Part 3 of 3
Historical and cultural impactSee also: History of Hinduism
Historical contextFurther information: History of India and History of Hinduism
Shankara lived in the time of the great "Late classical Hinduism",[116] which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE.[116] This era was one of political instability that followed the Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE.[117] It was a time of social and cultural change as the ideas of Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for members.[118][119][120] Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful influence in India's spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE.[117][121] Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important tradition for more than a thousand years.[117]
Influence on HinduismShankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta.
He travelled all over India to help restore the study of the Vedas.[122] His teachings and tradition form the basis of Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages.[123]
He introduced the Pañcāyatana form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Shankara explained that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being.[124]
Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, namely Atman and Brahman.[125] Isaeva states Shankara's influence included reforming Hinduism, founding monasteries, edifying disciples, disputing opponents and engaging in philosophic activity that, in the eyes of Indian tradition, help revive "the orthodox idea of the unity of all beings" and Vedanta thought.[126]
Prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta.[127]
Hajime Nakamura states that the early Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture. They formed a social elite, "sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism."[128] Their teachings were "transmitted among a small number of selected intellectuals".[128] Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva.[129] It was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their doctrines,"[130] for example the Nath-tradition,[131] whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive."[128]
Critical assessmentSome scholars doubt Shankara's early influence in India.[12]
The Buddhist scholar Richard E. King states,Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence.[10]
According to King and Roodurmun, until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita.[10][14]
Other scholars state that the historical records for this period are unclear, and little reliable information is known about the various contemporaries and disciples of Shankara.[132] For example, Advaita tradition holds that Mandana-Misra is the same person as Suresvara, a name he adopted after he became a disciple of Shankara after a public debate which Shankara won.[133][134]
Some scholars state that Maṇḍana-Miśra and Sureśvara must have been two different scholars, because their scholarship is quite different.[135][133] Other scholars, on the other hand, state that Mandana-Miśra and Shankara do share views, because both emphasize that Brahman-Atman cannot be directly perceived, rather it is discovered and defined through elimination of division (duality) of any kind.[136][132] The Self-realization (Soul-knowledge), suggest both Mandana Misra and Shankara, can be described cataphatically (positive liberation, freedom through knowledge, jivanmukti moksha) as well as apophatically (removal of ignorance, negation of duality, negation of division between people or souls or spirit-matter).[136] While both share core premises, states Isaeva, they differ in several ways, with Mandana Misra holding Vedic knowledge as an absolute and end in itself, while Shankara holds Vedic knowledge and all religious rites as subsidiary and means to the human longing for "liberation, freedom and moksha".[136]
Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara grew centuries later, particularly during the era of Muslim invasions and consequent devastation of India.[12][13] Many of Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after 14th century, such as the widely cited Vidyaranya's Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386,[137] inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate.[13][138] He and his brothers, suggest Paul Hacker and other scholars,[12][13] wrote about Śankara as well as extensive Advaitic commentaries on Vedas and Dharma. Vidyaranya was a minister in Vijayanagara Empire and enjoyed royal support,[138] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, and helped spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedanta philosophies. Vidyaranya also helped establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara.[12] It may be these circumstances, suggest scholars,[139] that grew and credited Shankara for various Hindu festive traditions such as the Kumbh Mela – one of the world's largest periodic religious pilgrimages.[140]
MathasSee also: Dashanami Sampradaya
Shankara is regarded as the founder of the Daśanāmi Sampradāya of Hindu monasticism and Ṣaṇmata of Smarta tradition. He unified the theistic sects into a common framework of Shanmata system.[141] Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of renunciation.
Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:[web 1]
Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics.[web 1]
Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of Shiva,[web 1] established the Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names.[web 1] Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.[142][143]
Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four Maṭhas (Sanskrit: मठ) (monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvārakā in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the North.[web 1] Each math was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya.
