288-89.
50. Ibid., p. 292.
51. Ibid., p. 193.
52. Edward Edinger, The Creation of Consciousness: Jung's Myth for Modern Man (Toronto: Inner City Books, 1984), p. 90.
53. For an informative and scholarly hagiographic volume that contains much information about the continuing development of the Swedenborgian "New Life" Church (which has an actual cathedral in Bryn Athern, Pennsylvania), see Robin Larsen, ed., Emanuel Swedenborg: A Continuing Vision (New York: Swedenborg Foundation, 1988).
Re: The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement
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Index
Abraham, Karl, 131
active imagination, 41, 79, 174, 178, 209-
210
Adler, Alfred, 44, 98, 220, 230, 274
Adler, Gerhard, 216, 289
Adler, Margot, 294
Adler, Viktor, 77
Ahlstrom, Sydney, 62
Aion (Deus Leontocephalus), 213-215, 223
akashic records, 64
alchemists, 42, 240
All-Aryan Federation, 80
analytical collectivity, 253-254, 259-262,
264
analytical tribunal, 254
anarchism, 58
ancestor cult in former Soviet Union, 322
ancestor possession, 23-24
anima, 202-203
Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 51, 321
anthropometry, 97
Anthroposophy, 57, 92, 106, 215, 238
antiscientific bias of Jungians, 372
anti-Semitism, 21-22, 44, 56, 71-72, 76, 78,
85, 97-99, 103, 131-133, 177, 198, 244,
259-260, 288, 306, 333-334, 338-339
Apuleius, 101
archeologist patient of Jung's at the Burgholzli,
176
archeology, 49, 114, 128, 179
archetypes, 6, 9, 40-41, 87, 102, 136, 148,
209, 218, 225, 268, 271, 273, 288, 292
Armanen (Armanenschaft), 78, 210, 214,
237
Arminius (Hermann), 76
Aryan Christ, 80, 85-86, 93, 133, 218, 223,
336
Aryan race, 65-66, 71, 77-78, 82-86, 111,
116-119, 127-136, 175, 189, 214, 241,
259-261, 264, 331-332
Aryan mysteries, 204, 218, 280
Aryana, 106
Asatruarmenn, 295-296
Asatru Free Assembly, 295
Aschaffenburg, Gustav, 190
Aschheim, Steven, 5, 30, 104
Asconan cults, 57, 68, 107-108, 119, 184
astrology, 67-68, 270, 281, 294, 313
Bachofen, Johann Jakob, 92, 128, 160-178,
183-184, 202-203, 216, 220-221, 223,
261, 335
Baer, Karl von, 43
Ball, Hugo, 233
Baltzli, Joseph, 78
Barker, Culver, 289
Basel (Switzerland), 305-306
Basilides, 242
Bauhaus movement, 106
Baumgarten, Eduard, 353
Baynes, H. G., 242
beatniks, 68
Bennett, E. A., 289
Bergson, Henri, 39, 129, 313
Bertine, Eleanor, 274, 279
Besant, Anne, 65, 325
Binggeli, Johannes, 339
Binswanger, Ludwig, 149
Biogenetic Law, 48, 116, 187
Black Book, the, 209
Blavatsky, Helena, 63-69, 72, 77, 79, 83,
105, 178, 210, 230, 243, 332, 335
Bleuler, Eugen, 23, 45, 50, 102, 148, 151
blood mysticism, 78-79
Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, 42
Boas, Franz, 97
Boddinghaus (Sigg), Martha, 204
Bodenbeschaffenheit, 21, 93, 95-103, 272,
305
Bohemia, 153, 352-353
Bousset, Wilhelm, 16, 88
Breuer, Josef, 44
Brod, Max, 108
Brucke, Ernst, 42
Bruno, Giordilno, 87
Buchner, Ludwig, 43, 90, 1-13, 316, 335,
348
Buffon, Comte de, 101
Bugler, Kathe, 282
Burckhardt, Jacob, 32, 160
Burgholzli Mental Hospital, 31, 45-46, 50,
107
Burrow, Trigant, 73
Butler, E. M., 24
Campbell, Joseph, 300
Carlyle, Thomas, 3, 7, 16, 322
Carus, C. G., 41-!2, 87, 1-16, 167, 316
Cathars, 103
Celsus, 59
central heat (or fire) in the earth, 100-101
Chamberlin, Houston Stewart, 72, 85,
93, 131-132
characterology, 168
Charcot, J. M., 31
charisma, 16-18, 47, 155, 175-176, 205-
209, 218, 275-276; of office, 281, 287;
transmission of, 286-288
charismatic: authority, 275-297; group,
16-17, 197
Christ cult, 37, 59, 303
Christ myth, the, 32-38, 112, 118, 132,
175, 188, 202, 250-251, 255, 363