Yet, according to Pandey, these Mathas were not established by Shankara himself, but were originally ashrams established by Vibhāņdaka and his son Ŗșyaśŗnga.[144] Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvārakā and Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at Śŗngaverapura to Badarikāśrama, and the ashram at Angadeśa to Jagannātha Purī.[145]
The advaita sampradaya is not a Shaiva sect,[web 1][146] despite the historical links with Shaivism:
Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Shiva and Vishnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others.[web 1]
Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among Shaiva communities than among Vaisnava communities.[web 1] The greatest influence of the gurus of the advaita tradition has been among followers of the Smartha Tradition, who integrate the domestic Vedic ritual with devotional aspects of Hinduism.[web 1]
The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Shankara, and their details.[web 2]
Shishya (lineage) / Direction / Maṭha [College] / Location / Mahāvākya ["The Great Sayings" of the Upanishads] / Veda / Sampradaya [Tradition]Padmapāda / East / Puri Govardhanmaṭha Pīṭhaṃ / Puri, Puri District, Odisha / Prajñānam brahma (Consciousness is Brahman) / Rig Veda / Bhogavala
[Note: 0 Reference to "Prajna"; 1 Reference to "Consciousness" in Rig Veda, translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith: "The Swift Ones favour him who purifieth this: with consciousness they stand upon the height of heaven."]
Sureśvara / South / Sringeri Śārada Pīṭhaṃ / Sringeri, Chikkamagaluru, Karnataka / Aham brahmāsmi (I am Brahman) / Yajur Veda / Bhūrivala
[Note: 0 Reference to "I am Brahman" in The Texts of the White Yajurveda, translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith
4 References to "I am": (1) I am in heaven above; (2) I am what Gods in secret hold the highest; (3) I am the Household priest; (4) I am the triple light, the region's meter.][Note: 0 Reference to "I am Brahman" in The Veda of the Black Yajus, translated by Arthur Berriedale Keith
7 References to "I am": (1) As wife with my husband I am united; (2) What time thou didst declare, 'I am Cipivista'?; (3) Favour those in the region where I am; (4) Whose domestic priest I am; (5) 'I am he who smites in the stronghold; (6) 'I am he who brings from the stronghold'; (7) 'I am the friend of all'.]
Hastāmalakācārya / West / Dvāraka Śārada Pīṭhaṃ / Dwarka, Devbhumi Dwarka, Gujrat / Tattvamasi (That thou art) / Sama Veda / Kitavala
Toṭakācārya / North / Badari Jyotirmaṭha Pīṭhaṃ / Jyotirmath, Chamoli, Uttarakhand / Ayamātmā brahma (This Atman is Brahman) / Atharva Veda / Nandavala
Smarta TraditionMain article: Smarta Tradition
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher[147][148] and reformer of the Smarta.[149][148]
According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition:
Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the varnasramadharma theory as defining the path of karman, but had developed the practice of pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's istadevata ("deity of choice").[150]
Films• Shankaracharya (1927), Indian silent film about Shankara by Kali Prasad Ghosh.[151]
• Jagadguru Shrimad Shankaracharya (1928), Indian silent film by Parshwanath Yeshwant Altekar.[151]
• Jagadguru Shankaracharya (1955), Indian Hindi film by Sheikh Fattelal.[151]
• In 1977 Jagadguru Aadisankaran, a Malayalam film directed by P. Bhaskaran was released in which Murali Mohan plays the role of Adult Aadi Sankaran and Master Raghu plays childhood.
• In 1983 a film directed by G.V. Iyer named Adi Shankaracharya was premiered, the first film ever made entirely in Sanskrit language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were compiled.[152] The movie received the Indian National Film Awards for Best Film, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Audiography.[153][154]
• On 15 August 2013, Jagadguru Adi Shankara was released in an Indian Telugu-language biographical film written and directed by J. K. Bharavi and was later dubbed in Kannada with the same title, by Upendra giving narration for the Kannada dubbed version
See also• Hinduism portal
• India portal
• Religion portal
• Philosophy portal
• Swami Vivekananda
• Adi Shri Gauḍapādāchārya
• Jnana Yoga
• Upanishads
• Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
• Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya
• Vairagya
• Vivekachudamani
• Soundarya Lahari
• Shivananda Lahari
• Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
• Govardhan Peetham (East), Puri, Odisha
• Dwarka Kalika Pitha (West), Dwarka, Gujarat
• Jyotirmath Peetham (North), Jyotirmath, Badrikashram, Uttarakhand
• Shri Sringeri Sharada Peetham (South), Sringeri, Karnataka
• Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu
Notes1. He is also known as Adi Shankaracharya, Shankara Bhagavatpada, sometimes spelled as Sankaracharya, (Ādi) Śaṅkarācārya, Śaṅkara Bhagavatpāda and Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya.
2. Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE (c. 700–750).[4]Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788–820 CE.[4] Other proposals are 686–718 CE,[citation needed] 44 BCE,[5] or as early as 509–477 BCE.
3. See also IndiaDivine.org, Authorship of Vivekachudamani and arshabodha.org, Sri Sankara's Vivekachudamani, pp. 3–4, The Question of Authorship of Vivekachudamani
4. Swami Vivekananda translates Shivoham, Shivoham as "I am he, I am he".[91]
5. Brahman is not to be confused with the personalised godhead Brahma.
6. Shankara (?): "(...) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas, who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect."[18]
7. Shcherbatsky: "Shankara accuses them of disregarding all logic and refuses to enter in a controversy with them. The position of Shankara is interesting because, at heart, he is in full agreement with the Madhyamikas, at least in the main lines, since both maintain the reality of the One-without-a-second, and the mirage of the manifold. But Shankara, as an ardent hater of Buddhism, would never confess that. He therefore treats the Madhyamika with great contempt [...] on the charge that the Madhyamika denies the possibility of cognizing the Absolute by logical methods (pramana). Vachaspati Mishra in the Bhamati rightly interprets this point as referring to the opinion of the Madhyamikas that logic is incapable to solve the question about what existence or non-existence really are. This opinion Shankara himself, as is well known, shares. He does not accept the authority of logic as a means of cognizing the Absolute, but he deems it a privilege of the Vedantin to fare without logic, since he has Revelation to fall back upon. From all his opponents, he requires strict logical methods."[106]
References1. Koller, John M. (2013). Chad V. Meister & Paul Copan (ed.). The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-415-78294-4.
2. "Shankara | Indian philosopher". Encyclopedia Britannica.
3. Sharma 1962, p. vi.
4. Comans 2000, p. 163.
5. Y. Keshava Menon, The Mind of Adi Shankaracharya 1976 pp. 108
6. Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora, ISBN 978-1-4724-1913-2, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."
7. Shankara, Student's Encyclopedia Britannia – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing, ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.";
David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."
8. Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-10335-0, p. 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".
9. Roodurmum, Pulasth Soobah (2002). Bhāmatī and Vivaraṇa Schools of Advaita Vedānta: A Critical Approach. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 29. ISBN 978-81-208-1890-3.
10. King 2001, p. 128.
11. Tola, Fernando (1989). "ON THE DATE OF MAṆḌANA MIŚRA AND ŚAṄKARA AND THEIR DOCTRINAL RELATION". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 70 (1/4): 37–46. ISSN 0378-1143.
12. Paul Hacker, Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2582-4, pp. 29–30
13. R. Blake Michael (1992), The Origins of Vīraśaiva Sects, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0776-1, pp. 60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8
14. Roodurmun 2002, p. 33–34.
15. Sri Adi Shankaracharya, Sringeri Sharada Peetham, India
16. Pattanaik, Devdutt. "How Adi Shankaracharya united a fragmented land with philosophy, poetry and pilgrimage". Scroll.in.
17. Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya (2000) The Philosophy of Sankar's Advaita Vedanta, Sarup & Sons, New Delhi ISBN 81-7625-222-0, 978-81-7625-222-5
18. Edward Roer (Translator), to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad. Shankara's Introduction at Google Books
19. Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at p. 3, OCLC 19373677
20. KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-81-208-0619-1, p. 246–249, from note 385 onwards;
Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of Ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books]
Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0158-5, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
21. The Seven Spiritual Laws Of Yoga, Deepak Chopra, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, ISBN 81-265-0696-2, 978-81-265-0696-5
22. Mayeda 2006, pp. 3–5.
23. Isaeva 1993, pp. 69–82.
24. Vidyasankar, S. "The Sankaravijaya literature". Retrieved 23 August 2006.
25. Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. viii.
26. Pande 2011, p. 35.
27. The hagiographies of Shankara mirror the pattern of synthesizing facts, fiction and legends as with other ancient and medieval era Indian scholars. Some biographic poems depict Shankara as a reincarnation of deity Shiva, much like other Indian scholars are revered as reincarnation of other deities; for example, Mandana-misra is depicted as an embodiment of deity Brahma, Citsukha of deity Varuna, Anandagiri of Agni, among others. See Isaeva (1993, pp. 69–72).