Christianity, 58, 129-130, 134-135; as a
"foreign growth" on the Germanic peoples,
259-260; as a Semitic religion,
126-127, 129-130
Christian Science, 106, 270
clan charisma, 286-287
Clark Conference (1909), 47, 177
collective soul, 250-253
collective unconscious, 6, 9, 15, 97, 99,
102, 108, 136, 1-16, 1-18, 177-178, 181-
184, 209, 218, 220-221, 225, 253, 255,
263-264, 271, 273, 282, 288, 291-292,
358; as Jungian "great chain of being"
or iconography of the transcendent,
293
Collingwood, R. C., 38
complex psychology, 31, 20-1
complex theory, 9, 23, 271
Cosmic Circle, 57, 166-168, 188, 357
Cotta, Bernhard von, 96, 305
Countway Library of Medicine (Harvard
Medical School), 301, 349
Cranefield, Pilul, 42
Creuzer, Friedrich, 82, 179-181, 183-184,
190, 212, 359, 365
crisis of science, 129
Crookes, William, 142
crusaders, 242-246, 262
cryptomnesia, 66, 185, 265-266, 341, 350
cult: definition of, 16-17; legend, 15, 302
Cult of Astarte, 162
cults of the saints (Christian), 59, 323-324
Cumont, Franz, 105, 123-124, 362
Czolbe, Heinrich, 43, 348
Daniken, Erik von, 164
Danzinger, Kurt, 9, 275
Darwin, Chilrles, 40, 43, 47-48, 70, 83, 85,
142, 159, 171, 264, 333
Darwinism, 33, 47-48, 50, 314
dead, the struggle with the, 252, 256
decadence, 309
degenerate movements, 28
degeneration, 20, 24, 28-29, 32, 43, 45-46,
145, 151-152, 267-269, 308, 310, 317
deification, self-, 120-122, 211, 213-214,
220-224, 253, 255, 346-347
dementia praecox, 31, 46, 151, 158, 174,
351; toxin theory of, 151-152
Deussen, Paul, 299
Diederichs, Eugen, 39, 68, 86-90, 108, 132,
184, 236, 333-334, 356
Dieterich, Albrecht, 88, 123, 125, 129,
182-183, 360
Dilthey, Wilhelm, 39
Dionysus, 127
dissociation, 31, 229
dominants (of the collective unconscious),
9, 220, 268, 270-271, 315
Douglas, Claire, 376
dreams and life after death, 293
Drews, Arthur, 88, 132
Driesch, Hans, 102
Driesmans, Heinrich, 329
Dubois-Reymond, Emil, 143, 316
378
Duncan, Isadora, 50, 108, 229, 320
Dunlap, Knight, 47
Durkheim, Emi!, 60
earth sciences, 99-102, 128-129
Eastern spirituality, 370
Ebbinghaus, Herman, 299
Eckhardt, Meister, 86
Eckstein, Frederick, 76-77
Eddas, 87, 237-239, 333
Edinger, Edward, 296
Edison, Thomas, 65
Eitington, Max, 157, 373
elan vital, 129
Eleusis, 70
Eliade, Mircea, 60
Elijah, 210, 212
elites and elitism, 5, 22-23, 38-39, 46, 55-
57, 137, 142, 189-190, 232-233, 257-259
elitism, spiritual, 55-57, 72, 87-88, 94-95,
249, 259, 261
Ellenberger, Henri, 19-20, 22, 28, 41, 145,
162, 171-172, 183, 340
embryology, 48
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 297, 313
Emmanuel movement, 313
energetics, 51, 231, 321
Engels, Friedrich, 164
Eranos circle (Heidelberg), 125, 344
Eranos conferences (Ascona), 94, 108, 168,
284, 341
Esquirol, J.E.D., 31
essentialism, 40
eugenics, 320-321; eugenetic Christ, 329
Evans-Pritchard, E., 331
evolutio, 226
evolution, 40, 42-43, 47-48, 51, 84, 128,
231, 269, 354
evolutionary personality psychology,
159
extraverted type, 51
Faber, M. D., 294
Fahrenkrog, Ludwig, 79
Faust, 25, 30, 42, 111, 136, 180, 307, 359
Fechner, Gustav, 105, 147, 340
Ferenczi, Sandor, 131, 177
Field, Geoffrey, 93, 345
Fischer, Kuno, 189
Fischer, Kurt Rudolph, 263
Fliess, Wilhelm, 42
Flournoy, Theodore, 31, 112, 144-145,
185, 207, 219, 341, 349-350
Flowers, Steven, 295
Fordham, Freida, 289
Fordham, Michael, 274, 278, 289, 294
Forel, August, 50, 193, 320-321
Fox sisters, 62
Franz, Marie-Louise von, 274, 301
Frazer, Sir James, 343
Free Spirits, 103
Freud, Sigmund, 6-9, 18, 21, 23, 25, 30-
32, 40-47, 52, 57-58, 76, 97-98, 1l1-113,
126, 130-132, 146, 150, 153-155, 158-
159, 162, 170-171, 177-179, 186-187,