28. Isaeva 1993, pp. 83–87.
29. K.A. Nilakantha Sastry, A History of South India, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, Madras, 1976.
30. Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
31. T.S. Narayana Sastry (1916, republished 1971), The Age of Sankara
32. "Dating Adi Shankara". IndiaDivine.org. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
33. Adi Shankara, Encyclopedia Britannica (2015)
34. N.V. Isaeva (1993). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. State University of New York Press. pp. 84–87 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7.
35. The dating of 788–820 is accepted in Keay, p. 194.
36. Madhava-Vidyaranya. Sankara Digvijaya – The traditional life of Sri Sankaracharya, Sri Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7823-342-8. Source: [1] (accessed: 14 Sep 2016), p. 20
37. Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Shankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. xv–xxiv.
38. Students' Britannica India. Popular Prakashan. 2000. pp. 379–. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5.
39. Narasingha Prosad Sil (1997). Swami Vivekananda: A Reassessment. Susquehanna University Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-945636-97-7.
40. this may be the present day Kalady in central Kerala.The house he was born is still maintained as Melpazhur Mana
41. Joël André-Michel Dubois (2014). The Hidden Lives of Brahman: Sankara's Vedanta Through His Upanisad Commentaries, in Light of Contemporary Practice. SUNY Press.
42. Roshen Dalal (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books India.
43. Adago, John (2018). East Meets West. UK: Program Publishing; 2 edition. ISBN 978-0692124215.
44. Menon, Y. Keshava (1976). The Mind of Adi Shankara. Jaico. p. 109. ISBN 978-8172242145.
45. Isaeva 1993, pp. 74–75.
46. Pande 2011, pp. 31–32, also 6–7, 67–68.
47. Isaeva 1993, pp. 76–77.
48. Pande 2011, pp. 5–36.
49. Isaeva 1993, pp. 82–91.
50. Isaeva 1993, pp. 71–82, 93–94.
51. Mayeda 2006, pp. 6–7.
52. Isaeva 1993, pp. 2–3.
53. Paul Hacker, Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2582-4, pp. 30–31
54. W Halbfass (1983), Studies in Kumarila and Sankara, Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik, Monographic 9, Reinbeck
55. M Piantelly, Sankara e la Renascita del Brahmanesimo, Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Apr. 1977), pp. 429–435
56. Kena Upanishad has two commentaries that are attributed to Shankara – Kenopnishad Vakyabhasya and Kenopnishad Padabhasya; scholars contest whether both are authentic, several suggesting that the Vakyabhasya is unlikely to be authentic; see Pande (2011, p. 107).
57. Isaeva 1993, pp. 93–97.
58. Pande 2011, pp. 105–113.
59. A Rambachan (1991), Accomplishing the Accomplished: Vedas as a Source of Valid Knowledge in Sankara, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1358-1, pp. xii–xiii
60. Wilhelm Halbfass (1990), Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-0362-4, pp. 205–208
61. Pande 2011, pp. 351–352.
62. John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-18001-1, pp. 98–106
63. Pande 2011, pp. 113–115.
64. Mishra, Godavarisha. "A Journey through Vedantic History – Advaita in the Pre-Sankara, Sankara and Post-Sankara Periods" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 June 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2006.
65. Vidyasankar, S. "Sankaracarya". Archived from the original on 16 June 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2006.
66. Paul Hacker, Sankaracarya and Sankarabhagavatpada: Preliminary Remarks Concerning the Authorship Problem', in Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2582-4, pp. 41–56
67. Adi Shankaracharya, Vivekacūḍāmaṇi S Madhavananda (Translator), Advaita Ashrama (1921)
68. Grimes 2004.
69. Shah-Kazemi 2006, p. 4.
70. Grimes 2004, p. 23.
71. Grimes 2004, p. 13.
72. Johannes Buitenen (1978). The Mahābhārata (vol. 3). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-84665-1
73. Note: some manuscripts list this verse as 2.18.133, while Mayeda lists it as 1.18.133, because of interchanged chapter numbering; see Upadesa Sahasri: A Thousand Teachings, S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), ISBN 978-81-7120-059-7, Verse 2.8.133, p. 258;
Karl H Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 3, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-61486-1, p. 249