189, 193-200, 202, 204, 207-208, 216-
217, 221, 227, 230-231, 278, 281-287,
294, 316, 342, 353, 360-361, 366, 373
Frey-Rohm, Liliane, 18, 274, 285
Frobe, Olga, 341
Galdston, Iago, 42
Gandhi, 65
Gasman, Daniel, 90
Gay, Peter, 22, 131
Gedo, John, 207, 361
Geheimnisse, Die (1816), 254, 262, 280
genius, 24, 43-44, 50, 70, 85, 144, 208, 222,
265-269, 278, 346, 377; hereditary, 20,
24
geology of the personality, 99-102, 239
George, Stefan, 39, 56-57, 166, 208, 244-
246, 318, 356
Georgekreis (the George Circle), 56, 244,
318
German Church of God, 80
German Communist Party (KDP), 51
Germanic Faith Movement, 33, 79-80,
136, 346
German Society for Experimental Psychology,
145
German Youth Movement, 89, 107, 236,
262, 335
germ-plasm, 85, 269, 306
Gessellschaft fur psychoanalytische Bestrebungen,
194. See also Society for Psychoanalytic
Endeavors
Gestalt psychologists, 129
Gieson, Gerald, 275
Gilman, Sander, 45
Gnosticism, 67, 69, 8S, 105, 210, 242
god building movement (Marxian), 54-55
god-complex, 204-208, 221
god-image, 37, 90
godlikeness, 220-224, 265
gods, 270
god-within, 120-122, 141, 204, 218, 222,
240-246, 257, 265, 335
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 6, 20, 24-
25, 30, 33, 41, 79, 81, 87, 91, 97, 122,
144, 172-173, 180-181, 252, 254, 256,
259, 262, 269, 272, 279, 307, 316
Golden Dawn, Hermetic Order of the, 58,
167
Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas, 68
Gorky, Maxim, 54
Gorres, Joseph von, 82, 316
Gottingen school of Naturphilosophie,
272
grail legends, 78
Great Mother, 127, 167, 198
Greek Magical Papyri, 125
Green, Martin, 1O-l, 161, 166-167, 346
Greens, 68
Griesinger, Wilhelm, 31
Grimm, Jacob, 82, 84
Gross, Frieda, 154
Gross, Hanns, 153
Gross, Otto, 17, 57, 107-1OS, 151-162, 172,
176, 199-202, 205-20b, 216, 230-231,
261, 352-354
Gundolf, Fried rich, 22
Gurney, Edmund, 310
Haeckel, Ernst, 35, 40, 43, 47-54, 58, 79,
80, 85-86, 90-92, 96, 111, II 'i-I 16, 122,
129, 142-143, 171, 186, 199, 208, 226,
283, 316, 319-321, 335, 348, 171
Haeckelian unconscious, 51-54
Hall, James, 293
Hanisch, Otto, 105-106
Hannah, Barbara, 301
Harding, Esther, 99, 274, 279-280
hard inheritance, 85
Harrington, Anne, 129, 345
Hartmann, Eduard yon, 30, 39, 142, 231,
309, 347-3-l8, 367
Hartmann, Fran7, 77
Hauer, J. w., 33, 80, 136, 168, 346
Havamal, 237
Hegel, G. W.F., 82, 273
Heidegger, Martin, 39
Heine, Heinrich, 25, 112
Heise, Karl, 105-106
Hellenism, German, 24-25
Hellenophilia, 313
Henderson, Joseph, 274, 279, 374
Herder, Johann Gottfried, 33, 262
Hermand, Jost, 55, 76-77
hermeticism, 67, 69
Herodotus, 82
hero worship, 3, 7, 16, 322
Hess, Rudolph, 51, 80
Hesse, Herman, 101, 108, 204, 233-238,
282
hetairism, 163-164, 167, 173, 203, 261
Heyer, Gustav, 168
Hieronimus, Ekkehard, 75
Higher Armanen Order, 237
hiking, 77, 107
Hillman, James, 274, 294
Hinkle, Beatrice, 204, 269, 274, 279
hippies, 68
Hitler, Adolph, 21-22, 72-73, 79-80, 103,
134-136, 259, 273-274, 317
holism, 129
holy man, 4-15
Homans, Peter, 110, 207, 343-344, 361
Honegger, J. J., 117, 121, 128, 181-187,
190, 360
horse sacrifice, 80
hysteria, H
I Ching, 7, 95, 281, 294, 307, 333
Idealists, volkisch ideology of, 273
imitatio Christi, Jung's, 213
impersonal unconscious, 220, 263
individuality, 231, 236, 367
individuation, 9, 15, 57, 186, 219, 230-232,
264-269, 367
inner fatherland, 76, 228
International Order for Ethics and Culture,
the, 188
International Psychoanalytic Association,
23, 196, 216
introversion, 174, 235
introverted type, 51
Isis, 127
Jacobi, Jolande, 274, 285, 289
Jaffe, Aniela, 13, 15, 209-210, 242, 286,
289-290, 318, 328
Jaffe, Edgar, 154
Jaffe, Else, 154, 318
James, William, 63, 112, 311, 313, 349
Janet, Pierre, 31, 150
Jaspers, Karl, 39
Jesus, the historical, 13-15, 33-38, 61, 65,
85-86, 88, 118, 123, 133, 146-147, 172,
198, 265, 294; as Schopenhauerian godman,
144
Jones, Ernest, 25, 133, 152, 158, 192, 204-
208, 221, 352, 366
Jones, Sir William, 83
Judaism, 57; hellenistic, 129
Judaization of science, 306
Jung, C. G.: on active imagination, 178,
229-230; anti-Semitism of, 21-22, 103,
133, 376; as Aryan Christ, 223; at Ascona,
108; Bachofen's influence on,
169-175, 202-204; on H. S. Chamberlain,
131-132; as charismatic leader, 17;
childhood of, 19; on Christianity as a
harmful "foreign growth, " 259; on the
collective unconscious as "outside the
brain, " 102; as creator of a master race
of individuated humans, 263-265; on
cryptomnesia as the root of all genius,
265-266; cult of, and National Socialism,
137; dementia praecox, theory of,
151; depicted by Jones as manifesting a
"god-complex, " 205-206; on "dominants"
as gods, 270-271; dream (1909)
of descending spatially and temporally
in an old house, 177-178; early cult in
381
Kusnacht-Zurich, 277-286; erotic attachments
to female Jewish patients at the
Burgholzli, 148-150; as exemplary
prophet, 284; experimental studies of
human memory, 146-147; false account
of Solar Phallus Man case, 181-184;
Fordham University, lectures at, 197;
as founder of religious cult of redemption,
254-257; Freud's accusations of
anti-Semitism of, 133; on the "geology
of the personality, " 99-102; George's influences
on, 244-246; German ancestry
of, 19-21; on German and Jewish differences,
97-99; as "German Mandarin, "
21-24; on "godlikeness" experience,
220-224; Greco-Roman influences on,
24-26; and Otto Gross, 152, 157-162,
199, 202-204; Haeckel's influence on,
5·1-54; hereditary degeneration obsessions
of, 145; as hereditary genius, 20;
Herisau lecture (19"10) on mythology,
187; historical obfuscation of development
of his ideas in the Collected Works,
18; ideas of, as an influence on contemporary
Norse neopaganism and neo-
Nazism, 295-296; ideas of, as basis of a
modern personal religion or mystery
cult, 291-294; on the "Indianization of
the American people, " 96; individuation
as redemption from degeneracy,
265-269; involvement with Freud, 43-
47; on Jewish national differences as
due to forces of landscape, 96-97; "Jewish
doctrines" of psychoanalysis unfit
for Germans, 98-99; Jews' lack of rootedness,
98; Jung Institute founding address
(1948), 290-291; and Keyserling,
95-98, 102-103; landscape mysticism
of, 95-103; and Lebenphilosophie, 38-39,
87-88; as legitimizing influence on
modern neopagan movements, 294-
297; life portrayed as a cult legend of a
"divine man, " 13-15; marriage to
Emma, 148; on materialists, 143; on
Mazdaznan cult, 106-107; Mead's influence
on, 69; 011 mystery as a necessity
for religion, 143-144; and Naturphilosophie,
41-42, 269-273; on the necessity of
the rejection of God as a prerequisite
for individuation, 232; Ostwald's influence
on, 50-51; and polygamy, 159-
160, 216-217; pseudoliberational
Nietzscheanism of, 257-259; Psychological
Club inaugural lecture (916), 250-
254; racialist thinking of, 22; on racial
psychology, 99; on rebirth, 99, 224;
on the rejection of Freud's Oedipus complex
theory on the grounds of prehistoric
matriarchy, 171-172; on
Ritschl, 143, 147; routinization of cult
in Kusnacht-Zurich, 286-291; self-deification,
experience of, 209-215; self-identification
with the German Volk,
21-22; self-recognition as modern
prophet of a new i1ge, 206-208; six theories