74. Mayeda 2006, pp. 46–47.
75. Brahmasutra-bhasya 1.1.4, S Vireswarananda (Translator), p. 35
76. Comans 2000, p. 168.
77. Comans 2000, pp. 167–169.
78. George Thibaut (Translator), Brahma Sutras: With Commentary of Shankara, Reprinted as ISBN 978-1-60506-634-9, pp. 31–33 verse 1.1.4
79. Mayeda 2006, pp. 46–53.
80. Mayeda & Tanizawa (1991), Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan, 1963–1987, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 529–535
81. Michael Comans (1996), Śankara and the Prasankhyanavada, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 49–71
82. Stephen Phillips (2000) in Roy W. Perrett (Editor), Epistemology: Indian Philosophy, Volume 1, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-8153-3609-9, pp. 224–228 with notes 8, 13 and 63
83. Franklin Merrell-Wolff (1995), Transformations in Consciousness: The Metaphysics and Epistemology, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2675-3, pp. 242–260
84. Will Durant (1976), Our Oriental Heritage: The Story of Civilization, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-671-54800-1, Chapter XIX, Section VI
85. Shankara, himself, had renounced all religious ritual acts; see Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. III, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0310-7, p. 16;
For an example of Shankara's reasoning "why rites and ritual actions should be given up", see Karl Potter on p. 220;
Elsewhere, Shankara's Bhasya on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites", see for example Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad pp. 348–350, 754–757
86. Sanskrit:Upadesha sahasri
English Translation: S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, ISBN 978-81-7120-059-7, pp. 16–17; OCLC 218363449
87. Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. III, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0310-7, pp. 219–221
88. Mayeda 2006, pp. 92–93.
89. Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. III, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0310-7, pp. 218–219
90. Isaeva 1993, pp. 3, 29–30.
91. Swami Vivekananda (2015). The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Manonmani Publishers (Reprint). p. 1786.
92.
Original Sanskrit: Nirvanashtakam Sringeri Vidya Bharati Foundation (2012);
English Translation 1: K Parappaḷḷi and CNN Nair (2002), Saankarasaagaram, Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, ISBN 978-81-7276-268-1, pp. 58–59;
English Translation 2: Igor Kononenko (2010), Teachers of Wisdom, ISBN 978-1-4349-9898-9, p. 148;
English Translation 3: Nirvana Shatakam Isha Foundation (2011); Includes translation, transliteration and audio.
93. Nakamura 2004, p. 680.
94. Sharma 2000, p. 64.
95. Scheepers 2000, p. 123.
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2. "Adi Shankara's four Amnaya Peethams". Archived from the original on 26 June 2006. Retrieved 20 August 2006.
Further reading• Ingalls, Daniel H.H. (1954). "Śaṁkara's Arguments against the Buddhists". Philosophy East and West. 3 (4): 291–306. doi:10.2307/1397287. JSTOR 1397287. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
• Mishra, Parameshwar Nath (2003), "Era of Adi Shankaracharya 507 B.C.–475 B.C.", Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal.
• Mishra, Parameshwar Nath, "Amit Kalrekha", 3 vols. (in Hindi), Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal.
• Succession of Shankaracharyas (a chronology) (from Gaudapada onwards)
• Reigle, David (2001). "The Original Sankaracarya" (PDF). Fohat. 5 (3): 57–60, 70–71.
• Frank Whaling (1979), Śankara and Buddhism, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1–42
• "Sri Shankaracharya in Cambodia..?" by S. Srikanta Sastri
• Navone, J.J. (1956). "Sankara and the Vedic Tradition". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 17 (2): 248–255. doi:10.2307/2104222. JSTOR 2104222.
• Biderman, Shlomo (1978). "Śankara and the Buddhists". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 6 (4). doi:10.1007/BF00218430. S2CID 170754201.
• Rukmani, T.S. (2003). "Dr. Richard de Smet and Sankara's Advaita". Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 16. doi:10.7825/2164-6279.1295.
• A Questioning Approach: Learning from Sankara's Pedagogic Techniques, Jacqueline Hirst, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 137–169
External links• Media from Wikimedia Commons
• Quotations from Wikiquote
• Texts from Wikisource
• Data from Wikidata
• Works by Adi Shankara at Project Gutenberg
• Adi Shankara at Curlie
• Works by or about Adi Shankara at Internet Archive
• Majors works of Adi Sankara Volumes 1–20, (Sanskrit and English Translations)
• A Note on the date of Sankara (Adi Sankaracharya) by S. Srikanta Sastri