of, 9; on the Society for Psychoanalytic
Endeavors, 194-199; and spiritualism,
63, 142, 144-1, , 6; "star complex"
of, 149; on "star" or "sun" as the inner
core of the human personality, 240-
243; on sun worship in Africa and
America, 283; theological study of the
historical Jesus in student years, 36-37;
utopian views of Freudian psychoanalytic
movement as a religion, 187-190;
Verne's influence on, 238-240; on vitalism,
142; volkisch interpretation of
runic sword dream of female patient,
227-228; volkisch utopianism of, 259-
263; as a Wagnerite, 73-74; and Wilhelm,
95; and Wolff, 191; and Zurich research
school investigations into the
phylogenetic unconscious, 184-187
-WORKS: "Adapti1tion, lndividui1tion,
Collectivity (1916), " 230-233; "Mind
and Earth (927), " 9')-97; "New Paths
in Psychology (912), "199-202; "The
Role of the Unconscious (918), " 97-99;
'The Structure of the Unconscious
(916), " 219-224; "The Tri1nscendent
Function (1916), " 225-230; Wandlungen
und Symbole der Libido (1911-1912): as
Bachofenian theory, 169-175; as science,
111-119; as solar mysticism, 111,
119-122; as volkisch Aryanism, 123-
137
Jung, C. G., the Elder, 20, 22, 41, 144
lung, Emma, 148, 192
lung Institute (Zurich), 225, 289-290, 333-
334
Jung Oral Archives, 18, 285, 289, 308
lung, Paul, 19, 22, 34, 142
Jungian analyst, fantasy of being, 281
Jungian movement, 6-7
Jungian university, 289
Jungism, 7-9, 13, 15, 272, 285; and neopaganism,
294-297; as personal religion,
291-294
Kafka, Franz, 108
Kahane, Mi1x, 44
Kalthoff, Albert, 88, 132
Kant, lmmi1nuel, 142
Katz, Fanny Bowditch, 250, 268
Kaufmann, Walter, 264, 304
Keller, Adolph, 87, 204
Kemnitz, Mathilde von, 79
Kepler-Bund, 146, 312, 349
Kerr, John, 43, 46, 109-110, 152, 191, 342
Keyserling, Count Hermann, 20, 39, 56-
57, 92-97, 108, 134, 283, 336-337
Kielmeyer, Karl, 43
kinship libido, 21
Klages, Ludwig, 39, 57, 166-169, 205,
356-357
Knapp, Alfred, 188
Kohler, Wolfgang, 345
Kongener, Die, 17
Kraepelin, Emil, 31, 46, 151-152
Kulturkampf, 49
Kundalini yoga, 33
Laban, Rudolph, 108, 229
Laennec, Rene-Theophile-Hyacinthe, 7-8
Lagarde, Paul Anton de, 39, 79, 85, 88,
333
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 87, 264
landscape mysticism, volkisch, 95-103,
305
Lang, Andrew, 82, 343
382
Lang, Jozef, 204, 233-238
Langbehn, Julius, 255
Lange, Friedrich Albert, 348
Lawrence, D. H., 108, 154
Laws, of the Dead, of the Magma, of a
New Age, 233-236, 249
Lebenskraft, 129
Lebensphilosophie, 21, 38-39, 43, 46-47, 87,
161-162, 168, 217, 291
Lebensreform, 4, 47, 56, 85, 321
Lenin, V. I., 54-55, 199
Lenin cult, 322
Lenoir, Timothy, 41, 273, 316
libido, 21, 120, 129, 174-175, 235; as sun,
120
List, Guido von, 78, 105, 179, 210, 214,
230, 237-240, 243, 295
Lombroso, Caesare, 29
Long, Constance, 201, 204, 274, 279
Lovejoy, Arthur 0., 41
Low, Maurice, 97
Lowith, Karl, 33
Ludendorff, Erich, 79-80
Luhrmann, Tanya, 295
Lukacs, Georg, 38-39, 57, 87, 291
Lunacharsky, Anatoly, 54--55
Lysenko, T. D., 55
Mach, Ernst, 50
Maeder, Alphonse, 204, 242
Maier, C. A., 274, 290, 375
Mallory, J. P., 83, 332
mana personality, 17
mandala, 90, 101, 137, 241-246
Mann, Kristine, 99, 186, 274, 361
Marian heresies, 166
Marti, Franz, 193
Marx, Karl, 70
Marxism, 44, 51, 54-55, 58, 322
Marxist god, 54-55
master race, 263-264
materialists: mechanistic, 43, 143, 316,
348; vital, 42
matriarchy, 160-176, 198
Mayr, Ernst, 48, 314
Mazdaznan cult, 104-107, 340
McGuire, William, 183, 185, 274, 278, 360
Mead, G.R.S., 69, 182, 184, 327
Means, Paul Bramwell, 279
Mellon, Mary, 279
Mellon, Paul, 279
Memories, Dreams, Reflections by C. G.
Jung (MDR), 13-15, 19, 208-211, 242-
243, 263, 287, 302, 349
memory, 6, 44, 129, 146-148, 174, 209,
229, 255, 283, 350
Mendelian units, 23, 86, 96-97, 271
Menschwerdung, 252-253, 256
Mesmerism, 63, 325
metagenetics, 296
Metzger, Bruce, 179
Micale, Mark, 300
Midgard Foundation, 80
Miller, Frank, 110, 118-119, 174, 191, 341
Mithraic Liturgy, 67, 69, 121, 124, 126,
182-184, 200, 344
Mithraism, 104, 120, 123-129, 133, 205,
340; as Aryan religion, 127-130
Mithras, 111-112, 172
Moleschott, Jacob, 43, 143, 348
Moltzer, Maria, 204, 250
Mone, Joseph, 212, 365
monism, 48--49, 79, 90
Monistenbund (the Monistic League or
Alliance), 49-52, 85, 88, 90-92, 132-133,
193-194, 320
Monistic Religion, the, 47-51, 55-57, 136,
199, 224, 319-320, 371
Moody, Robert, 289
Morel, Benedict Augustin, 267-268
Morgan, Christiana, 216
morphological idealism, 40
morphology, 40-41
Mosse, George, 27, 55, 98, 103, 131, 137,
255, 305, 346
Mountain of Truth, 108
Moyers, Bill, 300
Muller, Friedrich Max, 82-85, 105, 111,
116-119, 121, 133, 191, 261, 331-333,
335, 342-343
Murger, Henry, 153
Murray, Henry, 216, 288
Mutterreeilt, Das, 163, 167
Myers, F.W.H, 32, 310
mysteria, 202, 280
mysteries and mystery cults, 28, 37, 57,
60, 64, 111-112, 120, 122-123, 127-130,
174-176, 190, 213, 263, 278, 282, 284,
292, 343, 357, 375-376; Aryan, 71; Eleusinian,
180; Germanic/Teutonic, 75, 77,
211; Isaic, 101; Mithraic, 105, 204, 212-
215, 220, 280, 362
mystery, 143
mythopoetic age, 116-117, 121, 261
Nameche, Gene, 18, 185
National Socialism, 38, 51, 55-56, 72, 86-
87, 90-91, 135, 137, 336, 339
natural selection, 40, 142
nature worship, 77, 79
Naturphilosophen, 41-42, 79, 101, 129, 271,
333
Naturphilosophie, 40, 42, 50, 87, 96, 102,
143, 269, 272-273, 314-315
Nazi Germany, 20-22, 33, 39, 77-78, 81,
88-90, 134, 168, 259, 262-263, 273-274,
346-347, 371
Nelken, Jan, 128, 181, 184, 191, 204, 362
neo-Nazism, 296, 330
neopaganism, 30, 33, 75, 77, 79-80, 103-
108, 294-297
New Age spirituality, 37, 6H, 291
new nobility, 23, 55, 189-190, 249, 258
New York Times, 288, 337
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 3-5, 20, 25, 29-30,
35-36, 39, 43-44, 55, 104, 106, 112, 142,
144, 153-154, 158, 162, 163 167, 231-
232, 260-261, 263, 265-269, 367
Nietzscheanism, 30
Nietzschean religion, 5, 104, 137, 289
Nietzsche cult, 4
Nock, Arthur Darby, 38
Noel, Daniel, 305
Nordau, Max, 28, 32, 208, 265, 308
Nordfeld, Margaret, 279
Nordic Faith Fellowship, 80
Norse neopaganism, 29,
nudism, 77, 104
occultism, volkisch, 76-80
Odinic Rite, 295
Odinism, 79
Oken, Lorenz, 41
Olcott, W., 64
ontogeny, 40, 48, 114-115, 171, 187, 227
Origen, 59
Osiris, 127
Ostwald, Wilhelm, 47, 50-51, 55, 90-92,
131, 199, 208, 231, 321
Otto, Rudolph, 282, 341, 344
Owen, Richard, .40
paleontology, 48
palmistry (as part of the training of
Jungian analysts), 281
pangenesis, 85, 96, 264
pan Germanism, 19, 23, 58, 71-72, 75-76,
305-306, 317
pan Slavism, 58
pantheism, 48-49
Paracelsus, 87
Parsifal, 252, 329
participation mystique, 2-1
Pascal, Roy, 33
Pater, Walter, 306-307
Paulson, Lotte, 289
perpetual revolution, 232
personal religion, 111, 291-297
personal unconscious, 220
Pfarrerstad, 22, 36, 145
Philemon, 66, 210
philology, 35, 49, 80-85, 111, 114, 116,
118, 307, 333
Philostratus, 14
phylogenetic psychology, 52, 115
phylogenetic unconscious, 6, 9, 52-54,
108, 128-129, 13-1, 169, 178, 181, 184-
187, 190-191, 220-221, 224, 227, 251,
256
phylogeny, .40, .48, 52, 114-115, 142, 171,
187, 227
physiognomy, 21
Pietism, 19, 34, 76
Pinel, Philippe, 31
Platonic idas, 270
PIetsch, Carl, 2h6
Plutonism, 101-102
Pod more, Frank, 310
Poliakov, Leon, 82
polygamy, 157-160, 163-164, 166, 216,
227, 261, 354
polypsychism, 31
Pope, A. R., 225
Preiswerk, Emilie, 19
Preiswerk, Helly, 63, 144-145
Preiswerk, Samuel, 202
primordial image, 41, 218, 220, 270, 284
prophet: ethical, 284; exemplary, 284
prophetic break, 277
Protestant theology (German), 32-38
pseudocharisma, 15, 258-287
Psychiatric News, 300
psychical research, 31, 32, 147-148, 310-
311, 350
psychoanalysis as a cult, 47
psychoanalytic movement, 43-47; "secularization"
of, 195
psychoid, 102
Psychological Club (Zurich), 95, 135, 146,
194, 250-254, 260, 280; secret appendix
to by-laws, 260
psychosexual stages (Freud), 170
Putnam, J. J., 133
Rathenau, Walter, 56
Read, Sir Herbert, 274
rebirth, 99, 112, 127-130, 188, 200, 219,
224, 232, 244-246, 259, 263-264, 292; as
a genius, 268-269
Red Book, the, 209
redemption, 284
Ree, Paul, 299
regression, 235, 268; psychotic, 174-175
Reil, J., 43
Reimarus, H., 33
Reitzenstein, Richard, 88, 105
Renan, Ernst, 35-36, 82, 85, 122, 126, 312,
331-332
renovatio, 60-61, 76, 173, 215. See also
rebirth
Reventlow, Fanny, 168-169
Richthofen sisters, von, 154, 162, 166
Riklin, Franz, 109, 149, 152, 193, 196, 204
Rilke, Rainer Maria, 168
Ritschl, A., 142-143, 147, 255
rootedlless concept, volkisch, 97-98
Rorschach, Hermann, 104, 339-340
Rosenbaum, Ernst, 289
Rosicrucians, 88, 27U
Roth, Guenther, 16-1
routinization of charisma. 276-277, 286-
291
Royal Asiatic Society, 83
runes, 77-78, 130, 227, 235-240, 286-29S
Rush, Benjamin, 8
Rushton, J. P., 154
sacrificial death, 76
Salome, 210-213
Salome, Lou Andreas-, 195, 210-213, 299
satanislll, 167, 356
Scheler, Max, 39
Schelling, Friedrich, 41, 82, 315, 316
Schlegel, Friedrich, 82
Schleicher, August, 83, 114, 342
Schliemann, Heinrich, 114
Schmid-Guisan, Hans, 204
Schmitz, Oskar, 134, 337
Schnitzler, Arthur, 372
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 30, 70, 136, 142,
144, 146, 227, 231, 265-269, 271, 309,
347, 367
Schorske, Carl, 75, 323
Schuler, Alfred, 166-168, 175, 184
Schwabingites, 166-168, 175, 184
Schweitzer, Albert, 34-35, 37, 311
Schwyzer, E., 183
scientific religion, 90
sects, 103-104
self, 137, 192, 2-16
Semitic race, 82-86, 97-99, 111, 118, 127-
137, 259-260
Sera circle, 86, 89, 90, 356
Seven Sermons to the Dead, 242-245
sexuality, 117-118
Shamdasani, Sonu, 181, 230, 301, 341
Shaw, George Bernard, 34, 72, 308
Siegfried, 34, 73, 76, 78, 123, 133, 208, 329
Silesius, 86
Simmel, Georg, 39
Sinnett, A. P., 83, 332
Sistine Chapel, 214
social Darwinism, 35, 50, 312, 320-321
Society for Psychoanalytic Endeavors,
194-198, 249
Society of German Believers, 80
sociobiology, 159, 163, 354
soft inheritance, 85, 96
solar mythology, 81-84, 116, 172-173
Solar Phallus Man, 121, 126, 181-184
somatic treatments for mental disorders,
45-46
Sombart, Nicholas, 166, 175
Sonnenkinder (children of the sun), 92,
101
Spielrein, Sabina, 43, 73-74, 128, 149, 159,
181, 184, 191, 208, 219, 351
spiritualism, 30, 57, 59, 77, 142, 144-146,
148, 202, 203, 229-230, 256, 265, 269,
279, 312
Sprung, Helga, 299
star complex, 149-150
Stark, Gary, 87-89, 334
Stein, Frau von, 262
Stein, Gertrude, 310
Steiner, Rudolph, 50, 65, 77, 230, 320
Stekel, Wilhelm, 44
Stoker, Bram, 29
Strauss, David Friedrich, 35-36, 142, 311-
312
Struve, Walter, 56, 323
Sturulson, Snorri, 75
subliminal self, 32
Sulloway, Frank, 42, 46
sun worship, 49, 75, 79, 80-94, 101-107,
109, 116-122, 128-129, 133, 136-137,
184, 210, 224, 240-246, 260, 283
supra personal unconscious, 97
swastika, 77, 89, 136, 335, 346-347
Swedenborg, Emmanuel, 186, 297, 361,
377
Tacitus, 75
Talbert, Charles, 302
Tannenberg Foundation, 79--80, 88
Tannhauser, 254
Taylor, Eugene, 349
teleomechanists, 42, 316
Tennyson, Lord, 65
Terrible Mother, 174, 218-219, 250, 255,
268
Teutons, ancient, 75
theos aner (divine man), 14, 208
Theosophical publications, 67-f:, 9, 108,
183-184, 191
Theosophical Society, 59, 65, 78, 86, 133,
335
Theosophy, 30, 57, 59, 63-69, 72, 83, 86,
92, 104--106, 136, 215, 238, 270, 279, 320,
361
Thor's hammer, 79
Thule Society, 51, 80
Tillich, Paul, 108
Time Magazine, 7, 284
Tonnies, Ferdinand, 3-4, 59, 137, 257, 261,
299, 371
toxin theory of dementia praecox, 151-
152
Transcendentalism, 313
transcendent function, 225-230, 252
transference, 21
Tubingen School of Theology, 33, 36, 130,
311
Tumarkin, Nina, 55
Turanian race, 84
Twain, Mark, 71
ubennensch, 20, 263-264
Ulansey, David, 340
Unternahrer, Anton, 339
Urbild, 41, 270
Urform, 267
Urtyp, 40-41, 269
U.S. News and World Report, 300
Usener, Hermann, 88
utopianism, volkisch, 49, 58, 75-108, 259-
263
van der Post, Laurens, 73, 108, 328
Vatican Museum, 214
vegetarianism, 104--106
Verne, Jules, 234, 238-240
Viking Brotherhood, 295
vital force, 120
vitalism, 24, 42, 51, 129, 142-143, 150, 169,
348
vitalism, heroic, 299
Vodoz, J., 204
Vogt, Karl, 43, 143, 348
Volk, 21-22, 34, 75-76, 85, 102-103, 257
Volksgemeinschaft, 261, 262
Volkstumbewegung (volkisch movement),
59, 75, 86-87, 97, 134, 296
vulcanism, 101-102
Wagner, Cosima, 72-74, 345
Wagner, Richard, 4, 28-29, 34, 43-44, 54,
57-58, 69-74, 112, 123, 133, 136, 152,
180-181, 208, 252, 256, 259, 260, 266,
278, 309, 320, 328, 359
Wagner, Siegfried, 73-74
Wagner, Winifred, 73
Wagnerism, 30, 55, 59, 69-74, 76-77, 93,
285
Waldbruderschaft, 339
Waldensians, 103
Wandervogel movement, 89
Weber, Alfred, 154
Weber, Marianne, 17, 104, 154--157, 164,
167
Weber, Max, 16-18, 21, 34, 47, 56, 59, 89,
104, 108, 124, 154--157, 258, 275-277,
284, 286-288, 290, 318, 344, 352
Weekly, Frieda, 154
Weininger, Otto, 39
Weismann, August, 85, 269, 306
Weisz, George, 8
Westermanns Monatsheft, 305
Wheelwright, Jane, 274, 285
Wheelwright, Joseph, 274
White, William Alanson, 8
Whitney, Elizabeth, 279
Wickes, Francis, 279
Wiedergeburt (rebirth), 79, 88, 129. See also
Pietism
Wigman, Mary, 108, 229
Wilde, Oscar, 29, 58
Wilhelm, Richard, 95, 264, 333, 370
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 24-25, 49,
113, 180, 306-307
Wissenschaft, nineteenth-century definition
of, 307
Wolff, Antonia (Toni), 13, 66, 191, 216,
219, 250, 273, 277, 301
Wolfskehl, Karl, 166-167
women, role of, in the development of
early Christ cult in late antiquity, 59; in
Jung cult, 279; in occultism, 58-59, 62-
69
Woodworth, Robert S., 47
word association studies, 31, 146-150,
205
Wotan, 134-135, 237-238, 256
Wotanism, 79-80, 237-238, 256
Wundt, Wilhelm, 190, 343
Yeats, W. B., 65, 167
Young, Thomas, 83
Ziegler, Leopold, 39
Zimmer, Heinrich, 162, 355
Zionism, 32, 58, 75
Zofingia fraternity, 23, 36, 51, 142-143,
146, 306, 312
Zollner, J.K.F., 142
Zoroaster, 36, 65, 104
Zoroastrianism, 104-107, 124, 127, 214
Zurich Psychoanalytic Association, 194
Zurich School of psychoanalysis, 128,
184, 204, 220, 249